Arthur Schopenhauer ( / ʃ oʊ p ən h aʊ . Ər / ; [18] alemán: [aʁtʊʁ ʃoːpn̩haʊ̯ɐ] ( escuchar ) ; febrero 22, 1788 hasta septiembre 21, 1860 ) fue un alemán filósofo . Es mejor conocido por su obra de 1818 El mundo como voluntad y representación (ampliada en 1844), que caracteriza al mundo fenoménico como el producto de una voluntad noumenal ciega e insaciable . [19] [20] Sobre la base del idealismo trascendental deImmanuel Kant , Schopenhauer desarrolló un sistema ético y metafísico ateo que rechazaba las ideas contemporáneas del idealismo alemán . [7] Fue uno de los primeros pensadores de la filosofía occidental en compartir y afirmar principios importantes de la filosofía india , como el ascetismo , la negación del yo y la noción del mundo como apariencia . [21] [22] Su trabajo ha sido descrito como una manifestación ejemplar de pesimismo filosófico . [23] [24] [25]
Arthur Schopenhauer | |
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Nació | Danzig (Gdańsk), Commonwealth polaco-lituano | 22 de febrero de 1788
Fallecido | 21 de septiembre de 1860 | (72 años)
Nacionalidad | alemán |
Educación | |
Era | Filosofía del siglo XIX |
Región | Filosofía occidental |
Colegio | |
Instituciones | Universidad de berlín |
Intereses principales | Metafísica , estética , ética , moralidad , psicología |
Ideas notables | Principio antrópico [4] [5] Justicia eterna Raíz cuádruple del principio de razón suficiente El dilema del erizo Pesimismo filosófico Principium individuationis La voluntad como cosa en sí misma Crítica de la religión Crítica del idealismo alemán [6] [7] Estética schopenhaueriana Hierro de madera |
Influencias
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Influenciado
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Firma | |
Aunque su trabajo no logró atraer una atención sustancial durante su vida, Schopenhauer tuvo un impacto póstumo en varias disciplinas, incluida la filosofía , la literatura y la ciencia . Sus escritos sobre estética , moralidad y psicología han influido en muchos pensadores y artistas. Aquellos que han citado su influencia incluyen filósofos como Friedrich Nietzsche [26] y Ludwig Wittgenstein , [27] científicos como Erwin Schrödinger y Albert Einstein , [28] psicoanalistas como Sigmund Freud [29] y Carl Jung , escritores como Leo Tolstoi , [30] Herman Melville , [31] Thomas Mann , Hermann Hesse , [32] Machado de Assis , [33] Jorge Luis Borges , Marcel Proust , [34] y Samuel Beckett [35] , así como compositores como Richard Wagner , [34] Johannes Brahms , [34] Arnold Schoenberg [34] [36] y Gustav Mahler . [34]
La vida
Vida temprana
Schopenhauer nació el 22 de febrero de 1788, en Danzig (entonces parte de la Commonwealth polaco-lituana ; actual Gdańsk , Polonia ) en Heiligegeistgasse (actual Św. Ducha 47), hijo de Johanna Schopenhauer (de soltera Trosiener) (1766- 1838) y Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer (1747-1805), [37] ambos descendientes de ricas familias patricias germano-holandesas . Ninguno de los dos era muy religioso; [38] ambos apoyaron la Revolución Francesa , [39] y eran republicanos , cosmopolitas y anglófilos . [40] Cuando Danzig pasó a formar parte de Prusia en 1793, Heinrich se trasladó a Hamburgo, una ciudad libre con una constitución republicana, aunque su empresa continuó comerciando en Danzig, donde permanecieron la mayoría de sus familias extensas. Adele , la única hermana de Arthur, nació el 12 de julio de 1797.
En 1797 Arthur fue enviado a Le Havre para vivir durante dos años con la familia del socio comercial de su padre, Grégoire de Blésimaire. Pareció disfrutar de su estancia allí, aprendió a hablar francés con fluidez y entabló una amistad con Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire, su compañero, que duró gran parte de sus vidas. [41] Ya en 1799, Arthur comenzó a tocar la flauta. [42] : 30 En 1803 se unió a sus padres en su larga gira por Holanda , Gran Bretaña, Francia , Suiza , Austria y Prusia ; fue principalmente un viaje de placer, aunque Heinrich también visitó a algunos de sus socios comerciales. Heinrich le dio a su hijo una opción: podía quedarse en casa y comenzar los preparativos para la educación universitaria, o podía viajar con ellos y luego continuar su educación comercial. Arthur más tarde lamentó profundamente su elección porque encontró tedioso su entrenamiento de comerciante. Pasó doce semanas de la gira asistiendo a una escuela en Wimbledon donde se sintió muy infeliz y consternado por la religiosidad anglicana estricta pero intelectualmente superficial , que continuó criticando duramente más adelante en su vida a pesar de su anglofilia general. [43] También estaba bajo presión de su padre, quien se volvió muy crítico con sus resultados educativos. Heinrich se volvió tan quisquilloso que incluso su esposa comenzó a dudar de su salud mental. [44]
En 1805, Heinrich murió ahogado en un canal junto a su casa en Hamburgo. Aunque era posible que su muerte fuera accidental, su esposa e hijo creyeron que se trataba de un suicidio porque era muy propenso a comportamientos insociables, ansiedad y depresión que se acentuaron especialmente en sus últimos meses de vida. [45] [46] Arthur mostró un mal humor similar desde su juventud ya menudo reconoció que lo había heredado de su padre; También hubo varios otros casos de problemas graves de salud mental por parte de la familia de su padre. [47] Su madre, Johanna, fue descrita generalmente como vivaz y sociable. [40] A pesar de las dificultades, a Schopenhauer parecía gustarle su padre y más tarde siempre lo mencionaba de manera positiva. [44] [48] Heinrich Schopenhauer dejó a la familia con una herencia significativa que se dividió en tres entre Johanna y los niños. Arthur Schopenhauer tenía derecho a controlar su parte cuando alcanzó la mayoría de edad. Lo invirtió de manera conservadora en bonos del gobierno y ganó un interés anual que era más del doble del salario de un profesor universitario. [49]
Arthur pasó dos años como comerciante en honor a su padre fallecido, y debido a sus propias dudas acerca de ser demasiado mayor para comenzar una vida de erudito. [50] La mayor parte de su educación previa fue la formación práctica de comerciantes y tuvo algunos problemas para aprender latín, que era un requisito previo para cualquier carrera académica. [51] Su madre se trasladó, con su hija Adele, a Weimar —entonces el centro de la literatura alemana— para disfrutar de la vida social entre escritores y artistas. Arthur y su madre no se llevaban bien. En una carta le escribió: "Eres insoportable y agobiante, y es muy difícil vivir contigo; todas tus buenas cualidades quedan eclipsadas por tu vanidad y se vuelven inútiles para el mundo simplemente porque no puedes restringir tu propensión a hacer agujeros en otras personas. personas." [52] Arthur dejó a su madre y nunca se volvieron a encontrar antes de que ella muriera 24 años después. Algunas opiniones negativas del último filósofo sobre las mujeres pueden tener su origen en su problemática relación con su madre. [53] Arthur vivía en Hamburgo con su amigo Jean Anthime, que también estaba estudiando para convertirse en comerciante.
Tras dejar su aprendizaje de comerciante, con algo de ánimo de su madre, se dedicó a estudiar en el Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha , en Sajonia-Gotha-Altenburg , pero también disfrutó de la vida social entre la nobleza local, gastando grandes cantidades de dinero, que Causó preocupación a su frugal madre. [54] Dejó el Gymnasium después de escribir un poema satírico sobre uno de los maestros de escuela. Aunque Arthur afirmó que se fue voluntariamente, la carta de su madre indica que fue expulsado. [55]
Educación
Se mudó a Weimar pero no vivía con su madre, quien incluso trató de disuadirlo de venir explicándole que no se llevarían muy bien. [56] Su relación se deterioró aún más debido a sus diferencias temperamentales. Acusó a su madre de ser financieramente irresponsable, coqueta y buscar volver a casarse, lo que consideró un insulto a la memoria de su padre. [57] [56] Su madre, mientras le profesaba su amor, lo criticó duramente por ser malhumorado, falto de tacto y discutidor, y lo instó a mejorar su comportamiento para que no alejara a la gente. [55] Arthur se concentró en sus estudios, que ahora iban muy bien, y también disfrutó de la vida social habitual, como bailes, fiestas y teatro. En ese momento, el famoso salón de Johanna estaba bien establecido entre los intelectuales y dignatarios locales, el más célebre de ellos era Goethe . Arthur asistía a sus fiestas, generalmente cuando sabía que Goethe estaría allí, aunque el famoso escritor y estadista parecía ni siquiera notar al joven y desconocido estudiante. Es posible que Goethe se mantuviera a distancia porque Johanna le advirtió sobre la naturaleza depresiva y combativa de su hijo, o porque Goethe estaba entonces en malos términos con el instructor de idiomas y compañero de cuarto de Arthur, Franz Passow . [58] Schopenhauer también quedó cautivado por la hermosa Karoline Jagemann , amante de Karl August, Gran Duque de Sajonia-Weimar-Eisenach , y le escribió su único poema de amor conocido. [59] A pesar de su posterior celebración del ascetismo y las opiniones negativas de la sexualidad, Schopenhauer ocasionalmente tuvo aventuras sexuales, generalmente con mujeres de menor estatus social, como sirvientas, actrices y, a veces, incluso prostitutas pagadas. [60] En una carta a su amigo Anthime, afirma que tales asuntos continuaron incluso en su edad madura y admite que tuvo dos hijas fuera del matrimonio (nacidas en 1819 y 1836), las cuales murieron en la infancia. [61] En su correspondencia juvenil, Arthur y Anthime eran algo jactanciosos y competitivos acerca de sus hazañas sexuales, pero Schopenhauer parecía consciente de que las mujeres generalmente no lo encontraban muy encantador o físicamente atractivo, y sus deseos a menudo no se cumplían. [62]
Dejó Weimar para convertirse en estudiante en la Universidad de Gotinga en 1809. No hay razones escritas sobre por qué Schopenhauer eligió esa universidad en lugar de la entonces más famosa Universidad de Jena , pero Gotinga era conocida como más moderna y científicamente orientada, con menos atención. dado a la teología. [63] La ley o la medicina eran opciones habituales para los jóvenes del estatus de Schopenhauer que también necesitaban una carrera e ingresos; eligió la medicina por sus intereses científicos . Entre sus profesores notables se encontraban Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut , Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren , Johann Friedrich Blumenbach , Friedrich Stromeyer , Heinrich Adolf Schrader , Johann Tobias Mayer y Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck . [64] Estudió metafísica , psicología y lógica con Gottlob Ernst Schulze , el autor de Aenesidemus , quien le causó una fuerte impresión y le aconsejó que se concentrara en Platón e Immanuel Kant . [65] Decidió pasar de la medicina a la filosofía alrededor de 1810-1811 y abandonó Gotinga, que no tenía un programa de filosofía sólido: además de Schulze, el único otro profesor de filosofía era Friedrich Bouterwek , a quien Schopenhauer no gustaba. [66] No se arrepintió de sus estudios médicos y científicos; afirmó que eran necesarios para un filósofo, e incluso en Berlín asistió a más conferencias de ciencias que de filosofía. [67] Durante sus días en Gotinga, pasó un tiempo considerable estudiando, pero también continuó tocando la flauta y su vida social. Sus amigos incluían a Friedrich Gotthilf Osann , Karl Witte , Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen y William Backhouse Astor Sr. [68]
