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Budismo ( / b ʊ d ɪ z əm / , Estados Unidos : / b U d - / ) [1] [2] es una religión india basado en una serie de enseñanzas originales atribuidas a Gautama Buda . Se originó en la antigua India como una tradición Sramana en algún momento entre los siglos VI y IV a. C., extendiéndose por gran parte de Asia . Es la cuarta religión más grande del mundo [3] [4]con más de 520 millones de seguidores, o más del 7% de la población mundial, conocidos como budistas . [5] [6] El budismo abarca una variedad de tradiciones , creencias y prácticas espirituales basadas en gran medida en las enseñanzas del Buda (nacido Siddhārtha Gautama en el siglo V o IV a. C.) y las filosofías interpretadas resultantes . Los eruditos generalmente reconocen dos importantes ramas existentes del budismo: Theravāda ( Pali : "La escuela de los ancianos") y Mahāyāna ( Sánscrito : "El gran vehículo").
Como se expresa en el Buda Cuatro Nobles Verdades , el objetivo del budismo es superar el sufrimiento ( duḥkha ) causado por el deseo y la ignorancia de la realidad 's verdadera naturaleza, incluyendo la impermanencia ( anicca ) y la no existencia del yo ( anatta ). [7] La mayoría de las tradiciones budistas enfatizan trascender el yo individual a través del logro del Nirvana o siguiendo el camino de la Budeidad , poniendo fin al ciclo de muerte y renacimiento . [8] [9] [10] Las escuelas budistas varían en su interpretación del camino hacia la liberación , la importancia relativa y la canonicidad asignada a los diversos textos budistas y sus enseñanzas y prácticas específicas. [11] [12] Las prácticas ampliamente observadas incluyen refugiarse en el Buda , el Dharma y la Sangha , la observancia de los preceptos morales , el monaquismo budista , la meditación budista y el cultivo de las Paramitas (perfecciones o virtudes).
El budismo Theravada tiene muchos seguidores en Sri Lanka y el sudeste asiático , como Camboya , Laos , Myanmar y Tailandia . Mahayana, que incluye las tradiciones de Pure Land , Zen , Budismo de Nichiren , Shingon y Tiantai ( Tendai ), se encuentra en todo el este de Asia , como China , Japón , Corea , Vietnam , Taiwán y Singapur . Vajrayana, un cuerpo de enseñanzas atribuidas a adeptos indios , puede verse como una rama separada o como un aspecto del budismo Mahayana. [13] El budismo tibetano , que preserva las enseñanzas Vajrayana de la India del siglo VIII, se practica en los países de la región del Himalaya , Mongolia , [14] y Kalmykia . [15]
Vida del Buda
El budismo es una religión india [16] fundada en las enseñanzas de un maestro espiritual y mendicante llamado "el Buda" ("el Despertado", entre los siglos V y IV a. C.). [17] [18] Los primeros textos tienen el apellido de Buda como "Gautama" (Pali: Gotama). Los detalles de la vida de Buda se mencionan en muchos textos budistas tempranos, pero son inconsistentes. Su origen social y los detalles de su vida son difíciles de probar, y las fechas precisas son inciertas. [19] [nota 1]
La evidencia de los primeros textos sugiere que Siddharta Gautama nació en Lumbini y creció en Kapilavastu , [nota 2] una ciudad en la llanura del Ganges , cerca de la frontera moderna entre Nepal e India, y que pasó su vida en lo que ahora es moderno. Bihar [nota 3] y Uttar Pradesh . [27] [19] Algunas leyendas hagiográficas afirman que su padre era un rey llamado Suddhodana, su madre era la reina Maya y nació en Lumbini . [28] Sin embargo, eruditos como Richard GombrichConsidere esto una afirmación dudosa porque una combinación de evidencia sugiere que nació en la comunidad Shakya , que estaba gobernada por una pequeña oligarquía o un consejo similar a una república donde no había rangos pero donde la antigüedad importaba. [29] [nota 4] Algunas de las historias sobre Buda, su vida, sus enseñanzas y afirmaciones sobre la sociedad en la que creció pueden haber sido inventadas e interpoladas en un momento posterior en los textos budistas. [32] [33]
Según textos tempranos como el Pali Ariyapariyesanā-sutta ("El discurso sobre la búsqueda noble", MN 26) y su paralelo chino en MĀ 204, Gautama se sintió conmovido por el sufrimiento ( dukkha ) de la vida y la muerte, y su interminable repetición. debido al renacimiento . [34] Por lo tanto, emprendió una búsqueda para encontrar la liberación del sufrimiento (también conocido como " nirvana "). [35] Los primeros textos y biografías afirman que Gautama estudió por primera vez con dos maestros de meditación, a saber, Alara Kalama (sánscrito: Arada Kalama) y Uddaka Ramaputta.(Sánscrito: Udraka Ramaputra), aprendiendo meditación y filosofía, particularmente el logro meditativo de "la esfera de la nada" de la primera, y "la esfera de ni percepción ni no percepción" de la segunda. [36] [37] [nota 5]
Al encontrar que estas enseñanzas eran insuficientes para lograr su objetivo, recurrió a la práctica del ascetismo severo , que incluía un estricto régimen de ayuno y varias formas de control de la respiración . [40] Esto tampoco logró alcanzar su objetivo, y luego se dedicó a la práctica meditativa de dhyana . Se sentó en meditación bajo un árbol Ficus religiosa que ahora se llama el árbol Bodhi en la ciudad de Bodh Gaya y alcanzó el "Despertar" ( Bodhi ). [ cita requerida ]
De acuerdo con varios textos tempranos como el Mahāsaccaka-sutta y el Samaññaphala Sutta , al despertar, el Buda adquirió conocimiento sobre el funcionamiento del karma y sus vidas anteriores, además de lograr el fin de las impurezas mentales ( asavas ), el fin de sufrimiento y el fin del renacimiento en saṃsāra . [40] Este evento también trajo certeza sobre el Camino Medio como el camino correcto de práctica espiritual para terminar con el sufrimiento. [41] [42] Como un Buda completamente iluminado , atrajo seguidores y fundó una Sangha (orden monástica). [43]Pasó el resto de su vida enseñando el Dharma que había descubierto y luego murió, alcanzando el " nirvana final ", a la edad de 80 años en Kushinagar , India. [44] [22]
Las enseñanzas de Buda fueron propagadas por sus seguidores, que en los últimos siglos del primer milenio a. C. se convirtieron en varias escuelas de pensamiento budistas , cada una con su propia canasta de textos que contienen diferentes interpretaciones y enseñanzas auténticas de Buda; [45] [46] [47] estos con el tiempo evolucionaron en muchas tradiciones de las cuales las más conocidas y extendidas en la era moderna son el budismo Theravada , Mahayana y Vajrayana . [48] [49] [nota 6]
Cosmovisión
El término "budismo" es un neologismo occidental, comúnmente (y "bastante toscamente" según Donald S. Lopez Jr. ) utilizado como traducción del Dharma del Buda , fójiào en chino, bukkyō en japonés, nang pa sangs rgyas pa 'i chos en tibetano, buddhadharma en sánscrito, buddhaśāsana en pali. [52]
Cuatro nobles verdades: dukkha y su final
Las Cuatro Verdades expresan la orientación básica del budismo: anhelamos y nos aferramos a estados y cosas impermanentes , lo cual es dukkha , "incapaz de satisfacer" y doloroso. [53] [54] Esto nos mantiene atrapados en saṃsāra , el ciclo interminable de repetidos renacimientos , dukkha y muerte de nuevo. [nota 7] Pero hay una manera de liberarse de este ciclo sin fin [60] al estado de nirvana , a saber, siguiendo el Noble Óctuple Sendero . [nota 8]
La verdad de dukkha es la percepción básica de que la vida en este mundo mundano, con su apego y anhelo a estados y cosas impermanentes [53], es dukkha e insatisfactoria. [55] [66] [web 1] Dukkha puede traducirse como "incapaz de satisfacer", [web 5] "la naturaleza insatisfactoria y la inseguridad general de todos los fenómenos condicionados "; o "doloroso". [53] [54] Dukkhase traduce más comúnmente como "sufrimiento", pero esto es inexacto, ya que no se refiere al sufrimiento episódico, sino a la naturaleza intrínsecamente insatisfactoria de los estados y cosas temporales, incluidas las experiencias agradables pero temporales. [nota 9] Esperamos felicidad de estados y cosas que son impermanentes y, por lo tanto, no podemos alcanzar la felicidad real.
