Agreement with the semantic role of the subject
In languages that exhibit Austronesian alignment, the voice affix on the main verb within the clause marks agreement with "the semantic role of the [subject]".[11]
For example, the Actor Voice affix may agree only with agent nominal phrases. (The asterisk means that the sentence is ungrammatical for the intended meaning.)
Kapampangan |
a. | Actor Voice |
| S‹um›ulat | | ya=ng | | poesia | | ing | | lalaki | | king | | pisara. |
| ‹AV›will.write | | 3SG.DIR=ACC | | poem | | DIR | | boy | | OBL | | blackboard |
| "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." |
b. | * Sumulat yang lalaki ing poesia king pisara. |
| Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." |
| (Grammatical for: "The poem will write a boy on the blackboard.") |
c. | * Sumulat yang poesia ing pisara king lalaki. |
| Intended: "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." |
| (Grammatical for: "The blackboard will write a poem on the boy.") |
Tagalog |
a. | Actor Voice |
| B‹um›ili | | ng | | mangga | | sa | | palengke | | ang | | lalaki. |
| ‹ASP.AV›buy | | IND | | mango | | OBL | | market | | DIR | | man |
| "The man bought a mango at the market." |
b. | * Bumili ng lalaki sa palengke ang mangga. |
| Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market." |
| (Grammatical for: "The mango bought a man at the market.") |
c. | * Bumili ng mangga sa lalaki ang palengke. |
| Intended: "The man bought a mango at the market." |
| (Grammatical for: "The market bought a mango from the man.") |
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the Actor Voice infix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the agent nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
The patient voice affix may agree only with patient nominal phrases.
Kapampangan |
a. | Patient Voice |
| I-sulat | | n=e | | ning | | lalaki | | ing | | poesia | | king | | pisara. |
| PV-will.write | | 3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR | | ERG | | boy | | DIR | | poem | | OBL | | blackboard |
| "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard." |
b. | * Isulat ne ning poesia ing lalaki king pisara. |
| Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard." |
| (Grammatical for: "The boy will be written by the poem on the blackboard.") |
c. | * Isulat ne ning lalaki ing pisara king poesia. |
| Intended: "The poem will be written by the boy on the blackboard." |
| (Grammatical for: "The blackboard will be written by the boy on the poem.") |
Tagalog |
a. | Patient Voice |
| B‹in›ili-∅ | | ng | | mama | | sa | | palengke | | ang | | mangga. |
| ‹ASP›buy-PV | | IND | | man | | OBL | | market | | DIR | | mango |
| "The mango was bought by the man at the market." |
b. | * Binili-∅ ng mangga sa palengke ang mama. |
| Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market." |
| (Grammatical for: "The man was bought by the mango at the market.") |
c. | * Binili-∅ ng mama sa mangga ang palengke. |
| Intended: "The mango was bought by the man at the market." |
| (Grammatical for: "The market was bought by the man at the mango.") |
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the patient voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the patient nominal phrase, the location nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
The locative voice affix may agree only with location nominal phrases.
Kapampangan |
a. | Locative Voice |
| Pi-sulat-an | | n=e=ng | | poesia | | ning | | lalaki | | ing | | pisara. |
| LV-will.write-LV | | 3SG.ERG=3SG.DIR=ACC | | poem | | ERG | | boy | | DIR | | blackboard |
| "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy." |
b. | * Pisulatan neng poesia ning pisara ing lalaki. |
| Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy." |
| (Grammatical for: "The boy will be written a poem on by the blackboard.") |
c. | * Pisulatan neng pisara ning lalaki ing poesia. |
| Intended: "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy." |
| (Grammatical for: "The poem will be written a blackboard on by the boy.") |
Tagalog |
a. | Locative Voice |
| B‹in›ilh-an | | ng | | mama | | ng | | mangga | | ang | | palengke. |
| ‹ASP›buy-LV | | IND | | man | | IND | | mango | | DIR | | market |
| "The market was bought a mango at by the man." |
b. | * Binilhan ng palengke ng mangga ang mama. |
| Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man." |
| (Grammatical for: "The man was bought a mango from by the market.") |
c. | * Binilhan ng mama ng palengke ang mangga. |
| Intended: "The market was bought a mango at by the man." |
| (Grammatical for: "The mango was bought a market at by the man.") |
The sentences in (b) are ungrammatical because the agent nominal phrase is marked as the subject, even though the verb bears the locative voice affix. The sentences in (c) are ungrammatical because, instead of the location nominal phrase, the patient nominal phrase is marked as the subject.
Types of semantic roles
Across languages, the most common semantic roles with which the voice affixes may agree are agent, patient, location, instrument, and benefactee. In some languages, the voice affixes may also agree with semantic roles such as theme, goal, reason, and time. The set of semantic roles that may be borne by subjects in each language varies, and some affixes can agree with more than one semantic role.
Promotion direct to subject
Languages that have Austronesian alignment do not have a process that promotes an oblique argument to direct object. Oblique arguments are promoted directly to subject.
Tagalog |
1) | Actor Voice |
| | | AGENT | | | | THEME | | | | GOAL |
| Nagpadala | | ang | | mama | | ng | | pera | | sa | | anak | | niya. |
| M-n-pag-padala |
| AV-ASP-¿?-send | | DIR | | man | | IND | | money | | OBL | | child | | 3SG.GEN |
| "The man sent money to his child." |
2) | Locative Voice |
| | | AGENT | | | | THEME | | | | GOAL |
| P‹in›adalh-an | | ng | | mama | | ng | | pera | | ang | | anak | | niya. |
| ‹ASP›send-LV | | IND | | man | | IND | | money | | DIR | | child | | 3SG.GEN |
| "Hisi child was sent money by the mani." |
3) | (ungrammatical attempt to promote the indirect object to direct object) |
| | | AGENT | | | | THEME | | | | GOAL |
| * Nagpadalhan | | ang | | mama | | ng | | pera | | ng | | anak | | niya. |
| * M-n-pag-padalh-an |
| * AV-ASP-¿?-send-LV | | DIR | | man | | IND | | money | | IND | | child | | 3SG.GEN |
| * Intended: "The man sent his child money." |
In the Tagalog examples above, the goal nominal phrase can either be an indirect object, as in (1), or a subject as in (2). However, it cannot become a direct object, or be marked with indirect case, as in (3). Verb forms, such as "nagpadalhan", which bear both an Actor Voice affix and a non-Actor Voice affix, do not exist in languages that have Austronesian alignment.
The Tagalog examples contrast with the examples[12] from Indonesian below. Indonesian is an Austronesian language that does not have Austronesian alignment.