Llegó a la recién fundada Universidad de Berlín para el semestre de invierno de 1811–12. Al mismo tiempo, su madre acababa de comenzar su carrera literaria; publicó su primer libro en 1810, una biografía de su amigo Karl Ludwig Fernow , que fue un éxito de crítica. Arthur asistió a conferencias del prominente filósofo post-kantiano Johann Gottlieb Fichte , pero rápidamente encontró muchos puntos de desacuerdo con su Wissenschaftslehre ; también encontraba tediosas y difíciles de entender las conferencias de Fichte. [69] Más tarde mencionó a Fichte sólo en términos críticos y negativos [69], considerando su filosofía como una versión de menor calidad de la de Kant y considerándola útil sólo porque los pobres argumentos de Fichte destacaron involuntariamente algunas fallas del kantismo. [70] También asistió a las conferencias del famoso teólogo protestante Friedrich Schleiermacher , a quien también rápidamente le desagradó. [71] Sus notas y comentarios sobre las conferencias de Schleiermacher muestran que Schopenhauer se estaba volviendo muy crítico con la religión y avanzando hacia el ateísmo . [72] Aprendió mediante la lectura autodirigida; además de Platón, Kant y Fichte, también leyó las obras de Schelling , Fries , Jacobi , Bacon , Locke y gran parte de la literatura científica actual. [67] Asistió a cursos de filología de August Böckh y Friedrich August Wolf y continuó sus intereses naturalistas con cursos de Martin Heinrich Klaproth , Paul Erman , Johann Elert Bode , Ernst Gottfried Fischer , Johann Horkel , Friedrich Christian Rosenthal y Hinrich Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein también fue un amigo a quien conoció en una de las fiestas de su madre en Weimar). [73]
Trabajo temprano
Schopenhauer salió de Berlín a toda prisa en 1813, temiendo que la ciudad pudiera ser atacada y que pudiera ser presionado para el servicio militar ya que Prusia acababa de unirse a la guerra contra Francia . [74] Regresó a Weimar, pero se fue después de menos de un mes disgustado por el hecho de que su madre ahora vivía con su supuesto amante, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk (1778-1838), un funcionario público doce años menor que su; consideró la relación como un acto de infidelidad a la memoria de su padre. [75] Se instaló por un tiempo en Rudolstadt , esperando que ningún ejército pasara por la pequeña ciudad. Pasó su tiempo en soledad, caminando por las montañas y el bosque de Turingia y escribiendo su disertación, Sobre la raíz cuádruple del principio de razón suficiente . Completó su disertación aproximadamente al mismo tiempo que el ejército francés fue derrotado en la batalla de Leipzig . Se irritó por la llegada de los soldados a la ciudad y aceptó la invitación de su madre para visitarla en Weimar. Trató de convencerlo de que su relación con Gerstenbergk era platónica y que no tenía intención de volver a casarse. [76] Pero Schopenhauer seguía sospechando y a menudo entraba en conflicto con Gerstenbergk porque lo consideraba sin talento, pretencioso y nacionalista . [77] Su madre acababa de publicar su segundo libro, Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804 y 1805 , una descripción de su gira familiar por Europa, que rápidamente se convirtió en un éxito. Encontró su disertación incomprensible y dijo que era poco probable que alguien comprara una copia. En un ataque de mal genio, Arthur le dijo que la gente leería su trabajo mucho después de que la "basura" que ella escribió fuera totalmente olvidada. [78] [79] De hecho, aunque consideraban sus novelas de dudosa calidad, la editorial Brockhaus la tenía en alta estima porque se vendían bien constantemente. Hans Brockhaus (1888-1965) afirmó más tarde que sus predecesores "no vieron nada en este manuscrito, pero querían complacer a uno de nuestros autores más vendidos al publicar el trabajo de su hijo. Publicamos cada vez más del trabajo de su hijo Arthur y hoy nadie recuerda Johanna, pero las obras de su hijo tienen una demanda constante y contribuyen a la reputación de Brockhaus ". [80] Conservó grandes retratos de la pareja en su oficina de Leipzig para la edificación de sus nuevos editores. [80]
También contrariamente a la predicción de su madre, la disertación de Schopenhauer impresionó a Goethe, a quien se la envió como regalo. [81] Aunque es dudoso que Goethe estuviera de acuerdo con las posiciones filosóficas de Schopenhauer, quedó impresionado por su intelecto y su extensa educación científica. [82] Sus posteriores reuniones y correspondencia fueron un gran honor para un joven filósofo, que finalmente fue reconocido por su héroe intelectual. En su mayoría discutieron el trabajo recientemente publicado (y algo tibio recibido) de Goethe sobre la teoría del color . Schopenhauer pronto comenzó a escribir su propio tratado sobre el tema, Sobre la visión y los colores , que en muchos puntos difería del de su maestro. Aunque se mantuvieron educados el uno con el otro, sus crecientes desacuerdos teóricos —y especialmente la extrema confianza en sí mismo y las críticas sin tacto de Schopenhauer— pronto hicieron que Goethe volviera a distanciarse y, después de 1816, su correspondencia se volvió menos frecuente. [83] Schopenhauer admitió más tarde que estaba muy herido por este rechazo, pero continuó elogiando a Goethe y consideró su teoría del color como una gran introducción a la suya. [84] [85] [86]
Otra experiencia importante durante su estancia en Weimar fue su relación con Friedrich Majer, historiador de la religión , orientalista y discípulo de Herder, quien lo introdujo en la filosofía oriental [87] [88] (ver también Indología ). Schopenhauer quedó inmediatamente impresionado por los Upanishads (los llamó "la producción de la más alta sabiduría humana", y creía que contenían conceptos sobrehumanos) y el Buda , [87] y los puso a la par con Platón y Kant. [89] [90] Continuó sus estudios leyendo el Bhagavad Gita , una revista alemana amateur Asiatisches Magazin y Asiatick Researches de la Sociedad Asiática . [91] [90] Schopenhauer tenía un profundo respeto por la filosofía india ; [92] aunque amaba los textos hindúes , estaba más interesado en el budismo , [93] que llegó a considerar como la mejor religión. [90] Sin embargo, sus estudios sobre textos hindúes y budistas se vieron limitados por la falta de literatura adecuada, [94] y esta última se limitó principalmente al budismo temprano . También afirmó que formuló la mayoría de sus ideas de forma independiente, [87] y sólo más tarde se dio cuenta de las similitudes con el budismo. [95]
Schopenhauer leyó la traducción latina y elogió los Upanishads en su obra principal, El mundo como voluntad y representación (1819), así como en su Parerga y Paralipomena (1851).
y comentó,
En todo el mundo no hay estudio tan beneficioso y tan elevado como el de los Upanishads. Ha sido el consuelo de mi vida, será el consuelo de mi muerte. [96]
Cuando la relación con su madre cayó a un nuevo mínimo, en mayo de 1814 dejó Weimar y se mudó a Dresde . [85] Continuó sus estudios filosóficos, disfrutó de la vida cultural, socializó con intelectuales y se involucró en asuntos sexuales. [97] Sus amigos en Dresde fueron Johann Gottlob von Quandt , Friedrich Laun , Karl Christian Friedrich Krause y Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, un joven pintor que hizo un retrato romántico de él en el que mejoró algunos de los rasgos físicos poco atractivos de Schopenhauer. [98] [99] Sus críticas a los artistas locales ocasionalmente causaron disputas públicas cuando se encontró con ellos en público. [100] Sin embargo, su ocupación principal durante su estancia en Dresde fue su obra filosófica fundamental, El mundo como voluntad y representación , que empezó a escribir en 1814 y terminó en 1818. [101] Fue recomendado al editor Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus por Barón Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, conocido de su madre. [102] Aunque Brockhaus aceptó su manuscrito, Schopenhauer causó una mala impresión debido a su actitud pendenciera y quisquillosa, así como a las muy malas ventas del libro después de su publicación en diciembre de 1818. [103]
En septiembre de 1818, mientras esperaba la publicación de su libro y escapaba convenientemente de una aventura con una doncella que le provocó un embarazo no deseado, [104] Schopenhauer dejó Dresde para pasar unas vacaciones de un año en Italia . [105] Visitó Venecia , Bolonia , Florencia , Nápoles y Milán , viajando solo o acompañado en su mayoría por turistas ingleses que conoció. [106] Pasó los meses de invierno en Roma , donde accidentalmente conoció a su conocido Karl Witte y se involucró en numerosas disputas con turistas alemanes en Caffe Greco , entre ellos Johann Friedrich Böhmer , quien también mencionó sus comentarios insultantes y su carácter desagradable. [107] Disfrutó del arte, la arquitectura y las ruinas antiguas, asistió a obras de teatro y óperas, y continuó su contemplación filosófica y sus aventuras amorosas. [108] Uno de sus asuntos supuestamente se volvió serio, y por un tiempo contempló casarse con una rica mujer noble italiana, pero, a pesar de que lo mencionó varias veces, no se conocen detalles y puede haber sido Schopenhauer exagerando. [109] [110] Mantuvo correspondencia regular con su hermana Adele y se acercó a ella a medida que su relación con Johanna y Gerstenbergk también se deterioró. [111] Ella le informó sobre sus problemas financieros ya que la casa bancaria de AL Muhl en Danzig, en la que su madre invirtió todos sus ahorros y Arthur un tercio de los suyos, estaba al borde de la bancarrota. [112] Arthur se ofreció a compartir sus bienes, pero su madre se negó y se enfureció aún más por sus comentarios insultantes. [113] Las mujeres lograron recibir solo el treinta por ciento de sus ahorros, mientras que Arthur, usando su conocimiento comercial, adoptó una postura sospechosa y agresiva hacia el banquero y finalmente recibió su parte en su totalidad. [114] El asunto empeoró además las relaciones entre los tres miembros de la familia Schopenhauer. [113] [115]
Acortó su estancia en Italia debido a los problemas con Muhl y regresó a Dresde. [116] Preocupado por el riesgo financiero y la falta de respuestas a su libro, decidió tomar una posición académica, ya que le proporcionaba ingresos y la oportunidad de promover sus puntos de vista. [117] Se puso en contacto con sus amigos en las universidades de Heidelberg, Göttingen y Berlín y encontró Berlín más atractivo. [118] Programó sus conferencias para que coincidieran con las del famoso filósofo GWF Hegel , a quien Schopenhauer describió como un "charlatán torpe". [119] Estaba especialmente consternado por el conocimiento supuestamente pobre de Hegel de las ciencias naturales y trató de entablar una disputa al respecto ya en su conferencia de prueba en marzo de 1820. [120] Hegel también enfrentaba sospechas políticas en ese momento, cuando muchos progresistas los profesores fueron despedidos , mientras Schopenhauer mencionó cuidadosamente en su solicitud que no tenía ningún interés en la política. [121] A pesar de sus diferencias y la arrogante solicitud de programar conferencias al mismo tiempo que las suyas, Hegel todavía votó para aceptar a Schopenhauer en la universidad. [122] Sin embargo, sólo cinco estudiantes asistieron a las conferencias de Schopenhauer y abandonó la academia . Un ensayo tardío, "Sobre la filosofía universitaria", expresó su resentimiento hacia el trabajo realizado en las academias.
Vida posterior
Después de su fracaso académico, continuó viajando extensamente, visitando Leipzig , Nuremberg , Stuttgart , Schaffhausen , Vevey , Milán y pasando ocho meses en Florencia. [123] Sin embargo, antes de partir para su viaje de tres años, tuvo un incidente con su vecina de Berlín, la costurera Caroline Louise Marquet, de 47 años. Se desconocen los detalles del incidente de agosto de 1821. Afirmó que acababa de empujarla desde su entrada después de que ella se negó groseramente a irse, y que ella se había caído al suelo a propósito para poder demandarlo. Afirmó que la había atacado con tanta violencia que se quedó paralizada del lado derecho y no podía trabajar. Ella lo demandó inmediatamente y el proceso duró hasta mayo de 1827, cuando un tribunal declaró culpable a Schopenhauer y lo obligó a pagarle una pensión anual hasta su muerte en 1842 [124].