En el budismo, dukkha es una de las tres marcas de existencia , junto con la impermanencia y anattā (no-yo). [72] El budismo, como otras religiones importantes de la India, afirma que todo es impermanente (anicca), pero, a diferencia de ellos, también afirma que no hay un yo o alma permanente en los seres vivos ( anattā ). [73] [74] [75] La ignorancia o percepción errónea ( avijjā ) de que cualquier cosa es permanente o que hay un yo en cualquier ser se considera una comprensión errónea y la fuente principal de apego y dukkha. [76] [77] [78]
Dukkha surge cuando anhelamos (Pali: taṇhā ) y nos aferramos a estos fenómenos cambiantes. El apego y el anhelo producen karma , que nos ata al samsara, el ciclo de muerte y renacimiento. [79] [web 6] [nota 10] El anhelo incluye kama-tanha , anhelo de placeres de los sentidos; bhava -tanha , anhelo de continuar el ciclo de vida y muerte, incluido el renacimiento; y vibhava-tanha , anhelo de no experimentar el mundo y los sentimientos dolorosos. [79] [80] [81]
Dukkha cesa, o puede ser confinado, [82] cuando el deseo y el apego cesan o se limitan. Esto también significa que no se produce más karma y termina el renacimiento. [nota 11] El cese es nirvana , "soplar" y paz mental. [84] [85]
Al seguir el camino budista hacia moksha , la liberación, [62] uno comienza a desengancharse del anhelo y aferrarse a estados y cosas impermanentes. El término "camino" generalmente se considera el Noble Óctuple Sendero , pero también se pueden encontrar otras versiones de "el camino" en los Nikayas. [86] La tradición Theravada considera que la comprensión de las cuatro verdades es liberadora en sí misma. [68]
El ciclo del renacimiento
Saṃsāra
Saṃsāra significa "errante" o "mundo", con la connotación de cambio cíclico y tortuoso. [87] [88] Se refiere a la teoría del renacimiento y "el carácter cíclico de toda vida, materia, existencia", un supuesto fundamental del budismo, como ocurre con todas las principales religiones indias. [88] [89] El samsara en el budismo se considera dukkha , insatisfactorio y doloroso, [90] perpetuado por el deseo y la avidya (ignorancia) y el karma resultante . [88] [91] [92]
La teoría de los renacimientos y los reinos en los que pueden ocurrir estos renacimientos está ampliamente desarrollada en el budismo, en particular en el budismo tibetano con su doctrina de la rueda de la existencia ( Bhavacakra ). [90] La liberación de este ciclo de existencia, el nirvana , ha sido el fundamento y la justificación histórica más importante del budismo. [93] [94]
Los textos budistas posteriores afirman que el renacimiento puede ocurrir en seis reinos de la existencia, a saber, tres reinos buenos (celestial, semidiós, humano) y tres reinos malvados (animal, fantasmas hambrientos, infernal). [nota 12] Samsara termina si una persona alcanza el nirvana , el "soplo" de los deseos y la obtención de una verdadera percepción de la impermanencia y la realidad del no-yo . [96] [97] [98]
Renacimiento
El renacimiento se refiere a un proceso por el cual los seres pasan por una sucesión de vidas como una de las muchas formas posibles de vida sensible , cada una de las cuales va desde la concepción hasta la muerte. [99] En el pensamiento budista, este renacimiento no involucra a ningún alma, debido a su doctrina de anattā (sánscrito: anātman , doctrina del no-yo) que rechaza los conceptos de un yo permanente o un alma eterna e inmutable, como se le llama en el hinduismo y el cristianismo . [100] Según el budismo, en última instancia, no existe el yo en ningún ser ni la esencia de ninguna cosa. [101]
Las tradiciones budistas han estado tradicionalmente en desacuerdo sobre lo que es en una persona que renace, así como sobre la rapidez con la que se produce el renacimiento después de cada muerte. [102] [103] Algunas tradiciones budistas afirman que la doctrina del "no yo" significa que no hay un yo perdurable , pero hay un yo avacya (inexpresable) que migra de una vida a otra. [102] La mayoría de las tradiciones budistas, por el contrario, afirman que vijñāna (la conciencia de una persona), aunque evoluciona, existe como un continuo y es la base mecanicista de lo que experimenta renacimiento, reencarnación y redención. [55] [102] El renacimiento depende del méritoo demérito obtenido por el karma de uno, así como el acumulado en su nombre por un miembro de la familia. [nota 13]
Cada renacimiento tiene lugar dentro de uno de los cinco reinos según los Theravadins, o seis según otras escuelas: celestial, semidioses, humanos, animales, fantasmas hambrientos e infernal. [105] [106] [nota 14]
En el budismo de Asia oriental y tibetano , el renacimiento no es instantáneo y hay un estado intermedio (" bardo " tibetano ) entre una vida y la siguiente. [116] [117] La posición ortodoxa de Theravada rechaza la espera y afirma que el renacimiento de un ser es inmediato. [116] Sin embargo, hay pasajes en el Samyutta Nikaya del Canon Pali que parecen apoyar la idea de que el Buda enseñó acerca de una etapa intermedia entre una vida y la siguiente. [118] [119]
Karma
En el budismo , el karma (del sánscrito : "acción, trabajo") impulsa el saṃsāra , el ciclo interminable de sufrimiento y renacimiento de cada ser. Las acciones buenas y hábiles (Pāli: kusala ) y las acciones malas y torpes (Pāli: akusala ) producen "semillas" en el receptáculo inconsciente ( ālaya ) que maduran más tarde, ya sea en esta vida o en un renacimiento posterior . [120] [121] La existencia del karma es una creencia fundamental en el budismo, como en todas las principales religiones indias, y no implica ni fatalismo ni que todo lo que le sucede a una persona es causado por el karma. [122] [nota 15]
Un aspecto central de la teoría budista del karma es que la intención ( cetanā ) importa y es esencial para producir una consecuencia o un "fruto" de phala o un "resultado" de vipāka . [123] [nota 16] Sin embargo, el karma bueno o malo se acumula incluso si no hay acción física, y el simple hecho de tener pensamientos buenos o malos crea semillas kármicas; por tanto, las acciones del cuerpo, el habla o la mente conducen a semillas kármicas. [122] En las tradiciones budistas, los aspectos de la vida afectados por la ley del karma en los nacimientos pasados y actuales de un ser incluyen la forma de renacimiento, el reino del renacimiento, la clase social, el carácter y las principales circunstancias de la vida. [122] [127] [128]Opera como las leyes de la física, sin intervención externa, en cada ser en los seis reinos de la existencia, incluidos los seres humanos y los dioses. [122] [129]