Indonesian |
4) | Active Voice |
| AGENT | | | | THEME | | GOAL |
| Ayah | | mengirim | | uang | | kepada | | saya. |
| | | meN-kirim |
| father | | ACTIVE VOICE-send | | money | | to | | 1SG |
| "Father sent money to me." |
5) | Passive Voice with an Applicative Suffix |
| GOAL | | | | THEME | | AGENT |
| Saya | | di-kirim-i | | uang | | oleh | | Ayah. |
| 1SG | | PASSIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVE | | money | | by | | father |
| "I was sent money by Father." |
6) | Active Voice with an Applicative Suffix |
| AGENT | | | | GOAL | | THEME |
| Ayah | | mengirimi | | saya | | uang. |
| | | meN-kirim-i |
| father | | ACTIVE VOICE-send-APPLICATIVE | | 1SG | | money |
| "Father sent me money." |
In the Indonesian examples, the goal nominal phrase can be the indirect object, as in (4), and the subject, as in (5). However, unlike in Tagalog, which has Austronesian alignment, the goal nominal phrase in Indonesian can be a direct object, as in (6). The preposition kepada disappears in the presence of the applicative suffix -i, and the goal nominal phrase moves from sentence-final position to some verb-adjacent position. In addition, they can behave like regular direct objects and undergo processes such as passivisation, as in (5).
Proto-Austronesian
The examples [13] below are in Proto-Austronesian. Asterisks indicate a linguistic reconstruction. The voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix selects, appears in underlined bold italics. Four voices have been reconstructed for Proto-Austronesian: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.
Proto-Austronesian
(1) | Actor Voice |
| * K‹um›aen | | Semay | | Cau. |
| *‹AV›eat | | rice | | man |
| *"The man is eating some rice." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| * Kaen-en | | nu | | Cau | | Semay. |
| * eat-PV | | ERG | | man | | rice |
| * "A/the man is eating the rice." |
| * (or "The rice is being eaten by a/the man.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| * Kaen-an | | nu | | Cau | | Semay | | Rumaq. |
| * eat-LV | | ERG | | man | | rice | | house |
| * "The man is eating rice in the house." |
| * (or "The house is being eaten rice in by the man.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| * Si-kaen | | nu | | Cau | | Semay | | lima-ni-á. |
| * IV-eat | | ERG | | man | | rice | | hand-GEN-3SG |
| * "The man is eating rice with his hand." |
| * (or "Hisi hand is being eaten rice with by the mani.") |
Modern Austronesian Languages
Below are examples of modern Austronesian languages that exhibit Austronesian alignment. These languages are spoken in Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Madagascar.
The number of voices differs from language to language. While the majority sampled have four voices, it is possible to have as few as three voices, and as many as six voices.
In the examples below, the voice affix on the verb appears in red text, while the subject, which the affix selects, appears in underlined bold italics.
Formosan
The data below come from Formosan, a geographic grouping of all Austronesian languages that belong outside of Malayo-Polynesian. The Formosan languages are primarily spoken in Taiwan.
Amis
Amis[14] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Amis, is ku.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mi-ʔaɬup | | ku | | kapah | | tu | | vavuy. |
| AV-hunt | | DIR | | young man | | ACC | | pig |
| "A young man hunts a pig." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Ma-ʔaɬup | | nu | | kapah | | ku | | vavuy. |
| PV-hunt | | ERG | | young man | | DIR | | pig |
| "A young man hunts a pig." |
| (or "A pig is hunted by a young man.) |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Pi-ʔaɬup-an | | nu | | kapah | | kura | | lutuk | | tu | | vavuy. |
| LV-hunt-LV | | ERG | | young man | | that.DIR | | mountain | | ACC | | pig |
| "A young man hunts a pig on that mountain." |
| (or "That mountain is hunted a pig on by a young man.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| Sa-pi-ʔaɬup | | nu | | kapah | | ku | | ʔiluc | | tu | | vavuy. |
| IV-hunt | | ERG | | young man | | DIR | | spear | | ACC | | pig |
| "A young man hunts a pig with a spear." |
| (or "A spear is hunted a pig with by a young man.") |
Atayal
While they both have the same number of voices, the two dialects of Atayal presented below do differ in the shape of the circumstantial voice prefix. In Mayrinax, the circumstantial voice prefix is si-, whereas in Squliq, it is s-.
Mayrinax
Mayrinax[15] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial Voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Mayrinax is kuʔ.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| M-aras | | cuʔ | | qusiaʔ | | kuʔ | | makurakis. |
| AV-fetch | | ACC | | water | | DIR | | girl |
| "The girl fetches water." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Ras-un | | nkuʔ | | makurakis | | kuʔ | | qusiaʔ. |
| fetch-PV | | ERG | | girl | | DIR | | water |
| "The girl fetches water." |
| (or "Water is fetched by the girl.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Ras-an | | nkuʔ | | makurakis | | cuʔ | | qusiaʔ | | kuʔ | | βintaŋ | | ka | | hani. |
| fetch-LV | | ERG | | girl | | ACC | | water | | DIR | | water bucket | | LIG | | this |
| "The girl fetches water in this water bucket." |
| (or "This water bucket is fetched water in by the girl.") |
(4) | a. | Circumstantial Voice (with beneficiary subject) |
| | Si-ʔaras | | nkuʔ | | makurakis | | cuʔ | | qusiaʔ | | kuʔ | | mamaliku=niaʔ. |
| | CV-fetch | | ERG | | girl | | ACC | | water | | DIR | | husband=3SG.GEN |
| | "The girl fetches water for her husband." |
| | (or "Her husbandi is fetched water for by the girli.") |
(4) | b. | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | Si-ʔaras | | nkuʔ | | makurakis | | cuʔ | | qusiaʔ | | kuʔ | | βintaŋ | | ka | | hani. |
| | CV-fetch | | ERG | | girl | | ACC | | water | | DIR | | water bucket | | LIG | | this |
| | "The girl fetches water with this water bucket." |
| | (or "This water bucket is fetched water with by the girl.") |
Squliq
Squliq[16] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Squliq is qu’.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| M-aniq | | qulih | | qu’ | | Tali’. |
| AV-eat | | fish | | DIR | | Tali |
| "Tali eats fish." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Niq-un | | na’ | | Tali’ | | qu’ | | qulih | | qasa. |
| eat-PV | | ERG | | Tali | | DIR | | fish | | that |
| "Tali eats that fish." |
| (or "That fish is eaten by Tali.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Niq-an | | na’ | | Tali’ | | qulih | | qu’ | | ngasal | | qasa. |
| eat-LV | | ERG | | Tali | | fish | | DIR | | house | | that |
| "Tali eats fish in that house." |
| (or "That house is eaten fish in by Tali.") |
(4) | a. | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | S-qaniq | | na’ | | Tali’ | | qulih | | qu’ | | Sayun. |
| | CV-eat | | ERG | | Tali | | fish | | DIR | | Sayun |
| | "Tali eats fish for Sayun." |
| | (or "Sayun is eaten fish for by Tali.") |
(4) | b. | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | S-qaniq | | na’ | | Tali’ | | qulih | | qu’ | | qway. |
| | CV-eat | | ERG | | Tali | | fish | | DIR | | chopsticks |
| | "Tali eats fish with chopsticks." |
| | (or "Chopsticks are eaten fish with by Tali.") |
Hla’alua
Hla’alua[17][18] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location and theme subjects.