Schopenhauer disfrutó de Italia, donde estudió arte y socializó con nobles italianos e ingleses. [125] Fue su última visita al país. Se fue a Múnich y permaneció allí durante un año, en su mayoría recuperándose de varios problemas de salud, algunos de ellos posiblemente causados por enfermedades venéreas (el tratamiento que usó su médico sugiere sífilis ). [126] Se puso en contacto con los editores y le ofreció traducir Hume al alemán y Kant al inglés, pero sus propuestas fueron rechazadas. [127] [128] Al regresar a Berlín, comenzó a estudiar español para poder leer algunos de sus autores favoritos en su idioma original. Le gustaban Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Lope de Vega , Miguel de Cervantes y, sobre todo, Baltasar Gracián . [129] También hizo intentos fallidos de publicar las traducciones de sus obras. Pocos intentos de revivir sus conferencias, nuevamente programadas al mismo tiempo que las de Hegel, también fracasaron, al igual que sus preguntas sobre la reubicación en otras universidades. [130]
Durante sus años en Berlín, Schopenhauer mencionó ocasionalmente su deseo de casarse y tener una familia. [131] [132] Durante un tiempo estuvo cortejando sin éxito a Flora Weiss, de 17 años, que era 22 años más joven que él. [133] Sus escritos inéditos de esa época muestran que ya era muy crítico con la monogamia, pero aún no defendía la poligamia, sino que reflexionaba sobre una relación poliamorosa que llamó "tetragamia". [134] Tuvo una relación intermitente con una joven bailarina, Caroline Richter (ella también usó el apellido Medon en honor a uno de sus ex amantes). [135] Se conocieron cuando él tenía 33 años y ella 19 y trabajaba en la Ópera de Berlín. Ya había tenido numerosos amantes y un hijo fuera del matrimonio, y luego dio a luz a otro hijo, esta vez de un diplomático extranjero anónimo (pronto tuvo otro embarazo pero el niño nació muerto). [136] Mientras Schopenhauer se preparaba para escapar de Berlín en 1831, debido a una epidemia de cólera , se ofreció a llevarla con él con la condición de que dejara a su hijo pequeño. [131] Ella se negó y él se fue solo; en su testamento le dejó una importante suma de dinero, pero insistió en que no debería gastarse de ninguna manera en su segundo hijo. [131]
Schopenhauer afirmó que, en su último año en Berlín, tuvo un sueño profético que lo instó a escapar de la ciudad. [137] Cuando llegó a su nuevo hogar en Frankfurt , supuestamente tuvo otra experiencia sobrenatural , una aparición de su padre muerto y su madre, que todavía estaba viva. [137] Esta experiencia lo llevó a pasar algún tiempo investigando fenómenos paranormales y magia . Fue bastante crítico con los estudios disponibles y afirmó que en su mayoría eran ignorantes o fraudulentos, pero sí creía que existen casos auténticos de tales fenómenos y trató de explicarlos a través de su metafísica como manifestaciones de la voluntad. [138]
A su llegada a Frankfurt, experimentó un período de depresión y deterioro de su salud. [139] Renovó su correspondencia con su madre, y ella parecía preocupada de que pudiera suicidarse como su padre. [140] A estas alturas, Johanna y Adele vivían muy modestamente. La escritura de Johanna no le reportó muchos ingresos y su popularidad estaba menguando. [141] Su correspondencia permaneció reservada, y Arthur no pareció molesto por su muerte en 1838. [142] Su relación con su hermana se hizo más cercana y mantuvo correspondencia con ella hasta que ella murió en 1849. [143]
En julio de 1832 Schopenhauer partió de Frankfurt hacia Mannheim, pero regresó en julio de 1833 para permanecer allí por el resto de su vida, excepto por algunos viajes cortos. [144] Vivía solo a excepción de una sucesión de caniches llamados Atman y Butz. En 1836, publicó Sobre la voluntad en la naturaleza . En 1836 envió su ensayo " Sobre la libertad de la voluntad " al concurso de la Real Sociedad Noruega de Ciencias y ganó el premio al año siguiente. Envió otro ensayo, " Sobre la base de la moralidad ", a la Real Sociedad Danesa de Estudios Científicos, pero no ganó el premio a pesar de ser el único concursante. La Sociedad estaba consternada de que varios distinguidos filósofos contemporáneos fueran mencionados de una manera muy ofensiva y afirmó que el ensayo no comprendía el tema del tema establecido y que los argumentos eran inadecuados. [145] Schopenhauer, que había estado muy seguro de que ganaría, se enfureció con este rechazo. Publicó ambos ensayos como Los dos problemas básicos de la ética . La primera edición, publicada en 1841, nuevamente no logró llamar la atención sobre su filosofía. En el prefacio de la segunda edición, en 1860, todavía estaba insultando a la Real Sociedad Danesa. [146] Dos años más tarde, después de algunas negociaciones, logró convencer a su editor, Brockhaus, de que imprimiera la segunda edición actualizada de El mundo como voluntad y representación . Ese libro fue nuevamente ignorado en su mayoría y las pocas críticas fueron mixtas o negativas.
Sin embargo, Schopenhauer comenzó a atraer algunos seguidores, en su mayoría fuera de la academia, entre los profesionales prácticos (varios de ellos eran abogados) que realizaban estudios filosóficos privados. En broma, se refirió a ellos como "evangelistas" y "apóstoles". [147] Uno de los primeros seguidores más activos fue Julius Frauenstädt , quien escribió numerosos artículos promoviendo la filosofía de Schopenhauer. También jugó un papel decisivo en la búsqueda de otro editor después de que Brockhaus se negó a publicar Parerga y Paralipomena , creyendo que sería otro fracaso. [148] Aunque Schopenhauer luego dejó de mantener correspondencia con él, alegando que no se adhirió lo suficiente a sus ideas, Frauenstädt continuó promoviendo el trabajo de Schopenhauer. [149] Renovaron su comunicación en 1859 y Schopenhauer lo nombró heredero de su patrimonio literario. [150] Frauenstädt también se convirtió en el editor de las primeras obras completas de Schopenhauer. [148]
En 1848, Schopenhauer fue testigo de una violenta agitación en Frankfurt después de que el general Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald y el príncipe Felix Lichnowsky fueran asesinados. Se preocupó por su propia seguridad y propiedad. [151] Incluso antes en su vida había tenido tales preocupaciones y tenía una espada y pistolas cargadas cerca de su cama para defenderse de los ladrones. [152] Dio una bienvenida amistosa a los soldados austriacos que querían disparar a los revolucionarios desde su ventana y cuando se iban le dio a uno de los oficiales sus lentes de ópera para ayudarlo a monitorear a los rebeldes. [151] La rebelión pasó sin ninguna pérdida para Schopenhauer y más tarde elogió a Alfred I, príncipe de Windisch-Grätz por restaurar el orden. [153] Incluso modificó su testamento, dejando una gran parte de su propiedad a un fondo prusiano que ayudó a los soldados que quedaron inválidos mientras luchaban contra la rebelión en 1848 oa las familias de los soldados que murieron en la batalla. [154] Mientras los jóvenes hegelianos abogaban por el cambio y el progreso, Schopenhauer afirmó que la miseria es natural para los humanos y que, incluso si se estableciera una sociedad utópica, la gente seguiría luchando entre sí por aburrimiento o moriría de hambre debido a la superpoblación. [153]
En 1851 Schopenhauer publicó Parerga y Paralipomena , que, como dice el título, contiene ensayos complementarios a su obra principal. Fue su primer libro exitoso y muy leído, en parte debido al trabajo de sus discípulos que escribieron críticas de alabanza. [155] Los ensayos que resultaron más populares fueron los que en realidad no contenían las ideas filosóficas básicas de su sistema. [156] Muchos filósofos académicos lo consideraron un gran estilista y crítico cultural, pero no tomaron en serio su filosofía. [156] A sus primeros críticos les gustaba señalar similitudes de sus ideas con las de Fichte y Schelling, [157] o afirmar que había numerosas contradicciones en su filosofía. [157] [158] Ambas críticas enfurecieron a Schopenhauer. Sin embargo, estaba cada vez menos interesado en las luchas intelectuales, pero alentó a sus discípulos a hacerlo. [159] Sus notas privadas y correspondencia muestran que reconoció algunas de las críticas sobre contradicciones, inconsistencias y vaguedades en su filosofía, pero afirmó que no le preocupaba la armonía y el acuerdo en sus proposiciones [160] y que algunas de sus ideas no debe tomarse literalmente sino como metáforas. [161]
Los filósofos académicos también estaban comenzando a notar su trabajo. En 1856, la Universidad de Leipzig patrocinó un concurso de ensayos sobre la filosofía de Schopenhauer, que ganó el ensayo muy crítico de Rudolf Seydel . [162] El amigo de Schopenhauer, Jules Lunteschütz, hizo el primero de sus cuatro retratos de él —que no le gustó especialmente a Schopenhauer— que pronto fue vendido a un rico terrateniente, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, quien construyó una casa para exhibirlo. Schopenhauer pareció halagado y divertido por esto, y diría que era su primera capilla. [163] A medida que aumentaba su fama, se vendían copias de pinturas y fotografías de él y admiradores visitaban los lugares donde había vivido y escrito sus obras. La gente visitó el Englischer Hof de Frankfurt para observarlo cenando. Los admiradores le dieron regalos y le pidieron autógrafos. [164] Sin embargo, se quejaba de que todavía se sentía aislado debido a su naturaleza poco social y al hecho de que muchos de sus buenos amigos ya habían muerto de vejez. [165]
Se mantuvo saludable en su propia vejez, lo que atribuyó a caminatas regulares sin importar el clima y a dormir siempre lo suficiente. [166] Tenía un gran apetito y podía leer sin gafas, pero su audición había ido disminuyendo desde su juventud y desarrolló problemas de reumatismo . [167] Permaneció activo y lúcido, continuó leyendo, escribiendo y manteniendo correspondencia hasta su muerte. [167] Las numerosas notas que hizo durante estos años, entre otras sobre el envejecimiento, fueron publicadas póstumamente con el título Senilia . En la primavera de 1860 su salud comenzó a deteriorarse y experimentó dificultad para respirar y palpitaciones del corazón; en septiembre sufrió una inflamación de los pulmones y, aunque comenzaba a recuperarse, seguía muy débil. [168] El último amigo que lo visitó fue Wilhelm Gwinner; según él, Schopenhauer estaba preocupado porque no podría terminar sus adiciones planeadas a Parerga y Paralipomena, pero estaba en paz con la muerte. [169] Murió de insuficiencia pulmonar-respiratoria [170] el 21 de septiembre de 1860 mientras estaba sentado en su sofá en casa. Tenía 72 años [171].
Filosofía
El mundo como representación
Schopenhauer vio su filosofía como una continuación de la de Kant y utilizó los resultados de la investigación epistemológica kantiana ( idealismo trascendental ) como punto de partida para la suya. Kant había sostenido que el mundo empírico es simplemente un complejo de apariencias cuya existencia y conexión ocurren solo en nuestras representaciones mentales . [172] Schopenhauer lo reitera en la primera frase de su obra principal: "El mundo es mi representación ( Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung )". Todo lo que existe para la cognición (el mundo entero) existe simplemente como un objeto en relación con un sujeto, una "representación" de un sujeto. Todo lo que pertenece al mundo es, por tanto, "sujeto-dependiente". En el primer libro de El mundo como voluntad y representación, Schopenhauer considera el mundo desde este ángulo, es decir, en la medida en que es representación.
Teoría de la percepción
En noviembre de 1813, Goethe invitó a Schopenhauer para que lo ayudara en su Teoría de los colores . Aunque Schopenhauer consideró la teoría del color como un asunto menor, [173] aceptó la invitación por admiración por Goethe. Sin embargo, estas investigaciones lo llevaron a su descubrimiento más importante en epistemología: encontrar una demostración de la naturaleza a priori de la causalidad.
Kant admitió abiertamente que fue el asalto escéptico de Hume a la causalidad lo que motivó las investigaciones críticas en su Crítica de la razón pura y dio una prueba elaborada para demostrar que la causalidad es a priori . Después de que GE Schulze hizo plausible que Kant no hubiera refutado el escepticismo de Hume, los leales al proyecto de Kant debían probar este importante asunto.