Un aspecto notable de la teoría del karma en el budismo es la transferencia de méritos. [130] [131] Una persona acumula méritos no solo a través de intenciones y una vida ética, sino que también puede obtener méritos de otros mediante el intercambio de bienes y servicios, como a través de dāna (caridad con monjes o monjas). [132] Además, una persona puede transferir su propio buen karma a los familiares y antepasados vivos. [131] [nota 17]
Liberación
El cese de las kleshas y el logro del nirvana ( nibbāna ), con el cual termina el ciclo de renacimiento, ha sido el objetivo principal y soteriológico del camino budista para la vida monástica desde la época del Buda. [62] [135] [136] El término "camino" generalmente se considera el Noble Óctuple Sendero , pero también se pueden encontrar otras versiones de "el camino" en los Nikayas. [nota 18] En algunos pasajes del Canon Pali, se hace una distinción entre conocimiento o intuición correctos ( sammā-ñāṇa ) y liberación o liberación correctas ( sammā-vimutti), como medio para lograr la cesación y la liberación. [137] [138]
Nirvana significa literalmente "apagarse, apagarse, extinguirse". [139] [140] En los primeros textos budistas, es el estado de moderación y autocontrol lo que conduce a la "explosión" y al final de los ciclos de sufrimiento asociados con los renacimientos y redenciones. [141] [142] [143] Muchos textos budistas posteriores describen el nirvana como idéntico a anatta con un completo "vacío, nada". [144] [145] [146] [nota 19] En algunos textos, el estado se describe con mayor detalle, como pasar por la puerta del vacío ( sunyata) - dándose cuenta de que no hay alma o yo en ningún ser vivo, luego atravesando la puerta de la ausencia de signos ( animitta ) - dándose cuenta de que el nirvana no puede ser percibido, y finalmente atravesando la puerta de la ausencia de deseos ( apranihita ) - dándose cuenta de que el nirvana es el estado de ni siquiera desear el nirvana. [135] [148] [nota 20]
El estado de nirvana se ha descrito en los textos budistas en parte de una manera similar a otras religiones indias, como el estado de liberación completa, iluminación, felicidad suprema, dicha, intrepidez, libertad, permanencia, origen no dependiente, insondable e indescriptible. [150] [151] También se ha descrito en parte de manera diferente, como un estado de liberación espiritual marcado por el "vacío" y la realización del no-yo . [152] [153] [154] [nota 21]
Si bien el budismo considera la liberación del saṃsāra como el objetivo espiritual último, en la práctica tradicional, el enfoque principal de la gran mayoría de los budistas laicos ha sido buscar y acumular méritos a través de buenas obras, donaciones a monjes y diversos rituales budistas para obtener mejores beneficios. renacimientos en lugar del nirvana. [157] [111] [nota 22]
Surgimiento dependiente
Pratityasamutpada , también llamado "surgimiento dependiente u origen dependiente", es la teoría budista para explicar la naturaleza y las relaciones del ser, el devenir, la existencia y la realidad última. El budismo afirma que no hay nada independiente, excepto el estado de nirvana. [158] Todos los estados físicos y mentales dependen y surgen de otros estados preexistentes y, a su vez, de ellos surgen otros estados dependientes mientras cesan. [159]
Los 'surgimientos dependientes' tienen un condicionamiento causal y, por lo tanto, Pratityasamutpada es la creencia budista de que la causalidad es la base de la ontología , no un Dios creador ni el concepto védico ontológico llamado Yo universal ( Brahman ) ni ningún otro 'principio creativo trascendente'. [160] [161] Sin embargo, el pensamiento budista no entiende la causalidad en términos de la mecánica newtoniana, sino que la entiende como un surgimiento condicionado. [162] [163]En el budismo, el surgimiento dependiente se refiere a las condiciones creadas por una pluralidad de causas que necesariamente co-originan un fenómeno dentro y a lo largo de las vidas, como el karma en una vida que crea condiciones que conducen al renacimiento en uno de los reinos de la existencia para otra vida. [164] [165] [166]
El budismo aplica la teoría del surgimiento dependiente para explicar el origen de ciclos interminables de dukkha y renacimiento, a través de Doce Nidānas o "doce enlaces". Afirma que debido a que Avidyā (ignorancia) existe Saāskāras (formaciones kármicas) existe, porque Saṃskāras existe, por lo tanto, Vijñāna (conciencia) existe, y de manera similar vincula Nāmarūpa (cuerpo sensible), Ṣaḍāyatana (seis sentidos), Sparśa (estimulación sensorial) , vedanā (sentimiento), tANHA (craving), upadana (agarrar), Bhava (convertirse), jāti(nacimiento) y Jarāmaraṇa (vejez, muerte, tristeza, dolor). [167] [168] Al romper los tortuosos vínculos de los Doce Nidanas, el budismo afirma que se puede lograr la liberación de estos ciclos interminables de renacimiento y dukkha. [169]
El no-yo y el vacío
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Una doctrina relacionada en el budismo es la de anattā (pali) o anātman (sánscrito). Es la opinión de que no hay un yo, alma o esencia inmutable y permanente en los fenómenos. [170] El Buda y los filósofos budistas que lo siguen, como Vasubandhu y Buddhaghosa, generalmente defienden este punto de vista analizando a la persona a través del esquema de los cinco agregados y luego intentando mostrar que ninguno de estos cinco componentes de la personalidad puede ser permanente. o absoluto. [171] Esto se puede ver en discursos budistas como el Anattalakkhana Sutta .
La "vacuidad" o "vacuidad" (Skt : Śūnyatā , Pali: Suññatā) , es un concepto relacionado con muchas interpretaciones diferentes a lo largo de los diversos budismos. En el budismo temprano, se decía comúnmente que los cinco agregados son vacíos ( rittaka ), huecos ( tucchaka ), sin núcleo ( asāraka ), por ejemplo, como en el Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta (SN 22:95). [172] De manera similar, en el budismo Theravada, a menudo simplemente significa que los cinco agregados están vacíos de un Yo. [173]
El vacío es un concepto central en el budismo Mahayana, especialmente en Nagarjuna 's madyámaka la escuela y en los Prajñāpāramitā sutras . En la filosofía Madhyamaka, la vacuidad es el punto de vista que sostiene que todos los fenómenos ( dharmas ) carecen de svabhava (literalmente, "naturaleza propia" o "naturaleza propia") y, por lo tanto, carecen de esencia subyacente y, por lo tanto, están "vacíos" de siendo independiente. Esta doctrina buscaba refutar las teorías heterodoxas de svabhava que circulaban en ese momento. [174]
Las tres joyas
Todas las formas de budismo reverencian y se refugian espiritualmente en las "tres joyas" ( triratna ): Buda, Dharma y Sangha. [175]
Buda
Si bien todas las variedades de budismo veneran al "Buda" y la "budeidad", tienen diferentes puntos de vista sobre lo que son. Sea lo que sea, "Buda" sigue siendo fundamental para todas las formas de budismo.