While bound pronouns have a direct case form, nouns do not bear a special direct case marker for subjects in Hla’alua.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Hli-um-u=cu=aku | | hlavate | | usua. |
| ASP-AV-eat=ASP=1SG.DIR | | guava | | two |
| "I have eaten two guavas." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Hli-paipekel-a=cu | | a | | Eleke | | a | | tangusuhlu=na. |
| ASP-mould-PV=ASP | | DET | | Eleke | | DET | | rice.cake=DEF |
| "Eleke has moulded the rice cake." |
| (or "The rice cake has been moulded by Eleke.") |
(3) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with location subject) |
| | | Hli-aala-ana | | ’Angai | | vutukuhlu | | a | | hluuhlungu=na. |
| | | ASP-take-CV | | ’Angai | | fish | | DET | | stream=DEF |
| | | "’Angai has caught fish in the stream." |
| | | (or "The stream has been caught fish in by ’Angai.") |
(3) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with theme subject) |
| | | Hli-aala-ana=ku | | a | | vahlituku-isa | | ama’a. |
| | | ASP-take-CV=1SG.ERG | | DET | | money-3 | | father |
| | | "I have taken father's money." |
| | | (or "Father's money has been taken by me.") |
Kanakanavu
Kanakanavu[19] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which optionally marks the subject in Kanakanavu, is sua.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| K‹um›aʉn | | (sua) | | ŋiau | | tapianaŋai. |
| ‹AV›eat | | DIR | | cat | | bird |
| "A cat ate a bird." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Cʉʔʉr-ai | | maanu | | iisi | | (sua) | | tacau | | iisa. |
| see-PV | | child | | this | | DIR | | dog | | that |
| "This child saw that dog." |
| (or "That dog was seen by this child.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Riucuucu-an | | Mu'u | | (sua) | | PaicU. |
| kiss-LV | | Mu'u | | DIR | | PaicU |
| "Mu'u kissed PaicU." |
| (or "PaicU was kissed by Mu'u.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| Si-puʔa | | maanu-maku | | ʔʉnai | | sua | | vantuku | | iisi. |
| IV-buy | | child-1SG.GEN | | land | | DIR | | money | | this |
| "My child bought land with this money." |
| (or "This money was bought land with by my child.") |
Kavalan
Kavalan[20] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kavalan, is ya.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Q‹em›al | | tu | | rasung | | ya | | sunis. |
| ‹AV›dig | | ACC | | well | | DIR | | child |
| "The child dug a well." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Qal-an | | na | | sunis | | ya | | rasung. |
| dig-PV | | ERG | | child | | DIR | | well |
| "The child dug the well." |
| (or The well was dug by the child.") |
(3) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | | Ti-tangan=ku | | tu | | ineb | | ya | | suqsuq. |
| | | CV-open=1SG.ERG | | ACC | | door | | DIR | | key |
| | | "I opened the door with the key." |
| | | (or "The key was opened the door with by me.") |
(3) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Ti-sammay | | na | | tama=ku | | ya | | tina=ku. |
| | | CV-cook | | ERG | | father=1SG.GEN | | DIR | | mother-1SG.GEN |
| | | "My father cooked for my mother." |
| | | (or "My mother was cooked for by my father.") |
Paiwan
Paiwan[21] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Paiwan, is a.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Q‹m›ałup | | a | | tsautsau | | tua | | vavuy | | i | | (tua) | | gadu | | tua | | vuluq. |
| ‹AV›hunt | | DIR | | man | | OBL | | pig | | PREP | | (OBL) | | mountain | | OBL | | spear |
| "The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Qałup-en | | nua | | tsautsau | | a | | vavuy | | i | | (tua) | | gadu | | tua | | vuluq. |
| hunt-PV | | ERG | | man | | DIR | | pig | | PREP | | (OBL) | | mountain | | OBL | | spear |
| "The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." |
| (or "The pigs are hunted by the man in the mountains with a spear.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Qałup-an | | nua | | tsautsau | | tua | | vavuy | | a | | gadu | | tua | | vuluq. |
| hunt-LV | | ERG | | man | | OBL | | pig | | DIR | | mountain | | OBL | | spear |
| "The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." |
| (or "The mountains are hunted the pigs in by the man with a spear.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| Si-qałup | | nua | | tsautsau | | tua | | vavuy | | i | | (tua) | | gadu | | a | | vuluq. |
| IV-hunt | | ERG | | man | | OBL | | pig | | PREP | | (OBL) | | mountain | | DIR | | spear |
| "The man hunts the pigs in the mountains with a spear." |
| (or "The spear is hunted the pigs with by the man in the mountains.") |
Pazeh
Pazeh,[22] which became extinct in 2010, had four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Pazeh, is ki.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mu-ngazip | | yaku | | ki | | wazu. |
| AV-bite | | 1SG | | DIR | | dog |
| "The dog bit me." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Ngazib-en | | wazu | | lia | | ki | | rakihan. |
| bite-PV | | dog | | ASP | | DIR | | child |
| "A dog bit the child." |
| (or The child was bitten by a dog.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Pu-batu’-an | | lia | | ki | | babaw | | daran. |
| pave-stone-LV | | ASP | | DIR | | surface | | road |
| "The road surface was paved with stones." |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| Saa-talek | | alaw | | ki | | bulayan. |
| IV-cook | | fish | | DIR | | pan |
| "The pan was cooked fish with." |
Puyuma
Puyuma[23] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Puyuma, is na or i.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Tr‹em›akaw | | dra | | paisu | | i | | Isaw. |
| ‹AT.RL›steal | | ACC | | money | | DIR | | Isaw |
| "Isaw stole money." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Tu=trakaw-aw | | na | | paisu | | kan | | Isaw. |
| 3.ERG=steal-PT.RL | | DIR | | money | | ERG | | Isaw |
| "Isaw stole the money." |
| (or "The money was stolen by Isaw.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Tu=trakaw-ay=ku | | dra | | paisu | | kan | | Isaw. |
| 3.ERG=steal-LT.RL=1SG.DIR | | ACC | | money | | ERG | | Isaw |
| "Isaw stole money from me." |
| (or "I was stolen money from by Isaw.") |
(4) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Tu=trakaw-anay | | i | | tinataw | | dra | | paisu. |
| | | 3.ERG=steal-CT.RL | | DIR | | his.mother | | ACC | | money |
| | | "He stole money for his mother." |
| | | (or "Hisi mother was stolen money for by himi.") |
(4) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)[24] |
| | | Ku=dirus-anay | | na | | enay | | kan | | Aliwaki. |
| | | 1SG.ERG=wash-CT.RL | | DIR | | water | | ACC | | Aliwaki |
| | | "I washed Aliwaki with water." |
| | | (or "The water was washed Aliwaki with by me.") |
Seediq
The two dialects of Seediq presented below each have a different number of voices. The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in both dialects, is ka.