La diferencia entre los enfoques de Kant y Schopenhauer era la siguiente: Kant simplemente declaró que el contenido empírico de la percepción nos es "dado" desde afuera, una expresión con la que Schopenhauer a menudo expresaba su descontento. [174] Él, por otro lado, estaba ocupado con las preguntas: cómo obtenemos este contenido empírico de la percepción; ¿Cómo es posible comprender las sensaciones subjetivas "limitadas a mi piel" como la percepción objetiva de cosas que se encuentran "fuera" de mí? [175]
Las sensaciones en la mano de un ciego de nacimiento, al sentir un objeto de forma cúbica, son bastante uniformes e iguales en todos los lados y en todas direcciones: los bordes, es cierto, presionan una porción más pequeña de su mano, todavía nada en absoluto como un cubo está contenido en estas sensaciones. Su Comprensión, sin embargo, saca la conclusión inmediata e intuitiva de la resistencia sentida, que esta resistencia debe tener una causa, que luego se presenta a través de esa conclusión como un cuerpo duro; ya través de los movimientos de sus brazos al sentir el objeto, mientras la sensación de la mano permanece inalterada, construye la forma cúbica en el Espacio. Si la representación de una causa y del Espacio, junto con sus leyes, no hubiera existido ya dentro de él, la imagen de un cubo nunca podría haber procedido de esas sucesivas sensaciones en su mano. [176]
La causalidad no es, por tanto, un concepto empírico extraído de percepciones objetivas, como había sostenido Hume; en cambio, como había dicho Kant, la percepción objetiva presupone el conocimiento de la causalidad. [177]
Mediante esta operación intelectual, comprendiendo que cada efecto en nuestros órganos sensoriales tiene una causa externa, surge el mundo externo. Con la visión, encontrar la causa se simplifica esencialmente debido a que la luz actúa en línea recta. Rara vez somos conscientes del proceso que interpreta la doble sensación en ambos ojos como proveniente de un objeto, que invierte las impresiones en las retinas y que utiliza el cambio en la posición aparente de un objeto en relación con los objetos más distantes que proporciona la visión binocular. percibir profundidad y distancia.
Schopenhauer destaca la importancia de la naturaleza intelectual de la percepción; los sentidos proporcionan la materia prima mediante la cual el intelecto produce el mundo como representación. Expuso su teoría de la percepción por primera vez en On Vision and Colors , [178] y, en las ediciones posteriores de Fourfold Root , se ofrece una extensa exposición en el § 21.
El mundo como quiera
En el Libro Dos de El mundo como voluntad y representación, Schopenhauer considera qué es el mundo más allá del aspecto que nos aparece, es decir, el aspecto del mundo más allá de la representación, el mundo considerado " en sí mismo " o " noumena ". , su esencia interior. El mismo ser en sí de todas las cosas, sostiene Schopenhauer, es la voluntad ( Wille ). El mundo empírico que nos aparece como representación tiene pluralidad y está ordenado en un marco espacio-temporal. El mundo como cosa en sí debe existir fuera de las formas subjetivas del espacio y el tiempo. Aunque el mundo se manifiesta a nuestra experiencia como una multiplicidad de objetos (la "objetivación" de la voluntad), cada elemento de esta multiplicidad tiene la misma esencia ciega que lucha por la existencia y la vida. La racionalidad humana es simplemente un fenómeno secundario que no distingue a la humanidad del resto de la naturaleza en el nivel fundamental y esencial. Las capacidades cognitivas avanzadas de los seres humanos, sostiene Schopenhauer, sirven a los fines de la voluntad: un esfuerzo ilógico, sin rumbo, incesante que condena al individuo humano a una vida de sufrimiento sin ningún propósito final. La filosofía de Schopenhauer de la voluntad como realidad esencial detrás del mundo como representación se denomina a menudo voluntarismo metafísico . [ cita requerida ]
Para Schopenhauer, entender el mundo como voluntad conduce a preocupaciones éticas (ver la sección de ética a continuación para más detalles), que explora en el Cuarto Libro de El mundo como voluntad y representación y nuevamente en sus dos ensayos premiados sobre ética, Sobre la libertad. de la voluntad y sobre la base de la moralidad . Ninguna acción humana individual es libre, sostiene Schopenhauer, porque son eventos en el mundo de las apariencias y, por lo tanto, están sujetas al principio de razón suficiente: las acciones de una persona son una consecuencia necesaria de los motivos y del carácter dado del ser humano individual. La necesidad se extiende a las acciones de los seres humanos al igual que a cualquier otra apariencia, por lo que no podemos hablar de libertad de voluntad individual. Albert Einstein citó la idea de Schopenhauer de que "un hombre puede hacer lo que quiera, pero no hará lo que quiera". [179] Sin embargo, la voluntad como cosa en sí es libre, ya que existe más allá del ámbito de la representación y, por lo tanto, no está constreñida por ninguna de las formas de necesidad que forman parte del principio de razón suficiente.
Según Schopenhauer, la salvación de nuestra miserable existencia puede llegar a través de la "tranquilidad" de la voluntad por la intuición metafísica que revela que la individualidad es meramente una ilusión. El santo o 'gran alma' intuitivamente "reconoce el todo, comprende su esencia y descubre que está en constante desaparición, atrapada en vanas luchas, conflictos internos y sufrimiento perpetuo". [180] La negación de la voluntad, en otras palabras, surge de la intuición de que el mundo en sí (libre de las formas del espacio y el tiempo) es uno. Las prácticas ascéticas , observa Schopenhauer, se utilizan para ayudar a la "auto-abolición" de la voluntad, que produce un estado de vacuidad dichoso, redentor, "sin voluntad", libre de esfuerzos o sufrimientos.
Arte y estética
Para Schopenhauer, el "querer" humano —desear, anhelar, etc.— está en la raíz del sufrimiento . Una forma temporal de escapar de este dolor es a través de la contemplación estética. Aquí uno pasa del conocimiento ordinario de las cosas individuales al conocimiento de las Ideas platónicas eternas, en otras palabras, el conocimiento que está libre del servicio de la voluntad. En la contemplación estética, ya no se percibe un objeto de percepción como algo de lo que se está separado; más bien "es como si el objeto solo existiera sin que nadie lo percibiera, y así ya no se puede separar al perceptor de la percepción, sino que los dos se han convertido en uno, la totalidad de la conciencia completamente llena y ocupada por una sola imagen perceptiva". [182] Sujeto y objeto ya no se pueden distinguir y la Idea pasa a primer plano.
A partir de esta inmersión estética, uno ya no es un individuo que sufre como resultado de la servidumbre a la propia voluntad individual, sino que se convierte en un "sujeto de cognición puro, sin voluntad, indoloro, atemporal". El sujeto de la cognición puro, sin voluntad, sólo conoce las Ideas, no las cosas individuales: se trata de una clase de cognición que no se preocupa por las relaciones entre los objetos de acuerdo con el Principio de Razón Suficiente (tiempo, espacio, causa y efecto) y, en cambio, implica la absorción completa en el objeto.
El arte es la consecuencia práctica de esta breve contemplación estética, ya que intenta plasmar la esencia / Ideas puras del mundo. La música, para Schopenhauer, es la forma más pura de arte porque es la que representa la voluntad misma sin que aparezca como sujeta al Principio de Razón Suficiente, por lo tanto como un objeto individual. Según Daniel Albright , "Schopenhauer pensaba que la música era el único arte que no sólo copiaba ideas, sino que encarnaba la voluntad misma". [183] Consideró la música como un lenguaje universal y atemporal comprendido en todas partes, que puede infundir entusiasmo global, si posee una melodía significativa. [184]
Mathematics
Schopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry. Writing shortly before the discovery of hyperbolic geometry demonstrated the logical independence of the axiom—and long before the general theory of relativity revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect concepts to prove what he held was directly evident from intuitive perception.
The Euclidean method of demonstration has brought forth from its own womb its most striking parody and caricature in the famous controversy over the theory of parallels, and in the attempts, repeated every year, to prove the eleventh axiom (also known as the fifth postulate). The axiom asserts, and that indeed through the indirect criterion of a third intersecting line, that two lines inclined to each other (for this is the precise meaning of "less than two right angles"), if produced far enough, must meet. Now this truth is supposed to be too complicated to pass as self-evident, and therefore needs a proof; but no such proof can be produced, just because there is nothing more immediate.[185]
Throughout his writings,[186] Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions.
In fact, it seems to me that the logical method is in this way reduced to an absurdity. But it is precisely through the controversies over this, together with the futile attempts to demonstrate the directly certain as merely indirectly certain, that the independence and clearness of intuitive evidence appear in contrast with the uselessness and difficulty of logical proof, a contrast as instructive as it is amusing. The direct certainty will not be admitted here, just because it is no merely logical certainty following from the concept, and thus resting solely on the relation of predicate to subject, according to the principle of contradiction. But that eleventh axiom regarding parallel lines is a synthetic proposition a priori, and as such has the guarantee of pure, not empirical, perception; this perception is just as immediate and certain as is the principle of contradiction itself, from which all proofs originally derive their certainty. At bottom this holds good of every geometrical theorem ...
Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms.[187]
It surprises me that the eighth axiom,[188] "Figures that coincide with one another are equal to one another", is not rather attacked. For "coinciding with one another" is either a mere tautology, or something quite empirical, belonging not to pure intuition or perception, but to external sensuous experience. Thus it presupposes mobility of the figures, but matter alone is movable in space. Consequently, this reference to coincidence with one another forsakes pure space, the sole element of geometry, in order to pass over to the material and empirical.[185]
This follows Kant's reasoning.[189]
Ethics
Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given.[190]
According to Kant's transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality in itself is free from multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the possibility of multiplicity. Two individuals, though they appear distinct, are in-themselves not distinct.[191]
Appearances are entirely subordinated to the principle of sufficient reason. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can.
What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support their needs instead of his own pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes less distinction between himself and others than is usually made.[192]
Regarding how things appear to us, the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself.
What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality.[193]
Eternal justice
Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the principium individuationis. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others—the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented.[194]
Unlike temporal or human justice, which requires time to repay an evil deed and "has its seat in the state, as requiting and punishing",[195] eternal justice "rules not the state but the world, is not dependent upon human institutions, is not subject to chance and deception, is not uncertain, wavering, and erring, but infallible, fixed, and sure".[195] Eternal justice is not retributive, because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is tied to the offence, "to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt."[195]
Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer deemed that this truth was expressed by the Christian dogma of original sin and, in Eastern religions, by the dogma of rebirth.
Quietism
He who sees through the principium individuationis and comprehends suffering in general as his own will see suffering everywhere and, instead of fighting for the happiness of his individual manifestation, will abhor life itself since he knows that it is inseparably connected with suffering. For him, a happy individual life in a world of suffering is like a beggar who dreams one night that he is a king.[196]
Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life, but exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death.[196] Schopenhauer referred to asceticism as the denial of the will to live.
Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction and, instead of continuing their struggle, ascetics break it. It does not matter if these ascetics adhere to the dogmata of Christianity or to Dharmic religions, since their way of living is the result of intuitive knowledge.
The Christian mystic and the teacher of the Vedanta philosophy agree in this respect also, they both regard all outward works and religious exercises as superfluous for him who has attained to perfection. So much agreement in the case of such different ages and nations is a practical proof that what is expressed here is not, as optimistic dullness likes to assert, an eccentricity and perversity of the mind, but an essential side of human nature, which only appears so rarely because of its excellence.[196]
Psychology
Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the necessity of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed sex and related concepts forthrightly:
... one ought rather to be surprised that a thing [sex] which plays throughout so important a part in human life has hitherto practically been disregarded by philosophers altogether, and lies before us as raw and untreated material.[197]
He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles[198] us into reproducing.
Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's psyche, guaranteeing the quality of the human race:
The ultimate aim of all love affairs ... is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it. What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation ...[199]
It has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the theory of evolution, a claim met with satisfaction by Darwin as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his Descent of Man.[200] This has also been noted about Freud's concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, and evolutionary psychology in general.[201]
Political and social thought
Politics
Schopenhauer's politics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik (the two essays On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality).
In occasional political comments in his Parerga and Paralipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one).[202]
He declared that monarchy is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals".[203] Intellect in monarchies, he writes, always has "much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage."[203] On the other hand, Schopenhauer disparaged republicanism as being "as unnatural to man as it is unfavorable to higher intellectual life and thus to the arts and sciences".[204]
By his own admission, Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics, and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he maintained his position of "minding not the times but the eternities". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is: "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect."[205]
Punishment
The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ..."[206] He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of Plato,[207] Seneca, Hobbes, Pufendorf, and Anselm Feuerbach.