En el budismo Theravada, un buda es alguien que se ha despertado gracias a sus propios esfuerzos e intuición. Han puesto fin a su ciclo de renacimientos y han terminado con todos los estados mentales malsanos que conducen a malas acciones y, por lo tanto, se han perfeccionado moralmente. [176] Si bien está sujeto a las limitaciones del cuerpo humano de ciertas maneras (por ejemplo, en los primeros textos, el Buda sufre de dolores de espalda), se dice que un Buda es "profundo, inconmensurable, difícil de comprender como lo es el gran océano ", y también tiene inmensos poderes psíquicos ( abhijñā ). [177]
Theravada generalmente ve a Gautama Buda (el Buda histórico Sakyamuni) como el único Buda de la era actual. Mientras ya no está en este mundo, nos ha dejado el Dharma (Enseñanza), el Vinaya (Disciplina) y la Sangha (Comunidad). [178] También se dice que hay dos tipos de Budas, también se dice que un sammasambuddha enseña el Dharma a otros, mientras que un paccekabuddha (buda solitario) no enseña. [176]
Mientras tanto, el budismo Mahāyāna tiene una cosmología enormemente expandida , con varios Budas y otros seres sagrados ( aryas ) que residen en diferentes reinos. Los textos Mahāyāna no solo veneran a numerosos Budas además de Sakyamuni , como Amitabha y Vairocana , sino que también los ven como seres trascendentales o supramundanos ( lokuttara ). [179] El Budismo Mahāyāna sostiene que estos otros Budas en otros reinos pueden ser contactados y pueden beneficiar a los seres de este mundo. [180]En Mahāyāna, un Buda es una especie de "rey espiritual", un "protector de todas las criaturas" con una vida de incontables eones, en lugar de un simple maestro humano que ha trascendido el mundo después de la muerte. [181] La vida y muerte de Buda Sakyamuni en la tierra se suele entender entonces como una "mera apariencia" o "una manifestación proyectada hábilmente en la vida terrenal por un ser trascendente iluminado desde hace mucho tiempo, que todavía está disponible para enseñar a los fieles a través de experiencias visionarias . " [181] [182]
Dharma
"Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma) en el budismo se refiere a la enseñanza del Buda, que incluye todas las ideas principales descritas anteriormente. Si bien esta enseñanza refleja la verdadera naturaleza de la realidad, no es una creencia a la que aferrarse, sino una enseñanza pragmática a poner en práctica. Se compara con una balsa que es "para cruzar" (con el nirvana), no para aferrarse. [183]
También se refiere a la ley universal y al orden cósmico que esa enseñanza revela y en la que se basa. [184] Es un principio eterno que se aplica a todos los seres y mundos. En ese sentido, también es la verdad y la realidad última sobre el universo, es por lo tanto "la forma en que las cosas son realmente".
El Dharma es la segunda de las tres joyas en las que se refugian todos los budistas. Los budistas creen que todos los budas de todos los mundos, en el pasado, presente y futuro, comprenden y enseñan el Dharma. De hecho, es parte de lo que los convierte en un Buda que lo hagan.
Sangha
La tercera "joya" en la que se refugian los budistas es la "Sangha", que se refiere a la comunidad monástica de monjes y monjas que siguen la disciplina monástica de Gautama Buda, que fue "diseñada para dar forma a la Sangha como una comunidad ideal, con las condiciones óptimas para crecimiento espiritual." [185] La Sangha está formada por aquellos que han optado por seguir la forma de vida ideal del Buda, que es una de renuncia monástica célibe con posesiones materiales mínimas (como un cuenco de limosna y túnicas). [186]
La Sangha se considera importante porque preservan y transmiten el Dharma del Buda. Como afirma Gethin, "la Sangha vive la enseñanza, conserva la enseñanza como Escritura y enseña a la comunidad en general. Sin la Sangha no hay budismo". [187]
La Sangha también actúa como un "campo de mérito" para los laicos, permitiéndoles hacer méritos espirituales o bondad al donar a la Sangha y apoyarlos. A cambio, mantienen su deber de preservar y difundir el Dharma en todas partes para el bien del mundo. [188]
También se supone que la Sangha sigue el Vinaya (regla monástica) del Buda, sirviendo así como un ejemplo espiritual para el mundo y las generaciones futuras. Las reglas de Vinaya también obligan a la Sangha a vivir en dependencia del resto de la comunidad laica (deben mendigar comida, etc.) y así llevar a la Sangha a una relación con la comunidad laica. [189]
También hay una definición separada de Sangha, que se refiere a aquellos que han alcanzado cualquier etapa de despertar , sean o no monásticos. Esta sangha se llama āryasaṅgha "noble Sangha". [190] Todas las formas de budismo generalmente reverencian a estos āryas (Pali: ariya , "nobles" o "santos") que son seres espiritualmente alcanzados. Los arias han obtenido los frutos del camino budista. [191] Convertirse en arya es un objetivo en la mayoría de las formas de budismo. El āryasaṅgha incluye seres sagrados como bodhisattvas , arhats y personas que entran en las corrientes.
En el budismo temprano y en el budismo Theravada, un arhat (que literalmente significa "digno") es alguien que alcanzó el mismo despertar ( bodhi ) de un Buda siguiendo las enseñanzas de un Buda. [192] Se considera que han terminado con el renacimiento y todas las corrupciones mentales. Mientras tanto, un bodhisattva ("un ser destinado al despertar") es simplemente un nombre para alguien que está trabajando para despertar ( bodhi ) como un Buda. Según todas las escuelas budistas tempranas, así como Theravada, para ser considerado un bodhisattva, uno debe haber hecho un voto frente a un Buda viviente y también debe haber recibido una confirmación de su futura Budeidad. [193]En Theravada, el futuro Buda se llama Metteyya (Maitreya) y es venerado como un bodhisatta que actualmente trabaja para la budeidad futura. [193]
El budismo Mahāyāna generalmente ve el logro del arhat como algo inferior, ya que se considera que se realiza solo por el bien de la liberación individual. Por lo tanto, promueve el camino del bodhisattva como el más elevado y valioso. [194] Mientras que en Mahāyāna, cualquiera que haya dado lugar a la bodhicitta (el deseo de convertirse en un Buda que surge de un sentido de compasión por todos los seres) es considerado un bodhisattva, [195] algunos de estos seres sagrados (como Maitreya y Avalokiteshvara ) han alcanzado niveles muy altos de logro espiritual y son vistos como seres supramundanos muy poderosos que brindan ayuda a innumerables seres a través de sus poderes avanzados. [196]
Otros puntos de vista clave de Mahāyāna
El budismo Mahāyāna también se diferencia del Theravada y las otras escuelas del budismo primitivo en la promoción de varias doctrinas únicas que están contenidas en los sutras Mahāyāna y tratados filosóficos.