Tgdaya
Tgdaya[25] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice and Instrument Voice.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| S‹em›ebuc | | ricah | | ka | | Pawan. |
| ‹AV›hit | | plum | | DIR | | Pawan |
| "Pawan is hitting plums." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Sebet-un | | na | | Pawan | | ka | ricah. |
| hit-PV | | ERG | | Pawan | | DIR | | plum |
| "Pawan is hitting the plum." |
| (or "The plum is being hit by Pawan.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Sebet-an | | na | | Pawan | | ricah | | ka | | peepah. |
| hit-LV | | ERG | | Pawan | | plum | | DIR | | farm.field |
| "Pawan is hitting plums in the farm field." |
| (or "The farm field is being hit plums in by Pawan.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| Se-sebuc | | na | | Pawan | | ricah | | ka | | butakan. |
| IV-hit | | ERG | | Pawan | | plum | | DIR | | stick |
| "Pawan is hitting plums with the stick." |
| (or "The stick is being hit plums with by Pawan.") |
Truku
Truku[26] has three voices: Actor Voice, Goal Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The goal voice suffix selects for patient and location subjects. The circumstantial voice prefix selects for benefactee and instrument subjects.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| K‹em›erut | | babuy | | ka | | Masaw. |
| ‹AV›cut | | pig | | DIR | | Masaw |
| "Masaw slaughters a/the pig." |
(2) | a. | Goal Voice (with patient subject) |
| | Keret-an | | Masaw | | ka | | babuy. |
| | cut-GT | | Masaw | | DIR | | pig |
| | "Masaw slaughters the pig." |
| | (or "The pig is slaughtered by Masaw.") |
(2) | b. | Goal Voice (with location subject) |
| | Keret-an | | laqi | | sagas | | ka | | keti’inuh | | ni’i. |
| | cut-GT | | child | | watermelon | | DIR | | board | | this |
| | "The child cuts watermelon on this board." |
| | (or "This board is cut watermelon on by the child.") |
(3) | a. | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | Se-kerut | | babuy | | Masaw | | ka | | baki. |
| | CV-cut | | pig | | Masaw | | DIR | | old.man |
| | "Masaw slaughters a/the pig for the old man." |
| | (or "The old man is slaughtered a/the pig for by Masaw.") |
(3) | b. | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | Se-kerut | | babuy | | Masaw | | ka | | puting. |
| | CV-cut | | pig | | Masaw | | DIR | | knife |
| | "Masaw slaughters a/the pig with the knife." |
| | (or "The knife is slaughtered a/the pig with by Masaw.") |
Tsou
Tsou[27] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Benefactive Voice. In addition to the voice morphology on the main verb, auxiliary verbs in Tsou, which are obligatory in the sentence,[28] are also marked for voice. However, auxiliaries only differentiate between Actor Voice and non-Actor Voice[29] (in green text).
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tsou, is ’o.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mi-’o | | mo-si | | to | | peisu | | ne | | Nookay. |
| AUX.AV-1SG.DIR | | AV-put | | OBL | | money | | OBL | | Nookay |
| "I deposit money in Nookay." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Os-’o | | si-a | | to | | panka | | ’o | | peisu. |
| AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG | | put-PV | | OBL | | table | | DIR | | money |
| "I put the money on the/a table." |
| (or "The money was put on the/a table by me.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Os-’o | | si-i | | to | | chumu | | ’o | | kopu. |
| AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG | | put-LV | | OBL | | water | | DIR | | cup |
| "I put water into the cup." |
| (or "The cup was put water into by me.") |
(4) | Benefactive Voice[30] |
| Os-’o | | si-i-neni | | to | | ocha | | ’o | | Pasuya. |
| AUX.NAV-1SG.ERG | | put-LV-BV | | OBL | | tea | | DIR | | Pasuya |
| "I served tea for Pasuya." |
| (or "Pasuya was served tea for by me.") |
Batanic
The data below come from the Batanic languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian. These languages are spoken on the islands found in the Luzon Strait, between Taiwan and the Philippines.
Ivatan
Ivatan[31][32] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Ivatan, is qo.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mangamoqmo | | qo | | tao | | so | | motdeh | | no | | boday | | do | | vahay. |
| m-pang-qamoqmo |
| AV-¿?-frighten | | DIR | | man | | ACC | | child | | IND | | snake | | OBL | | house |
| "The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Qamoqmo-hen | | no | | tao | | qo | | motdeh | | no | | boday | | do | | vahay. |
| frighten-PV | | IND | | man | | DIR | | child | | IND | | snake | | OBL | | house |
| "The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." |
| (or "A child is being frightened with a snake in the house by the man.") |
(3) | Locative Voice[33] |
| Pangamoqmoan | | no | | tao | | so | | motdeh | | no | | boday | | qo | | vahay. |
| pang-qamoqmo-an |
| ¿?-frighten-LV | | IND | | man | | ACC | | child | | IND | | snake | | DIR | | house |
| "The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." |
| (or "The house is being frightened a child in with a snake by the man.") |
(4) | a. | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject)[34] |
| | Qipangamoqmo | | no | | tao | | so | | motdeh | | qo | | boday | | do | | vahay. |
| | qi-pang-qamoqmo |
| | CV-¿?-frighten | | IND | | man | | ACC | | child | | DIR | | snake | | OBL | | house |
| | "The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house." |
| | (or "The snake is being frightened a child with in the house by the man.") |
(4) | b. | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject)[35] |
| | Qipangamoqmo | | no | | tao | | so | | motdeh | | no | | boday | | do | | vahay | | qo | | kayvan-a. |
| | qi-pang-qamoqmo |
| | CV-¿?-frighten | | IND | | man | | ACC | | child | | IND | | snake | | OBL | | house | | DIR | | friend-3SG.GEN |
| | "The man is frightening a child with a snake in the house for his friend." |
| | (or "Hisi friend is being frightened a child for with a snake in the house by the mani.") |
Yami
Yami[36] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Yami, is si for proper names, and o for common nouns.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| K‹om›an | | so | | wakay | | si | | Salang. |
| ‹AV›eat | | OBL | | sweet potato | | DIR | | Salang |
| "Salang ate a sweet potato." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Kan-en | | na | | ni | | Salang | | o | | wakay. |
| eat-PV | | 3SG.ERG | | ERG | | Salang | | DIR | | sweet potato |
| "Salang ate the sweet potato." |
| (or "The sweet potato was eaten by Salang.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Ni-akan-an | | na | | o | | mogis | | ori | | ni | | Salang. |
| ASP-eat-LV | | 3SG.ERG | | DIR | | rice | | that | | ERG | | Salang |
| "Salang ate from some of that rice." |
| (or "Some of that rice was eaten from by Salang.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| I-akan | | na | | ni | | Salang | | o | | among | | ya. |
| IV-eat | | 3SG.ERG | | ERG | | Salang | | DIR | | fish | | this |
| "Salang ate (a meal) with this fish." |
| (or "This fish was eaten (a meal) with by Salang.") |
Philippine
The data below come from Philippine languages, a subgroup under Malayo-Polynesian, predominantly spoken across the Philippines, with some found on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia.
Blaan
Blaan[37][38][39] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Non-Actor Voice.
The non-Actor Voice affix selects for patient and location subjects, depending on the inherent voice of the verb.