Races and religions
Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal):
The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.[208]
Schopenhauer was fervently opposed to slavery. Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the slave-holding states of the United States, he condemned "those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them" for how they "treat their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws". The slave-holding states of North America, Schopenhauer writes, are a "disgrace to the whole of humanity".[209]
In his Metaphysics of Sexual Love, Schopenhauer wrote:
Further, the consideration as to the complexion is very decided. Blondes prefer dark persons, or brunettes; but the latter seldom prefer the former. The reason is, that fair hair and blue eyes are in themselves a variation from the type, almost an abnormity, analogous to white mice, or at least to grey horses. In no part of the world, not even in the vicinity of the pole, are they indigenous, except in Europe, and are clearly of Scandinavian origin. I may here express my opinion in passing that the white colour of the skin is not natural to man, but that by nature he has a black or brown skin, like our forefathers the Hindus; that consequently a white man has never originally sprung from the womb of nature, and that thus there is no such thing as a white race, much as this is talked of, but every white man is a faded or bleached one. Forced into the strange world, where he only exists like an exotic plant, and like this requires in winter the hothouse, in the course of thousands of years man became white. The gipsies, an Indian race which immigrated only about four centuries ago, show the transition from the complexion of the Hindu to our own. Therefore in sexual love nature strives to return to dark hair and brown eyes as the primitive type; but the white colour of the skin has become a second nature, though not so that the brown of the Hindu repels us. Finally, each one also seeks in the particular parts of the body the corrective of his own defects and aberrations, and does so the more decidedly the more important the part is.[210]
Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political anti-Judaism. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly "Jewish" spirit:
[Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting theism. It amounts to this that the κύριος ['Lord'], who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.[211]
Women
In his 1851 essay "On Women", Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (abgeschmackten Weiberveneration)".[212] He wrote: "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed his opposition to monogamy.[213] He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey". The essay does give some compliments, however: "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others.
Schopenhauer's writings influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists.[214] His biological analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists.[215]
When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by the Prussian sculptor Elisabet Ney in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist.[216] After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug: "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man."[217]
Pederasty
In the third, expanded edition of The World as Will and Representation (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the Metaphysics of Sexual Love. He wrote that pederasty has the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils".[218] Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty."[219]
Heredity and eugenics
Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect as inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (Odes, iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from Cymbeline, "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument.[220] Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father.[221] This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of love—placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote:
With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his Republic, he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole harem, and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles.[222]
In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic."[223] Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-egalitarianist sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.[224]
Animal welfare
As a consequence of his monistic philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about animal welfare.[225][226] For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. For him the word "will" designates force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the essence of all external things and our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other.[227] For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers.
Compassion for animals is intimately associated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to living creatures cannot be a good man.
— On the Basis of Morality, § 19
Nothing leads more definitely to a recognition of the identity of the essential nature in animal and human phenomena than a study of zoology and anatomy.
— On the Basis of Morality, chapter 8[228]
The assumption that animals are without rights and the illusion that our treatment of them has no moral significance is a positively outrageous example of Western crudity and barbarity. Universal compassion is the only guarantee of morality.
— On the Basis of Morality, chapter 8[229]
In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things.[230] To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot[231] and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter.[232]
Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized Spinoza's[233] belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.[234][235]
Intellectual interests and affinities
Indology
Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient Hindu texts, the Upanishads, translated by French writer Anquetil du Perron[236] from the Persian translation of Prince Dara Shukoh entitled Sirre-Akbar ("The Great Secret"). He was so impressed by its philosophy that he called it "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed it contained superhuman concepts. Schopenhauer considered India as "the land of the most ancient and most pristine wisdom, the place from which Europeans could trace their descent and the tradition by which they had been influenced in so many decisive ways",[236] and regarded the Upanishads as "the most profitable and elevating reading which [...] is possible in the world. It has been the solace of my life, and will be the solace of my death."[236]
Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814.[236] They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer's mother, according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of Herder, and an early Indologist. Schopenhauer did not begin serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the summer of 1814. Safranski maintains that, between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in Dresden. This was through his neighbor of two years, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered Sanskrit, unlike Schopenhauer, and they developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned meditation and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought.[237]
The view of things [...] that all plurality is only apparent, that in the endless series of individuals, passing simultaneously and successively into and out of life, generation after generation, age after age, there is but one and the same entity really existing, which is present and identical in all alike;—this theory, I say, was of course known long before Kant; indeed, it may be carried back to the remotest antiquity. It is the alpha and omega of the oldest book in the world, the sacred Vedas, whose dogmatic part, or rather esoteric teaching, is found in the Upanishads. There, in almost every page this profound doctrine lies enshrined; with tireless repetition, in countless adaptations, by many varied parables and similes it is expounded and inculcated.
— On the Basis of Morality, chapter 4[238]
The book Oupnekhat (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature "the greatest gift of our century", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West.[239] Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer's work, was the significance of the Chandogya Upanishad, whose Mahāvākya, Tat Tvam Asi, is mentioned throughout The World as Will and Representation.[240]
Buddhism
Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.[241] Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will.[242] In Buddhism, however, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral.[243]
For Schopenhauer, will had ontological primacy over the intellect; desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of puruṣārtha or goals of life in Vedānta Hinduism.
In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by:
- personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or
- knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people.
However, Buddhist nirvāṇa is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the person as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character.[244] Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religions:[245]
If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism.[246]
Buddhist philosopher Nishitani Keiji, however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer.[247] While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental:
Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.[248]
Also note:
This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.[249]
The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses credence since he did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of The World as Will and Representation in 1818.[250] Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence.[251] Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism.[252]
Magic and occultism
Some traditions in Western esotericism and parapsychology interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised animal magnetism as evidence for the reality of magic in his On the Will in Nature, and went so far as to accept the division of magic into left-hand and right-hand magic, although he doubted the existence of demons.[253]
Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of magick and its emphasis on human will.[253] Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system, this amounts to "suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers."[254] Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics."[255]
Neoplatonism, including the traditions of Plotinus and to a lesser extent Marsilio Ficino, has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer.[256]
Intereses
Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature.
In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library.[42]:170
Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of Mozart, Rossini and Bellini.[257] Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life.[42]:30
As a polyglot, he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek, and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered Goethe, Petrarch, Calderón and Shakespeare.
If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity.[42]:240
In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, Plato and the Upanishads. Concerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in The World as Will and Representation:
If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.[258]
Pensamientos sobre otros filósofos
Giordano Bruno and Spinoza
Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza as philosophers not bound to their age or nation. "Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still one being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself."[259][260]
Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy, and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition.[259][260]
Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do not provide any ethics, and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work Ethics. In fact, it could be considered complete from the standpoint of life-affirmation, if one completely ignores morality and self-denial.[261] It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas [262] as the key to Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione.[263]
Immanuel Kant
The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer, in philosophy as well as on a personal level, cannot be overstated. Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the Transcendental Aesthetic section of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and Plato, as Copernicus to Hicetas, Philolaus, and Aristarchus: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted.
Schopenhauer writes about Kant's influence on his work in the preface to the second edition of The World as Will and Representation:
I have already explained in the preface to the first edition, that my philosophy is founded on that of Kant, and therefore presupposes a thorough knowledge of it. I repeat this here. For Kant's teaching produces in the mind of everyone who has comprehended it a fundamental change which is so great that it may be regarded as an intellectual new-birth. It alone is able really to remove the inborn realism which proceeds from the original character of the intellect, which neither Berkeley nor Malebranche succeed in doing, for they remain too much in the universal, while Kant goes into the particular, and indeed in a way that is quite unexampled both before and after him, and which has quite a peculiar, and, we might say, immediate effect upon the mind in consequence of which it undergoes a complete undeception, and forthwith looks at all things in another light. Only in this way can any one become susceptible to the more positive expositions which I have to give. On the other hand, he who has not mastered the Kantian philosophy, whatever else he may have studied, is, as it were, in a state of innocence; that is to say, he remains in the grasp of that natural and childish realism in which we are all born, and which fits us for everything possible, with the single exception of philosophy.[264]
In his study room, one bust was of Buddha, the other was of Kant.[265] The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Königsberg is demonstrated in an unfinished poem he dedicated to Kant (included in volume 2 of the Parerga):
With my eyes I followed thee into the blue sky,
And there thy flight dissolved from view.
Alone I stayed in the crowd below,
Thy word and thy book my only solace.—
Through the strains of thy inspiring words
I sought to dispel the dreary solitude.
Strangers on all sides surround me.
The world is desolate and life interminable.[266]
Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, The World as Will and Representation, to a detailed criticism of the Kantian philosophy.
Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the thing-in-itself, whereas the general consensus in German Idealism was that this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory,[178] since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises.[267]
Post-Kantian school
The leading figures of post-Kantian philosophy—Johann Gottlieb Fichte, F. W. J. Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel—were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were not philosophers at all, for they lacked "the first requirement of a philosopher, namely a seriousness and honesty of inquiry."[268] Rather, they were merely sophists who, excelling in the art of beguiling the public, pursued their own selfish interests (such as professional advancement within the university system). Diatribes against the vacuity, dishonesty, pomposity, and self-interest of these contemporaries are to be found throughout Schopenhauer's published writings. The following passage is an example:
All this explains the painful impression with which we are seized when, after studying genuine thinkers, we come to the writings of Fichte and Schelling, or even to the presumptuously scribbled nonsense of Hegel, produced as it was with a boundless, though justified, confidence in German stupidity. With those genuine thinkers one always found an honest investigation of truth and just as honest an attempt to communicate their ideas to others. Therefore whoever reads Kant, Locke, Hume, Malebranche, Spinoza, and Descartes feels elevated and agreeably impressed. This is produced through communion with a noble mind which has and awakens ideas and which thinks and sets one thinking. The reverse of all this takes place when we read the above-mentioned three German sophists. An unbiased reader, opening one of their books and then asking himself whether this is the tone of a thinker wanting to instruct or that of a charlatan wanting to impress, cannot be five minutes in any doubt; here everything breathes so much of dishonesty.[269]
Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner.[270]
Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag (Windbeutel), Hegel was a "commonplace, inane, loathsome, repulsive, and ignorant charlatan."[271] The philosophers Karl Popper and Mario Bunge agreed with this distinction.[272][273] Hegel, Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to his Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, not only "performed no service to philosophy, but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy, and thereby on German literature in general, really a downright stupefying, or we could even say a pestilential influence, which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract in the most express terms at every opportunity."[274]
Influencia
Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War.[275] His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including Julius Bahnsen, Paul Deussen, Lazar von Hellenbach, Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, Ernst Otto Lindner, Philipp Mainländer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Olga Plümacher and Agnes Taubert. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, neo-Kantianism and positivism, to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly.[275] The French writer Maupassant commented that "to-day even those who execrate him seem to carry in their own souls particles of his thought".[276] Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include Hans Vaihinger, Volkelt, Solovyov and Weininger.
Schopenhauer was well read by physicists, most notably Einstein, Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli,[277] and Majorana.[14] Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation" and called him a genius.[278] In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: Faraday, Maxwell, Schopenhauer.[279]:87 Konrad Wachsmann recalled: "He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work."[279]:92
When Erwin Schrödinger discovered Schopenhauer ("the greatest savant of the West") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy.[280] He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life.[279]:132 Wolfgang Pauli accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics, that the thing-in-itself is will.[281]
But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy.[282] The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: "I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!"[283] So he has been nicknamed "the artist's philosopher".[1] See also Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde.
Under the influence of Schopenhauer, Leo Tolstoy became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation. When he read Schopenhauer's, philosophy Tolstoy exclaimed "at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. ... It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection."[284] He said that what he has written in War and Peace is also said by Schopenhauer in The World as Will and Representation.[285]
Jorge Luis Borges remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him.[286]
Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann, Thomas Hardy, Afanasy Fet, J.-K. Huysmans and George Santayana.[287] In Herman Melville's final years, while he wrote Billy Budd, he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked them heavily. Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville "marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks, suggesting an attraction to the most extreme sorts of solitude, but he also made note of Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius."[288] Schopenhauer's attraction to and discussions of both Eastern and Western religions in conjunction with each other made an impression on Melville in his final years.
Sergei Prokofiev, although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life in Parerga and Paralipomena. "With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness."[289]
Friedrich Nietzsche owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading The World as Will and Representation and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay "Schopenhauer als Erzieher"[290] one of his Untimely Meditations.
Early in his career, Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism, and some traits of Schopenhauer's influence (particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism) can be observed in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.[291][292] However, later on, Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker.[27][293] His friend Bertrand Russell had a low opinion on the philosopher, and even came to attack him in his History of Western Philosophy for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it.[294]
Opposite to Russell on the foundations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism, where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism.