Uno de ellos es la interpretación única de la vacuidad y el origen dependiente que se encuentra en la escuela Madhyamaka. Otra doctrina muy influyente para Mahāyāna es la principal visión filosófica de la escuela de Yogācāra , denominada Vijñaptimātratā-vāda ("la doctrina de que solo hay ideas" o "impresiones mentales") o Vijñānavāda ("la doctrina de la conciencia"). Según Mark Siderits, lo que pensaban los pensadores clásicos de Yogācāra como Vasubandhu es que solo somos conscientes de las imágenes o impresiones mentales, que pueden aparecer como objetos externos, pero "en realidad no existe tal cosa fuera de la mente". [197]Hay varias interpretaciones de esta teoría principal, muchos estudiosos la ven como un tipo de idealismo, otros como una especie de fenomenología. [198]
Otro concepto muy influyente exclusivo de Mahāyāna es el de "naturaleza búdica" ( buddhadhātu ) o "útero de Tathagata" ( tathāgatagarbha ). La naturaleza búdica es un concepto que se encuentra en algunos textos budistas del primer milenio de nuestra era, como los sūtras de Tathāgatagarbha . Según Paul Williams, estos Sutras sugieren que "todos los seres sensibles contienen un Tathagata" como su "esencia, naturaleza interna central, Ser". [199] [nota 23] Según Karl Brunnholzl "los primeros sutras mahayana que se basan y discuten la noción de tathāgatagarbha como el potencial de Buda que es innato en todos los seres sintientes comenzaron a aparecer en forma escrita a finales del segundo y principios del tercio siglo." [201]Para algunos, la doctrina parece entrar en conflicto con la doctrina budista anatta (no-yo), lo que lleva a los eruditos a postular que los Tathāgatagarbha Sutras fueron escritos para promover el budismo entre los no budistas. [202] [203] Esto se puede ver en textos como el Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra , que afirma que la naturaleza búdica se enseña a ayudar a quienes tienen miedo cuando escuchan la enseñanza de anatta. [204] Textos budistas como el Ratnagotravibhāga aclaran que el "yo" implícito en la doctrina Tathagatagarbha es en realidad "no-yo". [205] [206]Los pensadores budistas han propuesto varias interpretaciones del concepto a lo largo de la historia del pensamiento budista y la mayoría intenta evitar algo parecido a la doctrina hindú Atman .
Estas ideas budistas indias, de diversas formas sintéticas, forman la base de la filosofía Mahāyāna posterior en el budismo tibetano y el budismo de Asia oriental.
Caminos hacia la liberación
Si bien el Noble Óctuple Sendero es más conocido en Occidente, se han utilizado y descrito una amplia variedad de senderos y modelos de progreso en las diferentes tradiciones budistas. Sin embargo, generalmente comparten prácticas básicas como sila (ética), samadhi (meditación, dhyana ) y prajña (sabiduría), que se conocen como los tres entrenamientos. Una práctica adicional importante es una actitud amable y compasiva hacia todos los seres vivos y el mundo. Devocióntambién es importante en algunas tradiciones budistas, y en las tradiciones tibetanas las visualizaciones de deidades y mandalas son importantes. El valor del estudio textual se considera de manera diferente en las diversas tradiciones budistas. Es fundamental para Theravada y muy importante para el budismo tibetano, mientras que la tradición Zen adopta una postura ambigua.
Un principio rector importante de la práctica budista es el Camino Medio ( madhyamapratipad ). Fue parte del primer sermón de Buda, donde presentó el Noble Óctuple Sendero que era un "camino intermedio" entre los extremos del ascetismo y los placeres hedonistas de los sentidos. [207] [208] En el budismo, afirma Harvey, la doctrina del "surgimiento dependiente" (surgimiento condicionado, pratītyasamutpāda ) para explicar el renacimiento se considera el "camino intermedio" entre las doctrinas de que un ser tiene un "alma permanente" involucrada en renacimiento (eternismo) y "la muerte es definitiva y no hay renacimiento" (aniquilacionismo). [209] [210]
Caminos hacia la liberación en los primeros textos
Un estilo de presentación común del camino ( mārga ) hacia la liberación en los primeros textos budistas es la "charla graduada", en la que el Buda presenta un entrenamiento paso a paso. [211]
En los primeros textos se pueden encontrar numerosas secuencias diferentes del camino gradual. [212] Una de las presentaciones más importantes y ampliamente utilizadas entre las diversas escuelas budistas es El noble óctuple sendero , o "Óctuple sendero de los nobles" (sct. 'Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga' ). Esto se puede encontrar en varios discursos, el más famoso en el Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (El discurso sobre el giro de la rueda del Dharma ).
Otros suttas como el Tevijja Sutta y el Cula-Hatthipadopama-sutta dan un esquema diferente del camino, aunque con muchos elementos similares como la ética y la meditación. [212]
Según Rupert Gethin, el camino hacia el despertar también se resume con frecuencia en otra fórmula breve: "abandono de los obstáculos, práctica de los cuatro principios de la atención plena y desarrollo de los factores del despertar". [213]
Noble Óctuple Sendero
El Óctuple Sendero consiste en un conjunto de ocho factores o condiciones interconectados que, cuando se desarrollan juntos, conducen al cese de dukkha . [214] Estos ocho factores son: Visión Correcta (o Entendimiento Correcto), Intención Correcta (o Pensamiento Correcto), Habla Correcta, Acción Correcta, Medio de Vida Correcto, Esfuerzo Correcto, Atención Correcta y Concentración Correcta.