Agent Prefocus Base[40] | Patient Prefocus Base[41] | Instrument Prefocus Base[42] |
(1) | Actor Voice (intransitive) | (1) | Actor Voice | (1) | Actor Voice |
| Stifun | | ale. | | | | | | | | | | | | M-bat | | agu | | bula. | | | | | | | | | | K‹am›lang | agu | kayu. |
| assemble | | 3PL.DIR | | | | | | | | | | | | AV-throw | | 1SG.DIR | | ball | | | | | | | | | | ‹AV›cut | 1SG.DIR | tree |
| "They assemble." | | "I throw the ball." | | "I cut the tree." |
(2) | Actor Voice (transitive) | (2) | Patient Voice (with patient subject) | (2) | Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject) |
| S‹am›tifun | | ale | | dad | | to. | | | | | | | | Bat=gu | | bula. | | | | | | | | | | K‹an›lang=gu | kayu. |
| ‹AV›assemble | | 3PL.DIR | | PL | | person | | | | | | | | throw=1SG.ERG | | ball | | | | | | | | | | ‹NAV›cut=1SG.ERG | tree |
| "They assemble the people." | | "I throw the ball" | | "I cut the tree." |
| "They assemble the people" | | (or "The ball is thrown by me.") | | (or "The tree is cut by me.") |
(3) | Non-Actor Voice (with patient subject) | (3) | Non-Actor Voice (with location subject) | (3) | Instrument Voice |
| S‹an›tifun=la | | dad | | to. | | | | | | | | N-bat=gu | | bula | | diding. | | | | | | | | Klang=gu | kayu | falakol. |
| ‹NAV›assemble=3PL.ERG | | PL | | person | | | | | | | | NAV-throw=1SG.ERG | | ball | | wall | | | | | | | | cut=1SG.ERG | tree | hatchet |
| "They assemble the people." | | "I throw the ball at the wall." | | "I cut the tree with the hatchet." |
| (or "The people are assembled by them.") | | (or "The wall is thrown the ball at by me.") | | (or "The hatchet is cut the tree with by me.") |
Cebuano
Cebuano[43] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for location, benefactee and goal subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Cebuano, is ang or si.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mo-luto’ | | si | | Maria | | ug | | kalamay | | para | | kang | | Pedro. |
| AV-cook | | DIR | | Maria | | ACC | | type.of.dessert | | for | | OBL | | Pedro |
| "Maria will cook kalamay for Pedro." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Luto’-on | | sa | | babaye | | ang | | bugas | | sa | | lata. |
| cook-PV | | ERG | | woman | | DIR | | rice | | OBL | | can |
| "The woman will cook the rice in the can." |
| (or "The rice will be cooked by the woman in the can.") |
(3) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with location subject) |
| | | Luto’-an | | sa | | babaye | | ang | | lata | | ug | | bugas. |
| | | cook-CV | | ERG | | woman | | DIR | | can | | ACC | | rice |
| | | "The woman will cook rice in the can." |
| | | (or "The can will be cooked rice in by the woman.") |
(3) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Luto’-an | | ni | | Maria | | si | | Pedro | | ug | | kalamay. |
| | | cook-CV | | ERG | | Maria | | DIR | | Pedro | | ACC | | type.of.dessert |
| | | "Maria will cook Pedro kalamay." |
| | | (or "Pedro will be cooked kalamay for by Maria.") |
(3) | c. | | Circumstantial Voice (with goal subject) |
| | | Sulat-an | | ni | | Inday | | si | | Perla | | ug | | sulat. |
| | | write-CV | | ERG | | Inday | | DIR | | Perla | | ACC | | letter |
| | | "Inday will write Perla a letter." |
| | | (or "Perla will be written a letter to by Inday.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| I-sulat | | ni | | Linda | | ang | | lapis | | ug | | sulat. |
| IV-write | | ERG | | Linda | | DIR | | pencil | | ACC | | letter |
| "Linda will write a letter with the pencil." |
| (or "The pencil will be written a letter with by Linda.") |
Kalagan
Kalagan[44] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kalagan, is ya. The direct case form of the first person, singular pronoun is aku, whereas the ergative case form is ku.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| K‹um›amang | | aku | | sa | | tubig | | na | | lata | | kan | | Ma’ | | adti | | balkon | | na | | lunis. |
| ‹AV›get | | 1SG.DIR | | OBL | | water | | PREP | | can | | for | | Dad | | on | | porch | | PREP | | Monday |
| "I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Kamang-in | | ku | | ya | | tubig | | na | | lata | | kan | | Ma’ | | adti | | balkon | | na | | lunis. |
| get-PV | | 1SG.ERG | | DIR | | water | | PREP | | can | | for | | Dad | | on | | porch | | PREP | | Monday |
| "I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." |
| (or "The water will be gotten by me with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday.") |
(3) | Instrument Voice |
| Pag-kamang | | ku | | ya | | lata | | sa | | tubig | | kan | | Ma’ | | adti | | balkon | | na | | lunis. |
| IV-get | | 1SG.ERG | | DIR | | can | | OBL | | water | | for | | Dad | | on | | porch | | PREP | | Monday |
| "I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." |
| (or "The can will be gotten the water with by me for Dad on the porch on Monday.") |
(4) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Kamang-an | | ku | | ya | | Ma’ | | sa | | tubig | | na | | lata | | adti | | balkon | | na | | lunis. |
| | | get-CV | | 1SG.ERG | | DIR | | Dad | | OBL | | water | | PREP | | can | | on | | porch | | PREP | | Monday |
| | | "I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." |
| | | (or "Dad will be gotten the water for by me with the can on the porch on Monday.") |
(4) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with location subject) |
| | | Kamang-an | | ku | | ya | | balkon | | sa | | tubig | | na | | lata | | kan | | Ma’ | | na | | lunis. |
| | | get-CV | | 1SG.ERG | | DIR | | porch | | OBL | | water | | PREP | | can | | for | | Dad | | PREP | | Monday |
| | | "I will get the water with the can for Dad on the porch on Monday." |
| | | (or "The porch will be gotten the water from by me with the can for Dad on Monday.") |
Kapampangan
Kapampangan[45] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Goal Voice, Locative Voice, and Cirumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice prefix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
The direct case morpheme in Kapampangan is ing, which marks singular subjects, and reng, which is for plural subjects. Non-subject agents are marked with ergative case, ning, while non-subject patients are marked with accusative case, -ng, which is cliticized onto the preceding word.[46]
(1) | Actor Voice |
| S‹um›ulat | | yang | | poesia | | ing | | lalaki | | king | | pen | | king | | papil. |
| | | ya=ng |
| ‹AV›will.write | | 3SG.DIR=ACC | | poem | | DIR | | boy | | OBL | | pen | | OBL | | paper |
| "The boy will write a poem with a pen on the paper." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| I-sulat | | ne | | ning | | lalaki | | ing | | poesia | | king | | mestra. |
| | | na+ya |
| PV-will.write | | 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR | | ERG | | boy | | DIR | | poem | | OBL | | teacher.F |
| "The boy will write the poem to the teacher." |
| (or "The poem will be written by boy to the teacher.") |
(3) | Goal Voice |
| Sulat-anan | | ne | | ning | | lalaki | | ing | | mestro. |
| | | na+ya |
| will.write-GT | | 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR | | ERG | | boy | | DIR | | teacher.M |
| "The boy will write to the teacher." |
| (or "The teacher will be written to by the boy.") |
(4) | Locative Voice |
| Pi-sulat-an | | neng | | poesia | | ning | | lalaki | | ing | | blackboard. |
| | | na+ya=ng |
| LV-will.write-LV | | 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC | | poem | | ERG | | boy | | DIR | | blackboard |
| "The boy will write a poem on the blackboard." |
| (or "The blackboard will be written a poem on by the boy.") |
(5) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | | Panyulat | | neng | | poesia | | ning | | lalaki | | ing | | pen. |
| | | paN-sulat | | na+ya=ng |
| | | CV-will.write | | 3SG.ERG+3SG.DIR=ACC | | poem | | ERG | | boy | | DIR | | pen |
| | | "The boy will write a poem with the pen." |
| | | (or "The pen will be written a poem with by the boy.") |
(5) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Pamasa | | nong | | libru | | ning | | babai | | reng | | anak. |
| | | paN-basa | | na+la=ng |
| | | CV-will.read | | 3SG.ERG+3PL.DIR=ACC | | book | | ERG | | woman | | PL.DIR | | child |
| | | "The woman will read a book for the children." |
| | | (or "The children will be read a book for by the woman.") |
Limos Kalinga
Limos Kalinga[47] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice and Instrument Voice.
