La balística es el campo de la mecánica que se ocupa del lanzamiento, el comportamiento de vuelo y los efectos de impacto de proyectiles , especialmente municiones de armas a distancia como balas , bombas no guiadas , cohetes o similares; la ciencia o el arte de diseñar y acelerar proyectiles para lograr un rendimiento deseado.
Un cuerpo balístico es un cuerpo de movimiento libre con impulso que puede estar sujeto a fuerzas tales como las fuerzas ejercidas por gases presurizados de un cañón de pistola o una boquilla propulsora , fuerza normal por estriado y gravedad y arrastre de aire durante el vuelo.
Un misil balístico es un misil que se guía solo durante la fase inicial relativamente breve del vuelo motorizado y la trayectoria se rige posteriormente por las leyes de la mecánica clásica ; a diferencia de (por ejemplo) un misil de crucero que se guía aerodinámicamente en vuelo propulsado como un avión de ala fija .
Historia y prehistoria [ editar ]
Los primeros proyectiles balísticos conocidos fueron piedras y lanzas, [1] [2] y el palo arrojadizo .
La evidencia más antigua de proyectiles con punta de piedra, que pueden o no haber sido propulsados por un arco (cf. atlatl ), data de c. Hace 64.000 años, se encontraron en la cueva de Sibudu , en la actualidad, Sudáfrica . [3] La evidencia más antigua del uso de arcos para disparar flechas data de hace unos 10.000 años; se basa en flechas de madera de pino encontradas en el valle de Ahrensburg al norte de Hamburgo . Tenían surcos poco profundos en la base, lo que indica que fueron disparados con un arco. [4] El arco más antiguo recuperado hasta ahora tiene unos 8.000 años y se encuentra en el pantano de Holmegård en Dinamarca.
El tiro con arco parece haber llegado a las Américas con la tradición de las herramientas pequeñas del Ártico , hace unos 4.500 años.
Los primeros dispositivos identificados como armas aparecieron en China alrededor del año 1000 d.C., y en el siglo XII la tecnología se estaba extendiendo por el resto de Asia y en Europa en el siglo XIII. [5]
Después de milenios de desarrollo empírico, la disciplina de balística fue inicialmente estudiada y desarrollada por el matemático italiano Niccolò Tartaglia en 1531, [6] [7] aunque continuó usando segmentos de movimiento en línea recta, convenciones establecidas por Avicena y Alberto de Sajonia . pero con la novedad de que conectaba las rectas mediante un arco circular. Galileo estableció el principio del movimiento compuesto en 1638, [8] utilizando el principio para derivar la forma parabólica de la trayectoria balística. [9] La balística fue puesta sobre una base científica y matemática sólida por Isaac Newton., con la publicación de Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica en 1687. Esto dio leyes matemáticas de movimiento y gravedad que por primera vez hicieron posible predecir trayectorias con éxito. [ cita requerida ]
La palabra balística proviene del griego βάλλειν ballein , que significa "lanzar".
Proyectiles [ editar ]
Un proyectil es cualquier objeto proyectado al espacio (vacío o no) por el ejercicio de una fuerza . Aunque cualquier objeto en movimiento a través del espacio (por ejemplo, una pelota de béisbol lanzada ) es un proyectil, el término más comúnmente se refiere a un arma a distancia . [10] [11] Las ecuaciones matemáticas de movimiento se utilizan para analizar la trayectoria del proyectil .
Los ejemplos de proyectiles incluyen bolas , flechas , balas , proyectiles de artillería , cohetes , etc.
Lanzadores de proyectiles [ editar ]
Lanzar [ editar ]
Lanzar es el lanzamiento de un proyectil a mano. Aunque algunos otros animales pueden lanzar, los humanos son inusualmente buenos lanzadores debido a su alta destreza y buena capacidad de sincronización, y se cree que este es un rasgo evolucionado. La evidencia de lanzamientos humanos se remonta a 2 millones de años. [13] La velocidad de lanzamiento de 90 mph que se encuentra en muchos atletas supera con creces la velocidad a la que los chimpancés pueden lanzar cosas, que es de aproximadamente 20 mph. [13] Esta capacidad refleja la capacidad de los músculos y tendones del hombro humano para almacenar elasticidad hasta que sea necesaria para impulsar un objeto. [13]
Honda [ editar ]
Una honda es un arma de proyectil que se usa típicamente para lanzar un proyectil contundente como una piedra, arcilla o plomo " bala de honda ".