Este Óctuple Sendero es la cuarta de las Cuatro Nobles Verdades y afirma el sendero hacia el cese de dukkha (sufrimiento, dolor, insatisfacción). [215] [216] El camino enseña que el camino de los iluminados detuvo su ansia, aferramiento y acumulaciones kármicas , y así terminó sus ciclos interminables de renacimiento y sufrimiento. [217] [218] [219]
El Noble Óctuple Sendero se agrupa en tres divisiones básicas , como sigue: [220] [221] [222]
| División | Factor multiplicado por ocho | Sánscrito, pali | Descripción |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sabiduría (sánscrito: prajñā , pali : paññā ) | 1. Vista derecha | samyag dṛṣṭi, sammā ditthi | La creencia de que hay una vida después de la muerte y que no todo termina con la muerte, que Buda enseñó y siguió un camino exitoso hacia el nirvana; [220] Según Peter Harvey, el budismo sostiene la visión correcta como una creencia en los principios budistas del karma y el renacimiento , y la importancia de las Cuatro Nobles Verdades y las Verdaderas Realidades. [223] |
| 2. Intención correcta | samyag saṃkalpa, sammā saṅkappa | Renunciar al hogar y adoptar la vida de religioso mendicante para seguir el camino; [220] este concepto, afirma Harvey, apunta a la renuncia pacífica, a un entorno de no sensualidad, no mala voluntad (a la bondad), lejos de la crueldad (a la compasión). [223] | |
| Virtudes morales [221] (Sánscrito: śīla , Pāli: sīla ) | 3. Habla correcta | samyag vāc, sammā vāca | Sin mentiras, sin palabras groseras, sin decirle a una persona lo que otra dice de él, sin decir lo que conduce a la salvación. [220] |
| 4. Acción correcta | samyag karman, sammā kammanta | No matar o herir, no tomar lo que no se da; no hay actos sexuales en la búsqueda monástica, [220] para los budistas laicos no hay mala conducta sensual como la participación sexual con alguien casado o con una mujer soltera protegida por sus padres o parientes. [224] [225] [226] | |
| 5. Medios de vida adecuados | samyag ājīvana, sammā ājīva | Para los monjes, suplica para alimentarse, poseyendo solo lo esencial para sustentar la vida. [227] Para los budistas laicos, los textos canónicos establecen el sustento correcto como abstenerse del sustento incorrecto, explicado como no convertirse en una fuente o medio de sufrimiento para los seres sintientes al engañarlos, o dañarlos o matarlos de ninguna manera. [228] [229] | |
| Meditación [221] (Sánscrito y Pali: samādhi ) | 6. Esfuerzo correcto | samyag vyāyāma, sammā vāyāma | Guárdese de los pensamientos sensuales; este concepto, afirma Harvey, apunta a prevenir estados malsanos que interrumpen la meditación. [230] |
| 7. Atención plena correcta | samyag smṛti, sammā sati | Nunca esté distraído, consciente de lo que está haciendo; esto, afirma Harvey, fomenta la atención plena sobre la impermanencia del cuerpo, los sentimientos y la mente, así como para experimentar los cinco skandhas , los cinco obstáculos, las cuatro realidades verdaderas y los siete factores del despertar. [230] | |
| 8. Concentración correcta | samyag samādhi, sammā samādhi | Meditación o concentración correcta ( dhyana ), explicada como los cuatro jhānas. [220] [231] |
Presentaciones theravada del camino
El budismo Theravada es una tradición diversa y, por lo tanto, incluye diferentes explicaciones del camino hacia el despertar. Sin embargo, las enseñanzas del Buda a menudo son encapsuladas por los Theravadins en el marco básico de las Cuatro Nobles Verdades y el Octavo Sendero. [232] [233]
Algunos budistas Theravada también siguen la presentación del camino trazado en Visuddhimagga de Buddhaghosa . Esta presentación se conoce como las "Siete Purificaciones" ( satta-visuddhi ). [234] Este esquema y el esbozo que lo acompaña de "conocimientos de intuición" ( vipassanā-ñāṇa ) es utilizado por los eruditos Theravadin influyentes modernos, como Mahasi Sayadaw (en su "El progreso de la intuición") y Nyanatiloka Thera (en "El camino del Buda hacia Liberación"). [235] [236]
Presentaciones mahayana del camino
El Budismo Mahāyāna se basa principalmente en el camino de un Bodhisattva . [237] Un Bodhisattva se refiere a alguien que está en el camino hacia la Budeidad. [238] El término Mahāyāna fue originalmente un sinónimo de Bodhisattvayāna o "Vehículo Bodhisattva". [239] [240] [241]
En los primeros textos del budismo Mahāyāna, el camino de un bodhisattva era despertar la bodichita . [242] Entre los siglos I y III de nuestra era, esta tradición introdujo la doctrina de los Diez Bhumi , que significa diez niveles o etapas del despertar. [242] Este desarrollo fue seguido por la aceptación de que es imposible alcanzar la Budeidad en una vida (actual), y la mejor meta no es el nirvana para uno mismo, sino la Budeidad después de escalar los diez niveles durante múltiples renacimientos. [243]Los eruditos Mahāyāna luego delinearon un camino elaborado, para monjes y laicos, y el camino incluye el voto de ayudar a enseñar el conocimiento budista a otros seres, a fin de ayudarlos a cruzar el samsara y liberarse, una vez que uno alcanza la Budeidad en un futuro renacimiento. [237] Una parte de este camino son las pāramitā (perfecciones, cruzar), derivadas de los cuentos de Jatakas sobre los numerosos renacimientos de Buda. [244] [245]
La doctrina del bodhisattva bhūmis también se fusionó finalmente con el esquema Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣika de los "cinco caminos" de la escuela Yogacara . [246] Esta presentación de Mahāyāna "cinco caminos" se puede ver en Mahāyānasaṃgraha de Asanga . [246]
Los textos Mahāyāna son inconsistentes en su discusión de los pāramitās , y algunos textos incluyen listas de dos, otros cuatro, seis, diez y cincuenta y dos. [247] [248] [249] Las seis paramitas han sido las más estudiadas, y estas son: [244] [249] [250]
- Dāna pāramitā : perfección de dar; principalmente a los monjes, monjas y el establecimiento monástico budista que depende de las limosnas y obsequios de los jefes de familia laicos, a cambio de generar mérito religioso; [251] algunos textos recomiendan transferir ritualmente el mérito así acumulado para un mejor renacimiento a otra persona
- Śīla pāramitā : perfección de la moralidad; describe el comportamiento ético tanto para los laicos como para la comunidad monástica Mahayana; esta lista es similar a Śīla en el Óctuple Sendero (es decir, discurso correcto, acción correcta, medio de vida correcto) [252]
- Kṣānti pāramitā: perfección de la paciencia, disposición para soportar las dificultades
- Vīrya pāramitā : perfección de vigor; esto es similar al Esfuerzo correcto en el óctuple camino [252]
- Dhyāna pāramitā : perfección de la meditación; esto es similar a la Concentración Correcta en el Óctuple Sendero
- Prajñā pāramitā : perfección de percepción (sabiduría), despertar a las características de la existencia tales como karma, renacimientos, impermanencia, no-yo, origen dependiente y vacuidad; [249] [253] Esta es la aceptación completa de la enseñanza de Buda, luego la convicción, seguida de la comprensión final de que "los dharmas no surgen". [244]
En Mahāyāna Sutras que incluyen diez pāramitā , las cuatro perfecciones adicionales son "medios hábiles, voto, poder y conocimiento". [248] El pāramitā más discutido y la perfección más valorada en los textos Mahayana es el "Prajna-paramita", o la "perfección de la intuición". [248] Esta percepción de la tradición Mahāyāna, afirma Shōhei Ichimura, ha sido la "percepción de la no dualidad o la ausencia de realidad en todas las cosas". [254] [255]
Budismo de Asia Oriental
El budismo de Asia oriental está influenciado tanto por las presentaciones clásicas del camino budista indio, como el camino del octavo, como por las presentaciones clásicas del Mahāyāna indio, como la que se encuentra en Da zhidu lun . [256]
Hay muchas presentaciones diferentes de soteriología, incluidos numerosos caminos y vehículos ( yanas ) en las diferentes tradiciones del budismo de Asia oriental. [257] No existe una presentación dominante única. En el budismo zen, por ejemplo, uno puede encontrar los contornos del camino, como las Dos Entradas y las Cuatro Prácticas , Los Cinco Rangos , Las Diez Imágenes del Pastoreo de Bueyes y Las Tres misteriosas Puertas de Linji.