Except for when the subject is the agent, the subject is found directly after the agent in the clause.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Nandalus | | si | | Malia=t | | danat | | palatu. |
| n-man-dalus |
| ASP-AV-wash | | DIR | | Malia=OBL | | PL | | plate |
| "Malia washed some plates." |
(2) | Patient Voice[48] |
| Binayum | | din | | pagoy. |
| b‹in›ayu-∅=m |
| ‹ASP›pound-PV=2SG.ERG | | DIR | | rice |
| "You pounded the rice." |
| (or "The rice was pounded by you.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| D‹in›alus-an | | ud | | Malia | | danat | | palatu. |
| ‹ASP›wash-LV | | ERG | | Malia | | DIR.PL | | plate |
| "Malia washed the plates." |
| (or "The plates were washed by Malia.") |
(4) | Benefactive Voice |
| I-n-dalus-an | | ud | | Malia | | si | | ina=na=t | | nat | | palatu. |
| BT-ASP-wash-BT | | ERG | | Malia | | DIR | | mother=3SG.GEN=OBL | | SG | | plate |
| "Malia washed a plate for her mother." |
| (or "Heri mother was washed a plate for by Maliai.") |
(5) | Instrument Voice |
| I-n-dalus | | ud | | Malia | | nat | | sabun | | sinat | | palatu. |
| IV-ASP-wash | | ERG | | Malia | | DIR | | soap | | OBL.SG | | plate |
| "Malia washed a plate with the soap." |
| (or "The soap was washed a plate with by Malia.") |
Maranao
Maranao[49] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Circumstantial Voice, and Instrument Voice.
The circumstantial suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Maranao, is so.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| S‹om›ombali’ | | so | | mama’ | | sa | | karabao | | ko | | maior. |
| ‹AV›butcher | | DIR | | man | | OBL | | water.buffalo | | PREP | | mayor |
| "The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Sombali’-in | | o | | mama’ | | so | | karabao. |
| butcher-PV | | ERG | | man | | DIR | | water.buffalo |
| "The man will butcher the water buffalo." |
| (or "The water buffalo will be butchered by the man.") |
(3) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Sombali’-an | | o | | mama’ | | so | | maior | | sa | | karabao. |
| | | butcher-CV | | ERG | | man | | DIR | | mayor | | OBL | | water.buffalo |
| | | "The man will butcher water buffalo for the mayor." |
| | | (or "The mayor will be butchered water buffalo for by the man.") |
(3) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with location subject) |
| | | Koaq-an | | o | | mama’ | | sa | | bolong | | so | | tinda. |
| | | get-CV | | ERG | | man | | OBL | | medicine | | DIR | | store |
| | | "The man will get the medicine at/from the store." |
| | | (or "The store will be gotten medicine at/from by the man.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| I-sombali’ | | o | | mama’ | | so | | gelat | | ko | | karabao. |
| butcher-IV | | ERG | | man | | DIR | | knife | | PREP | | water.buffalo |
| "The man will butcher the water buffalo with the knife." |
| (or "The knife will be butchered the water buffalo with by the man.") |
Palawan
Palawan[50] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and location subjects.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| ‹Mog›lamuʔ | | libun | | in | | ot | | lugow | | kot | | mosakit | | sot | | apuy. |
| ‹ASP.AT›cook | | woman | | that.DIR | | IND | | congee | | for | | sick person | | on | | fire |
| "The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| La~lamuʔ-on | | ot | | libun | | lugow | | in | | kot | | mosakit | | sot | | apuy. |
| ASP~cook-PV | | IND | | woman | | congee | | that.DIR | | for | | sick person | | on | | fire |
| "The woman will cook the congee on the fire for the sick person." |
| (or "The congee will be cooked on the fire for the sick person by the woman.") |
(3) | Instrument Voice |
| I-la~lamuʔ | | ot | | libun | | lugow | | kot | | mosakit | | apuy | | in. |
| IV-ASP~cook | | IND | | woman | | congee | | for | | sick person | | fire | | that.DIR |
| "The woman will cook congee with the fire for the sick person." |
| (or "The fire will be cooked congee with for the sick person by the woman.") |
(4) | a. | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | La~lamuʔ-an | | ot | | libun | | ot | | lugow | | sot | | apuy | | mosakit | | in. |
| | ASP~cook-CV | | IND | | woman | | IND | | congee | | on | | fire | | sick person | | that.DIR |
| | "The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person." |
| | (or "The sick person will be cooked congee for on the fire by the woman.") |
(4) | b. | Circumstantial Voice (with location subject) |
| | La~lamuʔ-an | | ot | | libun | | ot | | lugow | | kot | | mosakit | | apuy | | in. |
| | ASP~cook-CV | | IND | | woman | | IND | | congee | | for | | sick person | | fire | | that.DIR |
| | "The woman will cook congee on the fire for the sick person." |
| | (or "The fire will be cooked congee on for the sick person by the woman.") |
Tagalog
Tagalog has six voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Reason Voice.
The locative voice suffix selects for location and goal subjects. (In the examples below, the goal subject and the benefactee subject are the same noun phrase.)
The reason voice prefix can only be affixed to certain roots, the majority of which are for emotion verbs (e.g., galit "be angry", sindak "be shocked"). However, verb roots such as matay "die", sakit "get sick", and iyak "cry" may also be marked with the reason voice prefix.