Schopenhauer's philosophy has made its way into a novel The Schopenhauer Cure by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry Irvin Yalom.
Bibliografía seleccionada
- On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde), 1813
- On Vision and Colors (Ueber das Sehn und die Farben), 1816 ISBN 978-0-85496-988-3
- Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum), 1830.
- The World as Will and Representation (alternatively translated in English as The World as Will and Idea; original German is Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung): vol. 1818/1819, vol. 2, 1844
- Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 978-0-486-21761-1
- Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 978-0-486-21762-8
- Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ISBN 978-0-8446-2885-1
- Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) ISBN 978-0-460-87505-9
- The Art of Being Right (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten), 1831
- On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur), 1836 ISBN 978-0-85496-999-9
- On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens), 1839 ISBN 978-0-631-14552-3
- On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral), 1840
- The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral), 1841.
- Parerga and Paralipomena (2 vols., 1851) – Reprint: (Oxford: Clarendon Press) (2 vols., 1974) (English translation by E. F. J. Payne[295])
- Printings:
- 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN
- Vols. 1 and 2, ISBN 978-0-19-519813-3,
- Vol. 1, ISBN
- Vol. 2, ISBN 978-0-19-824527-8,
- 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-824634-3, Vol. 2, ISBN 978-0-19-824635-0,
- 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-924220-7, Vol. 2, ISBN 978-0-19-924221-4
- 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN
- Essays and Aphorisms, being excerpts from Volume 2 of Parerga und Paralipomena, selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4
- Printings:
- An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt), 1851
- Arthur Schopenhauer, Manuscript Remains, Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., ISBN 978-0-85496-539-7
Online
- Works by Arthur Schopenhauer at Project Gutenberg
- The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten). (bilingual) [The Art of Being Right]
- Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox
- The World as Will and Idea at Internet Archive:
- Volume I
- Volume II
- Volume III
- On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason and On the will in nature. Two essays:
- Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903).
- Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections
- Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts in SchopenhauerSource
- Essays of Schopenhauer
Ver también
- Existential nihilism
- Eye of a needle
- God in Buddhism
- Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni)
- Misotheism
- Mortal coil
- Nihilism
- Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism
Referencias
- ^ a b "Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)".
- ^ Frederick C. Beiser reviews the commonly held position that Schopenhauer was a transcendental idealist and he rejects it: "Though it is deeply heretical from the standpoint of transcendental idealism, Schopenhauer's objective standpoint involves a form of transcendental realism, i.e. the assumption of the independent reality of the world of experience." (Beiser 2016, p. 40)
- ^ Voluntarism (philosophy) – Britannica.com
- ^ Arthur Schopenhauer, Arthur Schopenhauer: The World as Will and Presentation, Volume 1, Routledge, 2016, p. 211: "the world [is a] mere presentation, object for a subject ..."
- ^ Lennart Svensson, Borderline: A Traditionalist Outlook for Modern Man, Numen Books, 2015, p. 71: "[Schopenhauer] said that 'the world is our conception'. A world without a perceiver would in that case be an impossibility. But we can—he said—gain knowledge about Essential Reality for looking into ourselves, by introspection. ... This is one of many examples of the anthropic principle. The world is there for the sake of man."
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, vol. 3, Ch. 50.
- ^ a b Dale Jacquette, ed. (2007). Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts. Cambridge University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-521-04406-6.
For Kant, the mathematical sublime, as seen for example in the starry heavens, suggests to imagination the infinite, which in turn leads by subtle turns of contemplation to the concept of God. Schopenhauer's atheism will have none of this, and he rightly observes that despite adopting Kant's distinction between the dynamical and mathematical sublime, his theory of the sublime, making reference to the struggles and sufferings of struggles and sufferings of Will, is unlike Kant's.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, Book 4.
For the philosopher, these accounts of the lives of holy, self-denying men, badly as they are generally written, and mixed as they are with superstition and nonsense, are, because of the significance of the material, immeasurably more instructive and impor tant than even Plutarch and Livy. ... But the spirit of this development of Christianity is certainly nowhere so fully and powerfully expressed as in the writings of the German mystics, in the works of Meister Eckhard, and in that justly famous book Die Deutsche Theologie.
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has extra text (help) - ^ Howard, Don A. (December 2005), "Albert Einstein as a Philosopher of Science" (PDF), Physics Today, 58 (12): 34–40, Bibcode:2005PhT....58l..34H, doi:10.1063/1.2169442, retrieved 8 March 2015 – via University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, author's personal webpage,
From Schopenhauer he had learned to regard the independence of spatially separated systems as, virtually, a necessary a priori assumption ... Einstein regarded his separation principle, descended from Schopenhauer's principium individuationis, as virtually an axiom for any future fundamental physics. ... Schopenhauer stressed the essential structuring role of space and time in individuating physical systems and their evolving states. This view implies that difference of location suffices to make two systems different in the sense that each has its own real physical state, independent of the state of the other. For Schopenhauer, the mutual independence of spatially separated systems was a necessary a priori truth.
- ^ Frederick C. Beiser, "After Hegel: German Philosophy, 1840–1900." Princeton University Press. 2014. p. 49: "Dilthey's conception of a worldview, as he finally formulated it in Das Wesen der Philosophie, shows a large debt to Schopenhauer. Like his great forebear, Dilthey believed that philosophy had first and foremost an ethical function, that its main purpose was to address “the puzzle of the world"."
- ^ "John Gray: Forget everything you know – Profiles, People". The Independent. London. 3 September 2002. Archived from the original on 9 April 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
- ^ Allan Janik and Stephen Toulmin (1973). Wittgenstein's Vienna. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 74.
Kraus himself was no philosopher, even less a scientist. If Kraus's views have a philosophical ancestry, this comes most assuredly from Schopenhauer; for alone among the great philosophers, Schopenhauer was a kindred spirit, a man of philosophical profundity, with a strange talent for polemic and aphorism, a literary as weIl as philosophical genius. Schopenhauer, indeed, was the only philosopher who at all appealed to Kraus.
- ^ Kerr, R. B. (1932). "Anthony M. Ludovici The prophet of anti-feminism". www.anthonymludovici.com. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
- ^ a b Bassani, Giuseppe-Franco (15 December 2006). Società Italiana di Fisica (ed.). Ettore Majorana: Scientific Papers. Springer. p. xl. ISBN 978-3540480914.
His interest in philosophy, which had always been great, increased and prompted him to reflect deeply on the works of various philosophers, in particular Schopenhauer.
- ^ Magee, Bryan (1997). Confessions of a Philosopher., Ch. 16
- ^ B.F. McGuinness. Moritz Schlick. pp. 336–37.
Once again, one has to understand Schlick's world conception, which he took over from Schopenhauer's world as representation and as will. … “To will something”—and here Schlick is heavily influenced by Schopenhauer
- ^ Maertz, Gregory (1994). "Elective Affinities: Tolstoy and Schopenhauer". Wiener Slavistisches Jahrbuch. Harrassowitz Verlag. 40: 53–62. ISSN 0084-0041. JSTOR 24748326.
- ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180
- ^ Arthur Schopenhauer (2004). Essays and Aphorisms. Penguin Classics. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4.
- ^ The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopenhauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. ISBN 978-0-19-861248-3.
- ^ See the book-length study about oriental influences on the genesis of Schopenhauer's philosophy by Urs App: Schopenhauer's Compass. An Introduction to Schopenhauer's Philosophy and its Origins. Wil: UniversityMedia, 2014 ( ISBN 978-3-906000-03-9)
- ^ Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psychology (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-495-50621-8.
Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, he realized that his philosophy of denial had been part of several great religions; for example, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
- ^ Arthur Schopenhauer (2004). Essays and Aphorisms. Penguin Classics. pp. 22–36. ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4.
…but there has been none who tried with so great a show of learning to demonstrate that the pessimistic outlook is justified, that life itself is really bad. It is to this end that Schopenhauer's metaphysic of will and idea exists.
- ^ Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox.
- ^ David A. Leeming; Kathryn Madden; Stanton Marlan, eds. (2009). Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, Volume 2. Springer. p. 824. ISBN 978-0-387-71801-9.
A more accurate statement might be that for a German—rather than a French or British writer of that time—Schopenhauer was an honest and open atheist.
- ^ Addressed in: Cate, Curtis. Friedrich Nietzsche. Chapter 7.
- ^ a b Culture & Value, p. 24, 1933–34
- ^ Albert Einstein in Mein Glaubensbekenntnis (August 1932): "I do not believe in free will. Schopenhauer's words: 'Man can do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants,[Der Mensch kann wohl tun, was er will, aber er kann nicht wollen, was er will]' accompany me in all situations throughout my life and reconcile me with the actions of others, even if they are rather painful to me. This awareness of the lack of free will keeps me from taking myself and my fellow men too seriously as acting and deciding individuals, and from losing my temper." Schopenhauer's clearer, actual words were: "You can do what you will, but in any given moment of your life you can will only one definite thing and absolutely nothing other than that one thing." [Du kannst tun was du willst: aber du kannst in jedem gegebenen Augenblick deines Lebens nur ein Bestimmtes wollen und schlechterdings nichts anderes als dieses eine.] On the Freedom of the Will, Ch. II.
- ^ Magee, Bryan. The Philosophy of Schopenhauer. ISBN 9780198237228.
- ^ Maertz, Gregory (1994). "Elective Affinities: Tolstoy and Schopenhauer". Wiener Slavistisches Jahrbuch. Harrassowitz Verlag. 40: 53–62. ISSN 0084-0041. JSTOR 24748326.
- ^ Melville, Herman. "Melville's Marginalia". Melville's Marginalia Online. Retrieved 1 September 2020.
- ^ Punsly, Kathryn (2012). "The Influence of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer on Hermann Hesse". CMC Senior Theses. Paper 347. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1353&context=cmc_theses Retrieved on 19 March 2021.
- ^ Wicks, Robert (2011). Schopenhauer's The world as will and representation : a reader's guide. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-3181-3. OCLC 721337622.
- ^ a b c d e Shapshay, Sandra, "Schopenhauer's Aesthetics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/schopenhauer-aesthetics Retrieved on 19 March 2021.
- ^ Wicks, Robert (2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^ "Schönberg's Library - Alphabetical List". www.schoenberg.at. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur; Günter Zöller; Eric F. J. Payne (1999). Chronology. Prize Essay on the Freedom of the Will. Cambridge University Press. p. xxx. ISBN 978-0-521-57766-3.
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 79
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 13
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 9
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 18
- ^ a b c d Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82598-6.
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 56
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 43
- ^ Safranski (1990), p. 12. "There was in the father's life some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg."
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 88
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 4
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 90
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 136
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 120
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 117
- ^ Wallace, W. (2003). Life of Arthur Schopenhauer. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific. p. 59. ISBN 978-1410206411.
- ^ Durant, Will, The Story of Philosophy, Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., New York, p. 350
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 128
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 129
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 131
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 116
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 134
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 135
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 21
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 25
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 22
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 140
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 141–144
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 144
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 150
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 170
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 151
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 159
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 165–169
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 174
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 175
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 171–174
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 179
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 188
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 230
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 231
- ^ "Schopenhauer: A Pessimist in the Optimistic Month of May". Germanic American Institute. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
- ^ "Full text of "Selected Essays Of Schopenhauer"". Retrieved 12 March 2010.
- ^ a b Fredriksson, Einar H. (2001), "The Dutch Publishing Scene: Elsevier and North-Holland", A Century of Science Publishing: A Collection of Essays, Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp. 61–76, ISBN 978-4-274-90424-0
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 241
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 243
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 247–265
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 256
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 265
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 252
- ^ a b c Clarke 1997, pp. 67-68.
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 266
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 268
- ^ a b c Cartwright (2010). p. 272
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 267
- ^ Clarke 1997, pp. 67-69.
- ^ Clarke 1997, pp. 76-77.
- ^ Clarke 1997, p. 69.
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 274–276
- ^ author., Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1788-1860. The world as will and idea. ISBN 978-1-950330-23-2. OCLC 1229105608.