Budismo indo-tibetano
En el budismo indo-tibetano, el camino hacia la liberación se describe en el género conocido como Lamrim ("Etapas del camino"). Todas las diversas escuelas tibetanas tienen sus propias presentaciones de Lamrim. Este género se remonta al siglo XI de Atiśa Una lámpara para el camino hacia la iluminación ( Bodhipathapradīpa ). [258]
Prácticas budistas comunes
Escuchar y aprender el Dharma
En varios suttas que presentan el camino graduado enseñado por el Buda, como el Samaññaphala Sutta y el Cula-Hatthipadopama Sutta, el primer paso en el camino es escuchar al Buda enseñar el Dharma. [212] Se dice entonces que esto conduce a la adquisición de confianza o fe en las enseñanzas del Buda. [212]
Los maestros budistas Mahayana como Yin Shun también afirman que es necesario escuchar el Dharma y estudiar los discursos budistas "si uno quiere aprender y practicar el Buda Dharma". [259] Asimismo, en el budismo indo-tibetano, los textos "Etapas del camino" ( Lamrim ) generalmente colocan la actividad de escuchar las enseñanzas budistas como una práctica temprana importante. [260]
Refugio
Tradicionalmente, el primer paso en la mayoría de las escuelas budistas requiere tomar los "Tres Refugios", también llamados las Tres Joyas ( sánscrito : triratna , Pali : tiratana ) como la base de la práctica religiosa. [261] Esta práctica puede haber sido influenciada por el motivo brahmánico del triple refugio, que se encuentra en el Rigveda 9.97.47, Rigveda 6.46.9 y Chandogya Upanishad 2.22.3–4. [262] El budismo tibetano a veces agrega un cuarto refugio, en el lama . Los budistas creen que los tres refugios son protectores y una forma de reverencia. [261]
La antigua fórmula que se repite para tomar refugio afirma que "voy al Buda como refugio, voy al Dhamma como refugio, voy a la Sangha como refugio". [263] Recitar los tres refugios, según Harvey, no se considera un lugar para esconderse, sino un pensamiento que "purifica, eleva y fortalece el corazón". [175]
Śīla - ética budista
Śīla (sánscrito) o sīla (Pāli) es el concepto de "virtudes morales", que es el segundo grupo y una parte integral del Noble Óctuple Sendero. [223] Por lo general, consiste en un discurso correcto, una acción correcta y un medio de vida correcto. [223]
Una de las formas más básicas de ética en el budismo es la adopción de "preceptos". Esto incluye los Cinco Preceptos para laicos, los Ocho o Diez Preceptos para la vida monástica, así como las reglas del Dhamma ( Vinaya o Patimokkha ) adoptadas por un monasterio. [264] [265]
Otros elementos importantes de la ética budista incluyen dar o caridad ( dāna ), Mettā (buena voluntad), atención ( Appamada ), "respeto por uno mismo" ( Hri ) y "consideración por las consecuencias" ( Apatrapya ).
Preceptos
Las escrituras budistas explican los cinco preceptos ( Pali : pañcasīla ; sánscrito : pañcaśīla ) como el estándar mínimo de moralidad budista. [224] Es el sistema de moralidad más importante del budismo, junto con las reglas monásticas . [266]
Los cinco preceptos se consideran una formación básica aplicable a todos los budistas. Ellos son: [264] [267] [268]
- " Asumo el precepto de entrenamiento ( sikkha-padam ) de abstenerme de atacar a los seres que respiran". Esto incluye ordenar o hacer que otra persona mate. Los suttas Pali también dicen que uno no debería "aprobar que otros maten" y que uno debería ser "escrupuloso, compasivo, temblando por el bienestar de todos los seres vivos". [269]
- "Asumo el precepto de entrenamiento de abstenerme de tomar lo que no se me da". Según Harvey, esto también cubre el fraude, el engaño, la falsificación, así como "negar falsamente que uno está en deuda con alguien". [270]
- "Asumo el precepto de entrenamiento de abstenerme de la mala conducta con respecto a los placeres de los sentidos". Esto generalmente se refiere al adulterio , así como a la violación y el incesto. También se aplica a las relaciones sexuales con personas que están legalmente bajo la protección de un tutor. También se interpreta de diferentes formas en las distintas culturas budistas. [271]
- "Asumo el precepto de entrenamiento de abstenerme de hablar en falso". Según Harvey, esto incluye "cualquier forma de mentira, engaño o exageración ... incluso engaño no verbal por gesto u otra indicación ... o declaraciones engañosas". [272] A menudo también se considera que el precepto incluye otras formas de discurso incorrecto, como "discurso divisivo, palabras duras, abusivas, enojadas e incluso charla inútil". [273]
- "Asumo el precepto de entrenamiento de abstenerme de bebidas alcohólicas o drogas que son una oportunidad para la negligencia". Según Harvey, la intoxicación se ve como una forma de enmascarar en lugar de enfrentar los sufrimientos de la vida. Se considera que daña la claridad mental, la atención plena y la capacidad de mantener los otros cuatro preceptos. [274]
Asumir y defender los cinco preceptos se basa en el principio de no dañar ( pali y sánscrito : ahiṃsa ). [275] El Canon Pali recomienda que uno se compare con los demás y, en base a eso, no lastime a los demás. [276] La compasión y la creencia en la retribución kármica forman la base de los preceptos. [277] [278] El cumplimiento de los cinco preceptos es parte de la práctica devocional laica regular, tanto en el hogar como en el templo local. [279] [280] Sin embargo, la medida en que las personas los conservan difiere según la región y la época. [281] [280]A veces se los denomina preceptos śrāvakayāna en la tradición Mahāyāna , en contraste con los preceptos del bodhisattva . [282]
Los cinco preceptos no son mandamientos y las transgresiones no invitan a sanciones religiosas, pero su poder se ha basado en la creencia budista en las consecuencias kármicas y su impacto en el más allá. Matar en la creencia budista conduce al renacimiento en los reinos del infierno, y durante más tiempo en condiciones más severas si la víctima del asesinato era un monje. El adulterio, igualmente, invita a renacer como prostituta o en el infierno, dependiendo de si la pareja era soltera o casada. [283] Estos preceptos morales se han impuesto voluntariamente en la cultura budista laica a través de la creencia asociada en el karma y el renacimiento. [284] Dentro de la doctrina budista, los preceptos están destinados a desarrollar la mente y el carácter para avanzar en el camino hacia la iluminación . [285]
La vida monástica en el budismo tiene preceptos adicionales como parte de patimokkha y, a diferencia de los laicos, las transgresiones de los monjes invitan a sanciones. La expulsión total de la sangha sigue a cualquier caso de asesinato, participación en relaciones sexuales, robo o afirmaciones falsas sobre el conocimiento de uno. La expulsión temporal sigue a una infracción menor. [286] Las sanciones varían según la fraternidad monástica ( nikaya ). [287]
Los laicos y novicios de muchas fraternidades budistas también defienden ocho ( asta shila ) o diez ( das shila ) de vez en cuando. Cuatro de estos son los mismos que para el devoto laico: no matar, no robar, no mentir y no intoxicantes. [288] Los otros cuatro preceptos son: [289] [288]
- Sin actividad sexual;
- Abstenerse de comer en el momento inadecuado (p. Ej., Solo coma alimentos sólidos antes del mediodía);
- Abstenerse de joyería, perfume, adorno, entretenimiento;
- Abstenerse de dormir en una cama alta, es decir, de dormir en una colchoneta en el suelo.