The direct case morpheme, which marks subjects in Tagalog, is ang. The indirect case morpheme, ng /naŋ/, which is the conflation of the ergative and accusative cases seen in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, marks non-subject agents and non-subject patients.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| B‹um›ili | | ng | | mangga | | sa | | palengke | | para | | sa | | ale | | sa | | pamamagitan | | ng | | pera | | ang | | mama. |
| ‹ASP.AT›buy | | IND | | mango | | OBL | | market | | for | | OBL | | woman | | OBL | | means | | IND | | money | | DIR | | man |
| "The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." |
(2) | Patient Voice[51] |
| B‹in›ili-∅ | | ng | | mama | | sa | | palengke | | para | | sa | | ale | | sa | | pamamagitan | | ng | | pera | | ang | | mangga. |
| ‹ASP›buy-PV | | IND | | man | | OBL | | market | | for | | OBL | | woman | | OBL | | means | | IND | | money | | DIR | | mango |
| "The man bought the mango at the market for the woman by means of money." |
| (or "The mango was bought by the man at the market for the woman by means of money.") |
(3) | a. | Locative Voice (with location subject) |
| | B‹in›ilh-an | | ng | | mama | | ng | | mangga | | para | | sa | | ale | | sa | | pamamagitan | | ng | | pera | | ang | | palengke. |
| | ‹ASP›buy-LV | | IND | | man | | IND | | mango | | for | | OBL | | woman | | OBL | | means | | IND | | money | | DIR | | market |
| | "The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." |
| | (or "The market was bought a mango at by the man for the woman by means of money.") |
(3) | b. | Locative Voice (with goal subject) |
| | B‹in›ilh-an | | ng | | mama | | ng | | mangga | | sa | | palengke | | sa | | pamamagitan | | ng | | pera | | ang | | ale. |
| | ‹ASP›buy-LV | | IND | | man | | IND | | mango | | OBL | | market | | OBL | | means | | IND | | money | | DIR | | woman |
| | "The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." |
| | (or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.") |
(4) | Benefactive Voice |
| I-b‹in›ili | | ng | | mama | | ng | | mangga | | sa | | palengke | | sa | | pamamagitan | | ng | | pera | | ang | | ale. |
| BT-‹ASP›buy | | IND | | man | | IND | | mango | | OBL | | market | | OBL | | means | | IND | | money | | DIR | | woman |
| "The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." |
| (or "The woman was bought a mango for by the man at the market by means of money.") |
(5) | Instrument Voice |
| Ipinambili | | ng | | mama | | ng | | mangga | | sa | | palengke | | para | | sa | | ale | | ang | | pera. |
| Ip‹in›aN-bili |
| ‹ASP›IV-buy | | IND | | man | | IND | | mango | | OBL | | market | | for | | OBL | | woman | | DIR | | money |
| "The man bought a mango at the market for the woman by means of money." |
| (or "The money was bought a mango with by the man at the market for the woman.") |
(6) | a. | Reason Voice[52] |
| | Ik‹in›a-iyak | | ng | | bata | | ang | | pag-kagat | | sa | | kaniya | | ng | | langgam. |
| | ‹ASP›RV-cry | | IND | | child | | DIR | | NMLZ-bite | | OBL | | 3SG.OBL | | IND | | ant |
| | "The child cried because an/the ant bit him." |
| | (or "An/the ant's biting of him was cried about by the child.") |
(6) | b. | Actor Voice |
| | ‹Um›iyak | | ang | | bata | | dahil | | k‹in›agat-∅ | | siya | | ng | | langgam. |
| | ‹ASP.AT›cry | | DIR | | child | | because | | ‹ASP›bite-PV | | 3SG.DIR | | IND | | ant |
| | "The child cried because an/the ant bit him." |
| | (or "The child cried because he was bitten by an/the ant.") |
Tondano
Tondano[53] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Locative Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial Voice selects for instrument, benefactee, and theme subjects.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Si | | tuama | | k‹um›eoŋ | | roda | | wo | | n-tali | | waki | | pasar. |
| AN.SG | | man | | ‹AV›will.pull | | cart | | with | | INAN-rope | | to | | market |
| "The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Roda | | keoŋ-ən | | ni | | tuama | | wo | | n-tali | | waki | | pasar. |
| cart | | will.pull-PV | | ERG.AN.SG | | man | | with | | INAN-rope | | to | | market |
| "The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." |
| (or "The cart will be pulled with rope to the market by the man.") |
(3) | Locative Voice |
| Pasar | | keoŋ-an | | ni | | tuama | | roda | | wo | | n-tali. |
| market | | will.pull-LV | | ERG.AN.SG | | man | | cart | | with | | INAN-rope |
| "The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." |
| (or "The market will be pulled the cart to with the rope by the man.") |
(4) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | | Tali | | i-keoŋ | | ni | | tuama | | roda | | waki | | pasar. |
| | | rope | | CV-will.pull | | ERG.AN.SG | | man | | cart | | to | | market |
| | | "The man will pull the cart with the rope to the market." |
| | | (or "The rope will be pulled the cart with to the market by the man.") |
(4) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Se | | okiʔ | | i-lutuʔ | | ni | | mama | | seraʔ |
| | | AN.PL | | child | | CV-will.cook | | ERG.AN.SG | | mother | | fish |
| | | "Mother will cook fish for the children." |
| | | (or "The children will be cooked fish for by mother.") |
(4) | c. | | Circumstantial Voice (with theme subject) |
| | | Ləloŋkotan | | i-wareŋ | | ni | | tuama | | waki | | wale. |
| | | ladder | | CV-will.return | | ERG.AN.SG | | man | | to | | house |
| | | "The man will return the ladder to the house." |
| | | (or "The ladder will be returned by the man to the house.") |
Bornean
The data below come from Bornean languages, a geographic grouping under Malayo-Polynesian, mainly spoken on the island of Borneo, spanning administrative areas of Malaysia and Indonesia.
Bonggi
Bonggi[54][55] has four voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Instrumental Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for benefactee and goal subjects.
The subject is found in sentence-initial position, before the verb.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Sia | | imagi | | louk | | nyu. |
| | | in-N-bagi |
| 3SG.DIR | | RL-AT-divide | | fish | | 2PL.GEN |
| "He divided your fish." |
(2) | Patient Voice[56] |
| Louk | | nyu | | biagi | | nya. |
| | | | | b‹in›agi-∅ |
| fish | | 2PL.GEN | | ‹RL›divide-PV | | 3SG.ERG |
| "He divided your fish." |
| (or "Your fish was divided by him.") |
(3) | Instrument Voice |
| Badiʔ | | ku | | pimagi | | nya | | louk | | nyu. |
| | | | | p‹in›əN-bagi |
| machete | | 1SG.GEN | | ‹RL›IV-divide | | 3SG.ERG | | fish | | 2PL.GEN |
| "He divided your fish with my machete." |
| (or "My machete was divided your fish with by him.") |
(4) | a. | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | Ou | | bigiadn | | nya | | louk | | nyu. |
| | | | b‹in›agi-adn |
| | 1SG.DIR | | ‹RL›divide-CV | | 3SG.ERG | | fish | | 2PL.GEN |
| | "He divided your fish for me." |
| | (or "I was divided your fish for by him.") |
(4) | b. | Circumstantial Voice (with goal subject) |
| | Ou | | biniriadn | | nya | | siidn. |
| | | | b‹in›ori-adn |
| | 1SG.DIR | | ‹RL›give-CV | | 3SG.ERG | | money |
| | "He gave money to me." |
| | (or "I was given money to by him.") |
Kadazan Dusun
Kadazan Dusun has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Benefactive Voice.
The direct case morpheme, which marks the subject in Kadazan Dusun, is i.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mog-ovit | | i | | ama’ | | di | | tanak | | do | | buuk. |
| AV-bring | | DIR | | father | | IND | | child | | ACC | | book |
| "Father is bringing the child a book." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Ovit-on | | di | | ama’ | | di | | tanak | | i | | buuk. |
| bring-PV | | IND | | father | | IND | | child | | DIR | | book |
| "Father is bringing the child the book." |
| (or "The book is being brought to the child by Father.") |
(3) | Benefactive Voice |
| Ovit-an | | di | | ama’ | | i | | tanak | | do | | buuk. |
| bring-BT | | IND | | father | | DIR | | child | | ACC | | book |
| "Father is bringing the child a book." |
| (or "The child is being brought a book to by Father.") |
Kelabit
Kelabit has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice and Instrument Voice.