Un cabestrillo tiene una pequeña base o bolsa en el medio de dos tramos de cordón. La piedra de la honda se coloca en la bolsa. El dedo medio o pulgar se coloca a través de un lazo en el extremo de un cordón, y una lengüeta en el extremo del otro cordón se coloca entre el pulgar y el índice. La eslinga se balancea en un arco y la lengüeta se suelta en un momento preciso. Esto libera el proyectil para volar hacia el objetivo.
Arco [ editar ]
A bow is a flexible piece of material which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the stick are flexed. When the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the velocity of the arrow.[14] Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows.[15]
Catapult[edit]
A catapult is a device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices — particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines.[16] The catapult has been used since ancient times, because it was proven to be one of the most effective mechanisms during warfare. The word "catapult" comes from the Latin catapulta, which in turn comes from the Greek καταπέλτης (katapeltēs), itself from κατά (kata), "against” [17] and πάλλω (pallō), "to toss, to hurl".[18][19] Catapults were invented by the ancient Greeks.[20][21]
Gun[edit]
A gun is a normally tubular weapon or other device designed to discharge projectiles or other material.[22] The projectile may be solid, liquid, gas, or energy and may be free, as with bullets and artillery shells, or captive as with Taser probes and whaling harpoons. The means of projection varies according to design but is usually effected by the action of gas pressure, either produced through the rapid combustion of a propellant or compressed and stored by mechanical means, operating on the projectile inside an open-ended tube in the fashion of a piston. The confined gas accelerates the movable projectile down the length of the tube imparting sufficient velocity to sustain the projectile's travel once the action of the gas ceases at the end of the tube or muzzle. Alternatively, acceleration via electromagnetic field generation may be employed in which case the tube may be dispensed with and a guide rail substituted.
Rocket[edit]
A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use.[23] Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forward simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.
While comparatively inefficient for low speed use, rockets are relatively lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. Rockets are not reliant on the atmosphere and work very well in space.
Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China.[24] Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight, and space exploration.
Chemical rockets are the most common type of high performance rocket and they typically create their exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks.
Subfields[edit]
Ballistics is often broken down into the following four categories:[25]
- Internal ballistics the study of the processes originally accelerating projectiles
- Transition ballistics the study of projectiles as they transition to unpowered flight
- External ballistics the study of the passage of the projectile (the trajectory) in flight
- Terminal ballistics the study of the projectile and its effects as it ends its flight
Internal ballistics[edit]
Internal ballistics (also interior ballistics), a sub-field of ballistics, is the study of the propulsion of a projectile.
In guns internal ballistics covers the time from the propellant's ignition until the projectile exits the gun barrel.[26] The study of internal ballistics is important to designers and users of firearms of all types, from small-bore rifles and pistols, to high-tech artillery.
For rocket propelled projectiles, internal ballistics covers the period during which a rocket engine is providing thrust.[27]
Transitional ballistics[edit]
Transitional ballistics, also known as intermediate ballistics,[28] is the study of a projectile's behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized,[29] so it lies between internal ballistics and external ballistics.
External ballistics[edit]
External ballistics is the part of the science of ballistics that deals with the behaviour of a non-powered projectile in flight.
External ballistics is frequently associated with firearms, and deals with the unpowered free-flight phase of the bullet after it exits the gun barrel and before it hits the target, so it lies between transitional ballistics and terminal ballistics.
However, external ballistics is also concerned with the free-flight of rockets and other projectiles, such as balls, arrows etc.
Terminal ballistics[edit]
Terminal ballistics is the study of the behavior and effects of a projectile when it hits its target.[30]
Terminal ballistics is relevant both for small caliber projectiles as well as for large caliber projectiles (fired from artillery). The study of extremely high velocity impacts is still very new and is as yet mostly applied to spacecraft design.
Applications[edit]
Forensic ballistics[edit]
Forensic ballistics involves analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to determine information of use to a court or other part of a legal system. Separately from ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations ("ballistic fingerprinting") involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.
Astrodynamics[edit]
Astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control.