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 284
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 278
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 283
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 282
- ^ Although the first volume was published by December 1818, it was printed with a title page erroneously giving the year as 1819 (see Braunschweig, Yael (2013), "Schopenhauer and Rossinian Universiality: On the Italianate in Schopenhauer's Metaphysics of Music", The Invention of Beethoven and Rossini: Historiography, Analysis, Criticism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 297, n. 7, ISBN 978-0-521-76805-4).
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 285
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 285–289
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 342
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 346
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 350
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 348–349
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 346–350
- ^ Safranski, Rüdiger (1991) Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press. p. 244
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 345
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 344
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 351
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 352
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 354–356
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 354
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 356
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 358
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 358–362
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. Author's preface to "On The Fourfold Root of the Principle of sufficient reason," p. 1 (On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason on Wikisource.)
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 363
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 362
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 365
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 411
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 408–411
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 411–414
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 415
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 417
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 422
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 420
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 429–432
- ^ a b c Cartwright (2010). p. 404
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 432
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 433
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 404–408
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 403
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 403–404
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 436
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 437–452
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 454
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 454–457
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 458
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 460
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 463
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 464
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 483
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 484
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 504
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 506
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 507–508
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 508
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 514
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 465
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 515
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 517
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 524
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 539
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). pp. 381–386
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 537
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 525
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 394
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 510
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 536
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 540
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 541
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 542
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 544–545
- ^ a b Cartwright (2010). p. 545
- ^ Cartwright (2010). p. 546
- ^ Cartwright (2010). pp. 546–547
- ^ Dale Jacquette, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Routledge, 2015: "Biographical sketch".
- ^ Schopenhauer: his life and philosophy by H. Zimmern – 1932 – G. Allen & Unwin.
- ^ Kant, Immanuel. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics. Translated by Paul Carus. § 52c.
- ^ Letter to Goethe on 23 January 1816: "Ich weiß, daß durch mich die Wahrheit geredet hat, – in dieser kleinen Sache, wie dereinst in größern."
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol 1. Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy.
But the whole teaching of Kant contains really nothing more about this than the oft-repeated meaningless expression: 'The empirical element in perception is given from without.' ... always through the same meaningless metaphorical expression: 'The empirical perception is given us.'
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has extra text (help) - ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. § 21.
For sensation is and remains a process within the organism and is limited, as such, to the region within the skin; it cannot therefore contain any thing which lies beyond that region, or, in other words, anything that is outside us. ... It is only when the Understanding begins to apply its sole form, the causal law, that a powerful transformation takes place, by which subjective sensation becomes objective perception.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. § 21.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, § 4.
The contrary doctrine that the law of causality results from experience, which was the scepticism of Hume, is first refuted by this. For the independence of the knowledge of causality of all experience,—that is, its a priori character—can only be deduced from the dependence of all experience upon it; and this deduction can only be accomplished by proving, in the manner here indicated, and explained in the passages referred to above, that the knowledge of causality is included in perception in general, to which all experience belongs, and therefore in respect of experience is completely a priori, does not presuppose it, but is presupposed by it as a condition.
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has extra text (help) - ^ a b David E. Cartwright; Edward E. Erdmann. Introduction to On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. Cambridge University Press. pp. xvi–xvii.
He had also rehearsed for the first time his physiological arguments for the intellectual nature of intuition [Anschauung, objective perception] in his On Vision and Colours, and he had discussed how his philosophy was corroborated by the sciences in On Will in Nature. ... Like the German Idealists, Schopenhauer was convinced that Kant's great unknown, the thing in itself, is the weak point of the critical philosophy.
- ^ Einstein, Albert (1935). The World as I See It, p. 14. Snowball Publishing. ISBN 1494877066.
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1, §68
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1, §38
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 1, §34
- ^ Daniel Albright, Modernism and Music, 2004, p. 39, footnote 34
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur (1970). Essays and Aphorisms. 10: Penguin Classics. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4.CS1 maint: location (link)
- ^ a b The World as Will and Representation, vol. 2, ch. 13
- ^ "I wanted in this way to stress and demonstrate the great difference, indeed opposition, between knowledge of perception and abstract or reflected knowledge. Hitherto this difference has received too little attention, and its establishment is a fundamental feature of my philosophy ..." – The World as Will and Representation., vol. 2, ch. 7, p. 88 (trans. Payne)
- ^ This comment by Schopenhauer was called "an acute observation" by Sir Thomas L. Heath. In his translation of The Elements, vol. 1, Book I, "Note on Common Notion 4", Heath made this judgment and also noted that Schopenhauer's remark "was a criticism in advance of Helmholtz' theory". Helmholtz had "maintained that geometry requires us to assume the actual existence of rigid bodies and their free mobility in space" and is therefore "dependent on mechanics".
- ^ What Schopenhauer calls the eighth axiom is Euclid's Common Notion 4.
- ^ "Motion of an object in space does not belong in a pure science, and consequently not in geometry. For the fact that something is movable cannot be cognized a priori, but can be cognized only through experience." (Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 155, Note)
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, § 53.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, § 23.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, § 66.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. On the Basis of Morality. § 19.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. Parerga and Paralipomena. Vol. 2, § 173.
- ^ a b c The World as Will and Idea Vol. 1 § 63
- ^ a b c Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, § 68.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation: Supplements to the Fourth Book
- ^ The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. Schopenhauer: Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. ISBN 978-0-19-861248-3.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur, The World as Will and Representation, Supplements to the Fourth Book
- ^ Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man. p. 586.
- ^ "Nearly a century before Freud ... in Schopenhauer there is, for the first time, an explicit philosophy of the unconscious and of the body." Safranski p. 345.
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Ch. 47
- ^ a b Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. 2, "On Jurisprudence and Politics," §127, trans. Payne (p. 254).
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. 2, "On Jurisprudence and Politics," §127, trans. Payne (p. 255).
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Ch. 12
- ^ Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, § 62.
- ^ "... he who attempts to punish in accordance with reason does not retaliate on account of the past wrong (for he could not undo something which has been done) but for the future, so that neither the wrongdoer himself, nor others who see him being punished, will do wrong again." Plato, "Protagoras", 324 B. Plato wrote that punishment should "be an example to other men not to offend". Plato, "Laws", Book IX, 863.
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. 2, "On Philosophy and Natural Science," §92, trans. Payne (p. 158-159).
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. 2, "On Ethics," §114, trans. Payne (p. 212).
- ^ http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Metaphysik_der_Geschlechtsliebe
- ^ "Fragments for the History of Philosophy", Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume I, trans. Payne (p. 126).
- ^ "Über die Weiber, §369".
- ^ Rodgers (environmentalist) and Thompson in Philosophers Behaving Badly call Schopenhauer "a misogynist without rival in ... Western philosophy".
- ^ Feminism and the Limits of Equality PA Cain – Ga. L. Rev., 1989
- ^ Julian Young (23 June 2005). Schopenhauer. Psychology Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-415-33346-7.
- ^ Long, Sandra Salser (Spring 1984). "Arthur Schopenhauer and Elisabet Ney". Southwest Review. 69 (2): 130–47. JSTOR 43469632.
- ^ Safranski (1990), Chapter 24. p. 348.
- ^ Schopenhauer 1969, p. 566
- ^ Schopenhauer 1969, p. 567
- ^ Payne, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, p. 519
- ^ On the Suffering of the World (1970), p. 35. Penguin Books – Great Ideas.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur (1969). E. F. J. Payne (ed.). The World as Will and Representation. II. New York: Dover Publications. p. 527. ISBN 978-0-486-21762-8.
- ^ Essays and Aphorisms, trans. R.J. Hollingdale, Middlesex: London, 1970, p. 154
- ^ Nietzsche and Modern German Thought by K. Ansell-Pearson – 1991 – Psychology Press.
- ^ Christina Gerhardt, "Thinking With: Animals in Schopenhauer, Horkheimer and Adorno." Critical Theory and Animals. Ed. John Sanbonmatsu. Lanham: Rowland, 2011. 137–157.
- ^ Stephen Puryear, "Schopenhauer on the Rights of Animals." European Journal of Philosophy 25/2 (2017):250-269.
- ^ "Unlike the intellect, it [the Will] does not depend on the perfection of the organism, but is essentially the same in all animals as what is known to us so intimately. Accordingly, the animal has all the emotions of humans, such as joy, grief, fear, anger, love, hatred, strong desire, envy, and so on. The great difference between human and animal rests solely on the intellect's degrees of perfection. On the Will in Nature, "Physiology and Pathology".
- ^ Quoted in Schopenhauer, Arthur (1994). Philosophical Writings. London: Continuum. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8264-0729-0.
- ^ Quoted in Ryder, Richard (2000). Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. Oxford: Berg Publishers. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-85973-330-1.
- ^ "... in English all animals are of the neuter gender and so are represented by the pronoun 'it,' just as if they were inanimate things. The effect of this artifice is quite revolting, especially in the case of primates, such as dogs, monkeys, and the like...." On the Basis of Morality, § 19.
- ^ "I recall having read of an Englishman who, while hunting in India, had shot a monkey; he could not forget the look which the dying animal gave him, and since then had never again fired at monkeys." On the Basis of Morality, § 19.
- ^ "[Sir William Harris] describes how he shot his first elephant, a female. The next morning he went to look for the dead animal; all the other elephants had fled from the neighborhood except a young one, who had spent the night with its dead mother. Forgetting all fear, he came toward the sportsmen with the clearest and liveliest evidence of inconsolable grief, and put his tiny trunk round them in order to appeal to them for help. Harris says he was then filled with real remorse for what he had done, and felt as if he had committed a murder." On the basis of morality, § 19.
- ^ "His contempt for animals, who, as mere things for our use, are declared by him to be without rights, ... in conjunction with Pantheism, is at the same time absurd and abominable." The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Chapter 50.
- ^ Spinoza, Ethics, Pt. IV, Prop. XXXVII, Note I.: "Still I do not deny that beasts feel: what I deny is, that we may not consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in a way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours ..." This is the exact opposite of Schopenhauer's doctrine. Also, Ethics, Appendix, 26, "whatsoever there be in nature beside man, a regard for our advantage does not call on us to preserve, but to preserve or destroy according to its various capacities, and to adapt to our use as best we may."
- ^ "Such are the matters which I engage to prove in Prop. xviii of this Part, whereby it is plain that the law against the slaughtering of animals is founded rather on vain superstition and womanish pity than on sound reason. The rational quest of what is useful to us further teaches us the necessity of associating ourselves with our fellow-men, but not with beasts, or things, whose nature is different from our own; we have the same rights in respect to them as they have in respect to us. Nay, as everyone's right is defined by his virtue, or power, men have far greater rights over beasts than beasts have over men. Still I affirm that beasts feel. But I also affirm that we may consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in the way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours, and their emotions are naturally different from human emotions." Ethics, Part 4, Prop. 37, Note 1.
- ^ a b c d Clarke 1997, p. 68.
- ^ Christopher McCoy, 3–4
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur (1840). "Part IV". On the Basis of Morality. Translated by Bullock, Arthur Brodrick. London: Swan Sonnenschein (published 1908). pp. 269–271 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Dutt, Purohit Bhagavan. "Western Indologists: A Study in Motives". Archived from the original on 2 August 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
- ^ Christopher McCoy, 54–56
- ^ Abelson, Peter (April 1993). Schopenhauer and Buddhism Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Philosophy East and West Volume 43, Number 2, pp. 255–278. University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved on: 12 April 2008.
- ^ Janaway, Christopher, Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy, pp. 28 ff.
- ^ David Burton, "Buddhism, Knowledge and Liberation: A Philosophical Study." Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, p. 22.
- ^ John J. Holder, Early Buddhist Discourses. Hackett Publishing Company, 2006, p. xx.
- ^ "Schopenhauer is often said to be the first modern Western philosopher to attempt integration of his work with Eastern ways of thinking. That he was the first is true, but the claim that he was influenced by Indian thought needs qualification. There is a remarkable correspondence in broad terms between some central Schopenhauerian doctrines and Buddhism: notably in the views that empirical existence is suffering, that suffering originates in desires, and that salvation can be attained by the extinction of desires. These three 'truths of the Buddha' are mirrored closely in the essential structure of the doctrine of the will." (On this, see Dorothea W. Dauer, Schopenhauer as Transmitter of Buddhist Ideas. Note also the discussion by Bryan Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, pp. 14–15, 316–321). Janaway, Christopher, Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy, p. 28 f.