Unlike other languages presented here, Kelabit does not use case-marking or word-ordering strategies to indicate the subject of the clause.[59] However, certain syntactic processes, such as relativization, target the subject. Relativizing non-subjects results in ungrammatical sentences.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| La’ih | | sineh | | nenekul | | nubaq | | nedih | | ngen | | seduk. |
| | | | | in-N-tekul |
| man | | that | | ASP-AV-spoon.up | | rice | | 3SG.GEN | | with | | spoon |
| "That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." |
(2) | Patient Voice[61] |
| Sikul | | la’ih | | sineh | | nubaq | | nedih | | ngen | | seduk. |
| t‹in›ekul-∅ |
| ‹ASP›spoon.up-PV | | man | | that | | rice | | 3SG.GEN | | with | | spoon. |
| "That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." |
| (or "Hisi rice was spooned up with a spoon by that mani.") |
(3) | Instrument Voice |
| Seduk | | penenekul | | la’ih | | sineh | | nubaq | | nedih. |
| | | peN-tekul |
| spoon | | <ASP>IV-spoon.up | | man | | that | | rice | | 3SG.GEN |
| "That man spooned his rice up with a spoon." |
| (or "A spoon was spooned hisi rice up with by that mani.") |
Kimaragang
Kimaragang[62] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice and Locative Voice.
Only intransitive verbs can be marked with the locative voice suffix,[63] which looks similar to the patient voice suffix.[64]
The direct case marker, which marks the subject in Kimaragang, is it for definite nouns and ot for indefinite nouns.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mangalapak | | oku | | do | | niyuw. |
| m-poN-lapak |
| AV-TR-split | | 1SG.DIR | | IND.INDF | | coconut |
| "I will split a coconut/some coconuts." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Lapak-on | | ku | | it | | niyuw. |
| split-PV | | 1SG.IND | | DIR.DEF | | coconut |
| "I will split the coconuts." |
| (or "The coconuts will be split by me.") |
(3) | Benefactive Voice |
| Lapak-an | | ku | | do | | niyuw | | it | | wogok. |
| split-BT | | 1SG.IND | | IND.INDF | | coconut | | DIR.DEF | | pig |
| "I will split some coconuts for the pigs." |
| (or "The pigs will be split some coconuts for by me.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice[65][66] |
| Tongo | | ot | | pangalapak | | nu | | dilo’ | | niyuw | | ______? |
| | | | | ∅-poN-lapak |
| what | | DIR.INDF | | IT-TR-split | | 2SG.IND | | that.IND | | coconut | | DIR |
| "What will you split those coconuts with?" |
| (or "The thing that will be split those coconuts with by you is what?") |
(5) | Locative Voice[67] |
| Siombo | | ot | | ogom-on | | ku | | _____? |
| where | | DIR.INDF | | sit-LV | | 1SG.IND | | DIR |
| "Where shall I sit?" |
| (or "The thing that will be sat upon by me is where?") |
Timugon Murut
Timugon Murut[68] has five voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, Benefactive Voice, Instrument Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
There is no direct case marker to mark subjects in Timugon Murut. However, non-subject agents are marked with the ergative case marker, du, while non-subject non-agents are marked with the oblique case marker, da.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mambali | | dŭanduʔ=ti | | da=konoon | | da=dalaiŋ=no | | da=sŭab=no | | da=duit=na-no. |
| m-paN-bali |
| AV-¿?-buy | | woman=DET | | OBL=clothes | | OBL=child=DET | | OBL=morning=DET | | OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET |
| "The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Bali-on | | konoon | | du=dŭanduʔ=ti | | da=dalaiŋ=no | | da=sŭab=no | | da=duit=na-no. |
| buy-PV | | clothes | | ERG=woman=DET | | OBL=child=DET | | OBL=morning=DET | | OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET |
| "The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." |
| (or "Clothes will be bought for the child in the morning by the woman with her money.") |
(3) | Benefactive Voice |
| Bali-in | | dalaiŋ=no | | da=konoon | | du=dŭanduʔ=ti | | da=sŭab=no | | da=duit=na-no. |
| buy-BT | | child=DET | | OBL=clothes | | ERG=woman=DET | | OBL=morning=DET | | OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET |
| "The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." |
| (or "The child will be bought clothes for in the morning by the woman with her money.") |
(4) | Instrument Voice |
| Duit=na-no | | pambabali | | du=dŭanduʔ=ti | | da=konoon | | da=dalaiŋ=no | | da=sŭab=no. |
| | | paN-CV~bali |
| money=3SG.GEN-DET | | ¿?-IV~buy | | ERG=woman=DET | | OBL=clothes | | OBL=child=DET | | OBL=morning=DET |
| "The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." |
| (or "Heri money will be bought clothes with for the child in the morning by the womani.") |
(5) | Circumstantial Voice |
| Sŭab=na | | pambalian | | du=dŭanduʔ=ti | | da=konoon | | da=dalaiŋ=no | | da=duit=na-no. |
| | | paN-bali-an |
| morning=DET | | ¿?-buy-CV | | ERG=woman=DET | | OBL=clothes | | OBL=child=DET | | OBL=money=3SG.GEN-DET |
| "The woman will buy clothes for the child in the morning with her money." |
| (or "The morning will be bought clothes in for the child by the woman with her money.") |
Barito
The data below represent the Barito languages, and are from a language spoken on Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa. Other languages from Barito are spoken in Indonesia and the Philippines.
Malagasy
Malagasy[69] has three voices: Actor Voice, Patient Voice, and Circumstantial Voice.
The circumstantial voice suffix selects for instrument and benefactee subjects.
Malagasy does not have a direct case marker. However, the subject is found in sentence-final position.
(1) | Actor Voice |
| Mamono | | akoho | | amin'ny | | antsy | | ny | | mpamboly. |
| m-aN-vono |
| AV-TR-kill | | chicken | | with'DET | | knife | | DET | | farmer |
| "The farmer kills chickens with the knife." |
(2) | Patient Voice |
| Vonoin'ny | | mpamboly | | amin'ny | | antsy | | ny | | akoho. |
| vono-ina'ny |
| kill-PV'DET | | farmer | | with'DET | | knife | | DET | | chicken |
| "The farmer kills the chickens with the knife." |
| (or "The chickens are killed with the knife by the farmer.") |
(3) | a. | | Circumstantial Voice (with instrument subject) |
| | | Amonoan'ny | | mpamboly | | akoho | | ny | | antsy. |
| | | aN-vono-ana'ny |
| | | TR-kill-CV'DET | | farmer | | chicken | | DET | | knife |
| | | "The farmer kills chickens with the knife." |
| | | (or "The knife is killed chickens with by the farmer.") |
(3) | b. | | Circumstantial Voice (with benefactee subject) |
| | | Amonoan'ny | | mpamboly | | akoho | | ny | | vahiny. |
| | | aN-vono-ana'ny |
| | | TR-kill-CV'DET | | farmer | | chicken | | DET | | guest |
| | | "The farmer kills chickens for the guests." |
| | | (or "The guests are killed chickens for by the farmer.") |