See also[edit]
- Armour
- Ballistic conduction (related to electron transport)
- Ballistic limit
- Ballistic trauma
- Bloodstain pattern analysis
- Circular error probable
- Gunshot residue
- Hydrostatic shock
- L.T.E. Thompson
- Microscopes and ballistics
- Peter Bielkowicz
- Physics of firearms
- Projectile motion
- Stopping power
- Trajectory
- Vaporific effect
Notes[edit]
- ^ "Archytas of Tar entum." Archived December 26, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece/ Retrieved: May 6, 2012.
- ^ "Ancient history." Archived 2002-12-05 at the Wayback Machine Automata. Retrieved May 6, 2012.
- ^ Lyn Wadley from the University of the Witwatersrand (2010); BBC: Oldest evidence of arrows found
- ^ McEwen E, Bergman R, Miller C. Early bow design and construction. Scientific American 1991 vol. 264 pp76-82.
- ^ Herbst, Judith (1 September 2005). "The History of Weapons". Lerner Publications. Retrieved 16 March 2018 – via Google Books.
- ^ Ballistics in the Seventeenth Century: A Study in the Relations of Science and War with Reference Principally to England, CUP Archive - 1952, page 36
- ^ Niccolo' Tartaglia, Nova Scientia, 1537. (a treatise on gunnery and ballistics).
- ^ Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, Leiden, 1638, p.249
- ^ Nolte, David D. Galileo Unbound (Oxford University Press, 2018) pp. 39-63.
- ^ "The free Dictionary". Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ "Dictionary.com". Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ Pepin, Matt (2010-08-26). "Aroldis Chapman hits 105 mph". Boston.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
- ^ a b c Melissa Hogenboom, "Origins of human throwing unlocked", BBC News (26 June 2013).
- ^ Paterson Encyclopaedia of Archery pp. 27-28
- ^ Paterson Encyclopaedia of Archery p. 17
- ^ Gurstelle 2004.
- ^ Liddell & Scott, κατά.
- ^ Liddell & Scott, πάλλω.
- ^ Oxford Dic, catapult.
- ^ Schellenberg 2006, pp. 14–23.
- ^ Marsden 1969, pp. 48–64.
- ^ The Chambers Dictionary, Allied Chambers - 1998, "gun", page 717
- ^ Sutton 2001, chapter 1.
- ^ MSFC History Office 2000.
- ^ U.S. Marine Corps (1996). FM 6-40 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Field Artillery Manual Cannonry. Department of the Army.
- ^ US Army 1965, pp. 1–2
- ^ "Definition of BALLISTICS". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
- ^ Ballistics at Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Accessed April 27, 2009
- ^ Physics 001 The Science of Ballistics Archived 2012-02-22 at the Wayback Machine accessed Apr 27, 2009
- ^ Terminal Ballistics Test and Analysis Guidelines for the Penetration Mechanics Branch — BRL
References[edit]
- US Army (February 1965), Interior Ballistics of Guns (PDF), Engineering Design Handbook: Ballistics Series, United States Army Materiel Command, AMCP 706-150
- Gurstelle, William (2004), The art of the catapult: build Greek ballista, Roman onagers, English trebuchets, and more ancient artillery, Chicago: Chicago Review Press, ISBN 978-1-55652-526-1, OCLC 54529037
- Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, A Greek-English Lexicon (definition), Perseus, Tufts, κατά πάλλω
- Marsden, Eric William (1969), Greek and Roman Artillery: Historical Development, Oxford: Clarendon, ISBN 978-0-19-814268-3.
- MSFC History Office (2000), Rockets in Ancient Times (100 B.C. to 17th Century), Marshall Space Flight Center History Office, archived from the original on 2009-07-09, retrieved 2016-06-09
- "catapult", Dictionaries (definition), Oxford
- Schellenberg, Hans Michael (2006), "Diodor von Sizilien 14,42,1 und die Erfindung der Artillerie im Mittelmeerraum" (PDF), Frankfurter Elektronische Rundschau zur Altertumskunde, 3: 14–23
- Sutton, George (2001), Rocket Propulsion Elements (7th ed.), Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-32642-7
External links[edit]
 | Look up ballistics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
 | Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Ballistics . |
- Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
- Ballistic Trajectories by Jeff Bryant, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project
- Forensic Firearms and Tool Marks Time Line
- International Ballistics Society
- The Bullet's Flight from Powder to Target—Franklin Weston Mann