- ^ The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Ch. 17
- ^ Artistic detachment in Japan and the West: psychic distance in comparative aesthetics by S. Odin – 2001 – University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Parerga & Paralipomena, vol. I, p. 106., trans. E.F.J. Payne.
- ^ World as Will and Representation, vol. I, p. 273, trans. E.F.J. Payne.
- ^ Christopher McCoy, 3
- ^ App, Urs Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino-Platonic Papers Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.; Schopenhauer's early notes on Buddhism reproduced in Appendix). This study provides an overview of the actual discovery of Buddhism by Schopenhauer.
- ^ Hutton, Kenneth Compassion in Schopenhauer and Śāntideva. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Vol. 21 (2014)
- ^ a b Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-0-226-40336-6.
- ^ Quote from Josephson-Storm (2017), p. 188.
- ^ Josephson-Storm (2017), pp. 188–189.
- ^ Anderson, Mark (2009). "Experimental Subversions of Modernity". Pure: Modernity, Philosophy, and the One. Sophia Perennis. ISBN 978-1597310949.
- ^ Carnegy, Patrick. Wagner and the Art of the Theatre. p. 51.
- ^ The World as Will and Representation Preface to the first edition, p. xiii
- ^ a b Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy. Note 5.
- ^ a b "Handschriftlicher, Nachlass, Vorlesungen und Abhandlungen". Gutenberg Spiegel.
- ^ Abschnitt: Handschriftlicher Nachlaß. § 588.
Es kann daher eine vollkommen wahre Philosophie geben, die ganz von der Verneinung des Lebens abstrahirt, diese ganz ignorirt.
- ^ "Vie de Spinoza - Wikisource". fr.wikisource.org.
- ^ The World as Will and Representation. § 68.
We might to a certain extent regard the well-known French biography of Spinoza as a case in point, if we used as a key to it that noble introduction to his very insufficient essay, "De Emendatione Intellects", a passage which I can also recommend as the most effectual means I know of stilling the storm of the passions.
- ^ Arthur Schopenhauer. World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1, Preface of the Second Edition.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ Jerauld McGill, Vivian (1931). Schopenhauer. Pessimist and Pagan. p. 320.
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays, Volume 2, trans. Payne, p. 655-656.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Vol. 1 Criticism of the Kantian philosophy. Translated by J. Kemp.
With the proof of the thing in itself it has happened to Kant precisely as with that of the a priori nature of the law of causality. Both doctrines are true, but their proof is false. They thus belong to the class of true conclusions from false premises.
|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. 1, Appendix to "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real," trans. E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1974), p. 21.
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. 1, Appendix to "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real," trans. E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1974), p. 23.
- ^ Schopenhauer, Arthur. On the Freedom of the Will. p. 82.
- ^ Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy", Sec. 13, trans. E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1974), p. 96.
- ^ Popper, Karl (1946). "The Open Society and Her Enemies". Nature. 157 (3987): 52. Bibcode:1946Natur.157..387R. doi:10.1038/157387a0. S2CID 4074331.
- ^ Bunge, Mario (2020). "Mario Bunge nos dijo: "Se puede ignorar la filosofía, pero no evitarla"". Filosofía&Co.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
- ^ The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, Preface to the First Edition, trans. Christopher Janaway (Cambridge, 2009), p. 15.
- ^ a b Beiser, Frederick C. (2008). Weltschmerz, Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860–1900. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 14–16. ISBN 978-0198768715.
Arthur Schopenhauer was the most famous and influential philosopher in Germany from 1860 until the First World War. ... Schopenhauer had a profound influence on two intellectual movements of the late 19th century that were utterly opposed to him: neo-Kantianism and positivism. He forced these movements to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. ... Schopenhauer set the agenda for his age.
- ^ Beside Schopenhauer's Corpse
- ^ Howard, Don (1997). A Peek behind the Veil of Maya: Einstein, Schopenhauer, and the Historical Background of the Conception of Space as a Ground for the Individuation of Physical Systems. University of Pittsburgh Press.
Pauli greatly admired Schopenhauer. ... Pauli wrote sympathetically about extrasensory perception, noting approvingly that "even such a thoroughly critical philosopher as Schopenhauer not only regarded parapsychological effects going far beyond what is secured by scientific evidence as possible, but even considered them as a support for his philosophy".
- ^ Isaacson, Walter (2007). Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 367. ISBN 978-0743264747.
- ^ a b c Howard, Don (1997). A Peek behind the Veil of Maya: Einstein, Schopenhauer, and the Historical Background of the Conception of Space as a Ground for the Individuation of Physical Systems. University of Pittsburgh Press.
- ^ Halpern, Paul (2015). Einstein's Dice and Schrödinger's Cat: How Two Great Minds Battled Quantum Randomness to Create a Unified Theory of Physics. p. 189. ISBN 978-0465040650.
- ^ Raymond B. Marcin. "Schopenhauers Metaphysics and Contemporary Quantum Theory".
David Lindorff referred to Schopenhauer as Pauli's “favorite philosopher”, and Pauli himself often expressed his agreement with the main tenet of Schopenhauer's philosophy. … Suzanne Gieser cited a 1952 letter from Pauli to Carl Jung, in which Pauli indicated that, while he accepted Schopenhauer's main tenet that the thing-in-itself of all reality is will.
- ^ See e.g. Magee (2000) 276–278.
- ^ Nicholas Mathew, Benjamin Walton. The Invention of Beethoven and Rossini: Historiography, Analysis, Criticism. p. 296.
- ^ Tolstoy's letter to Afanasy Fet on 30 August 1869. "Do you know what this summer has meant for me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole series of spiritual delights as I've never experienced before. I have brought all of his works and read him over and over, Kant too by the way. Assuredly no student has ever learned and discovered so much in one semester as I have during this summer. I do not know if I shall ever change my opinion, but at present I am convinced that Schopenhauer is the greatest genius among men. You say he is so-so, he has written a few things on philosophy? What is so-so? It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection. I have started to translate him. Won't you help me? Indeed, I cannot understand how his name can be unknown. The only explanation for this can only be the one he so often repeats, that is, that there is scarcely anyone but idiots in the world."
- ^ Thompson, Caleb. "Quietism from the Side of Happiness: Tolstoy, Schopenhauer, War and Peace".
- ^ Magee 1997, p. 413.
- ^ Caleb Flamm, Matthew (2002). "Santayana and Schopenhauer". Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society. 38 (3): 413–431. JSTOR 40320900.
A thinker of whom it is well known that Santayana had an early, deep admiration, namely, Schopenhauer
- ^ Yothers, Brian (2015). Sacred Uncertainty: Religious Difference and The Shape of Melville's Career. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8101-3071-5.
- ^ Morrison, Simon (2008). Sergey Prokofiev and His World. Princeton University Press. pp. 19, 20. ISBN 9780691138954.
- ^ Schopenhauer as Educator
- ^ Glock, Hans-Johann (2017). A Companion to Wittgenstein. Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. p. https://books.google.es/books?id=WbfBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=wittgenstein+epistemological+idealism+tractatus&source=bl&ots=hjb4-Wzjei&sig=ACfU3U3X71hnvzg7d34iCswxBLsc1dM_NQ&hl=es&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR5c2g99LpAhXLxoUKHdPAB3oQ6AEwA3oECAoQAQ#v=onepage&q=wittgenstein%20epistemological%20idealism%20tractatus&f=false p. 60.
- ^ Glock, Hans-Johann (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Schopenhauer. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. https://books.google.es/books?id=PnUF-UjhX_oC&pg=PA424&dq=Schopenhauer%27s+all+pervasive+influence+on+Wittgenstein&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiB36uq7NLpAhXBxoUKHdniAsYQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=Schopenhauer's%20all%20pervasive%20influence%20on%20Wittgenstein&f=false p. 424.
- ^ Malcolm, Norman. Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. Oxford University Press, 1958, p. 6
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (1946). History of Western Philosophy. Start of 2nd paragraph: George Allen and Unwin LTD. p. 786.CS1 maint: location (link)
- ^ Eric Francis Jules Payne (17 February 1895 – 12 January 1983)
Sources
- Albright, Daniel (2004) Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01267-4
- Beiser, Frederick C., Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
- Clarke, John James (1997). Oriental Enlightenment: The Encounter Between Asian and Western Thought. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-13376-0.
- Hannan, Barbara, The Riddle of the World: A Reconsideration of Schopenhauer's Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).
- Magee, Bryan, Confessions of a Philosopher, Random House, 1998, ISBN 978-0-375-50028-2. Chapters 20, 21.
- Safranski, Rüdiger (1990) Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-79275-3; orig. German Schopenhauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie, Carl Hanser Verlag (1987)
- Thomas Mann editor, The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer, Longmans Green & Co., 1939
Otras lecturas
Biographies
- Cartwright, David. Schopenhauer: A Biography, Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-82598-6
- Frederick Copleston, Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher of pessimism (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1946)
- O. F. Damm, Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biographie (Reclam, 1912)
- Kuno Fischer, Arthur Schopenhauer (Heidelberg: Winter, 1893); revised as Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898).
- Eduard Grisebach, Schopenhauer – Geschichte seines Lebens (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876).
- D. W. Hamlyn, Schopenhauer, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985)
- Heinrich Hasse, Schopenhauer. (Reinhardt, 1926)
- Arthur Hübscher, Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein Lebensbild (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938).
- Thomas Mann, Schopenhauer (Bermann-Fischer, 1938)
- Matthews, Jack, Schopenhauer's Will: Das Testament, Nine Point Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-0985827885. A recent creative biography by philosophical novelist Jack Matthews.
- Rüdiger Safranski, Schopenhauer und die wilden Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie, hard cover Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, ISBN 978-3-446-14490-3, pocket edition Fischer: ISBN 978-3-596-14299-6.
- Rüdiger Safranski, Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy, trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989)
- Walther Schneider, Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937).
- William Wallace, Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970)
- Helen Zimmern, Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876)
Other books
- App, Urs. Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino-Platonic Papers Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes with transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Buddhism and Indian philosophy.
- Atwell, John. Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will.
- --------, Schopenhauer, The Human Character.
- Edwards, Anthony. An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics. 123 Books, 2011.
- Copleston, Frederick, Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism, 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975).
- Gardiner, Patrick, 1963. Schopenhauer. Penguin Books.
- --------, Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction.
- Janaway, Christopher, 2003. Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825003-6
- Magee, Bryan, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). ISBN 978-0-19-823722-8
- Mannion, Gerard, "Schopenhauer, Religion and Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics", Ashgate Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp.
- Trottier, Danick. L’influence de la philosophie schopenhauerienne dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Richard Wagner; et, Qu’est-ce qui séduit, obsède, magnétise le philosophe dans l’art des sons? deux études en esthétique musicale, Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 2000.
- Zimmern, Helen, Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy, London, Longman, and Co., 1876.
Articles
- Abelson, Peter (1993). "Schopenhauer and Buddhism". Philosophy East and West. 43 (2): 255–78. doi:10.2307/1399616. JSTOR 1399616. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2007.
- Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, "Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studienjahre in Berlin," Avinus Magazin (in German).
- Luchte, James, 2009, "The Body of Sublime Knowledge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur Schopenhauer," Heythrop Journal, Volume 50, Number 2, pp. 228–242.
- Mazard, Eisel, 2005, "Schopenhauer and the Empirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas." On Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his predecessors.
- Moges, Awet, 2006, "Schopenhauer's Philosophy." Galileian Library.
- Sangharakshita, 2004, "Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation."
- Young, Christopher; Brook, Andrew (1994). "Schopenhauer and Freud". International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 75: 101–18. PMID 8005756.
- Oxenford's "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," (See p. 388)
enlaces externos
- Works by Arthur Schopenhauer at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Arthur Schopenhauer at Internet Archive
- Works by Arthur Schopenhauer at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Wicks, Robert (Spring 2019). "Arthur Schopenhauer". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
- Arthur Schopenhauer an article by Mary Troxell in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2011
- Schopenhauersource: Reproductions of Schopenhauer's manuscripts
- Kant's philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer
- Timeline of German Philosophers
- A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer
- Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)." Two short essays, on Schopenhauer's life and work, and on his dim view of academia.
- More Than 100 Years Later: A Schopenhauerian Revision of Breuer's Anna O [1]