Los laicos a veces observan los ocho preceptos en los días de uposatha : luna llena, luna nueva, el primer y último cuarto siguiendo el calendario lunar. [288] Los diez preceptos también incluyen abstenerse de aceptar dinero. [288]
Además de estos preceptos, los monasterios budistas tienen cientos de reglas de conducta, que son parte de su patimokkha . [290] [nota 24]
Vinaya
Vinaya es el código de conducta específico para una sangha de monjes o monjas. Incluye el Patimokkha , un conjunto de 227 delitos que incluyen 75 reglas de decoro para los monjes, junto con penas por transgresión, en la tradición Theravadin. [292] El contenido preciso del Vinaya Pitaka (escrituras sobre el Vinaya) difiere en diferentes escuelas y tradiciones, y los diferentes monasterios establecen sus propios estándares sobre su implementación. La lista de pattimokkha se recita cada quince días en una reunión ritual de todos los monjes. [292] El texto budista con reglas vinaya para los monasterios se ha rastreado en todas las tradiciones budistas, siendo la más antigua la que se conserva en las antiguas traducciones chinas.[293]
Las comunidades monásticas en la tradición budista cortan los lazos sociales normales con la familia y la comunidad, y viven como "islas en sí mismas". [294] Dentro de una fraternidad monástica, una sangha tiene sus propias reglas. [294] Un monje se rige por estas reglas institucionalizadas, y vivir la vida como prescribe el vinaya no es simplemente un medio, sino casi el fin en sí mismo. [294] Las transgresiones de un monje en las reglas de Sangha vinaya invitan a la aplicación, que puede incluir la expulsión temporal o permanente. [295]
Contención y renunciación
Otra práctica importante enseñada por el Buda es la restricción de los sentidos ( indriyasamvara ). En los diversos caminos graduados, esto generalmente se presenta como una práctica que se enseña antes de la meditación sentada formal, y que apoya la meditación al debilitar los deseos sensoriales que son un obstáculo para la meditación. [296] Según Anālayo , la restricción de los sentidos es cuando uno "protege las puertas de los sentidos para evitar que las impresiones de los sentidos conduzcan a los deseos y al descontento". [296] No se trata de evitar la impresión sensorial, sino de una especie de atención consciente hacia las impresiones sensoriales que no se detiene en sus principales características o signos ( nimitta). Se dice que esto evita que las influencias dañinas entren en la mente. [297] Se dice que esta práctica da lugar a una paz interior y felicidad que forman la base para la concentración y la intuición. [297]
Una virtud y práctica budista relacionada es la renunciación, o la intención de no tener deseos ( nekkhamma ). [298] Generalmente, la renuncia es el abandono de acciones y deseos que se consideran malsanos en el camino, como la lujuria por la sensualidad y las cosas mundanas. [299] La renuncia se puede cultivar de diferentes formas. La práctica de dar, por ejemplo, es una forma de cultivar la renuncia. Otro es el abandono de la vida laical y convertirse en monástico ( bhiksu o bhiksuni ). [300] Practicar el celibato (ya sea durante la vida como monje o temporalmente) es también una forma de renuncia. [301] Muchos Jatakahistorias como la que se centra en cómo Buda practicó la renunciación en vidas pasadas. [302]
Una forma de cultivar la renuncia enseñada por el Buda es la contemplación ( anupassana ) de los "peligros" (o "consecuencias negativas") del placer sensual ( kāmānaṃ ādīnava ). Como parte del discurso graduado, esta contemplación se enseña después de la práctica del dar y la moralidad. [303]
Otra práctica relacionada con la renunciación y la restricción de los sentidos que enseñó el Buda es la "restricción al comer" o la moderación con la comida, que para los monjes generalmente significa no comer después del mediodía. Los laicos devotos también siguen esta regla durante los días especiales de observancia religiosa ( uposatha ). [304] La observación del Uposatha también incluye otras prácticas relacionadas con la renuncia, principalmente los ocho preceptos .
Para los monásticos budistas, la renunciación también se puede entrenar a través de varias prácticas ascéticas opcionales llamadas dhutaṅga .
En diferentes tradiciones budistas, se siguen otras prácticas relacionadas que se centran en el ayuno .
Mindfulness y comprensión clara
La formación de la facultad llamada "atención plena" (Pali: sati , sánscrito: smṛti, que significa literalmente "recuerdo, recordar") es fundamental en el budismo. Según Analayo, la atención plena es una conciencia plena del momento presente que mejora y fortalece la memoria. [305] El filósofo budista indio Asanga definió la atención plena así: "Es no olvidar por la mente con respecto al objeto experimentado. Su función es la no distracción". [306] Según Rupert Gethin, sati es también "una conciencia de las cosas en relación con las cosas y, por tanto, una conciencia de su valor relativo". [307]
Hay diferentes prácticas y ejercicios para entrenar la atención plena en los primeros discursos, como los cuatro Satipaṭṭhānas (sánscrito: smṛtyupasthāna, "establecimiento de la atención plena") y Ānāpānasati (sánscrito: ānāpānasmṛti, "atención plena de la respiración" ).
Una facultad mental estrechamente relacionada, que a menudo se menciona junto con la atención plena, es sampajañña ("comprensión clara"). Esta facultad es la capacidad de comprender lo que uno está haciendo y está sucediendo en la mente, y si está siendo influenciado por estados malsanos o saludables. [308]
Meditación - Samādhi y Dhyāna
Se ha desarrollado una amplia gama de prácticas de meditación en las tradiciones budistas, pero "meditación" se refiere principalmente al logro de samādhi y la práctica de dhyāna (Pali: jhāna ). Samādhi es un estado de conciencia tranquilo, sin distracciones, unificado y concentrado. Asanga lo define como "la concentración de la mente en el objeto a investigar. Su función consiste en dar una base al conocimiento ( jñāna )". [306] Dhyāna es "estado de perfecta ecuanimidad y conciencia ( upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi )", alcanzado a través de un entrenamiento mental enfocado. [309]
La práctica de dhyāna ayuda a mantener la mente en calma y a evitar la perturbación de esta mente en calma mediante la atención plena a los pensamientos y sentimientos perturbadores. [310] [nota 25]
Orígenes
La evidencia más temprana de los yoguis y su tradición meditativa, afirma Karel Werner, se encuentra en el himno Keśin 10.136 del Rigveda . [311] Si bien la evidencia sugiere que la meditación se practicó en los siglos anteriores al Buda, [312] las metodologías meditativas descritas en los textos budistas son algunas de las primeras entre los textos que han sobrevivido hasta la era moderna. [313] [314] Es probable que estas metodologías incorporen lo que existía antes de Buda, así como las que se desarrollaron por primera vez dentro del budismo. [315] [nota 26]
No existe un acuerdo académico sobre el origen y la fuente de la práctica de dhyāna. Algunos eruditos, como Bronkhorst, ven las cuatro dhyānas como una invención budista. [319] Alexander Wynne sostiene que el Buda aprendió dhyāna de los maestros brahmánicos. [320]
En cualquier caso, el Buda enseñó la meditación con un enfoque e interpretación nuevos, particularmente a través de la metodología de las cuatro dhyānas , [321] en la que se mantiene la atención plena. [322] [323] Además, el enfoque de la meditación y la teoría subyacente de la liberación que guía la meditación ha sido diferente en el budismo. [312] [324] [325] Por ejemplo, afirma Bronkhorst, el verso 4.4.23 del Brihadaranyaka Upanishad con su "cálmate, sometido, tranquilo, pacientemente perseverante, concentrado, uno ve el alma en uno mismo" es muy probablemente una meditación Expresar. [326]La discusión budista sobre la meditación carece del concepto de alma y la discusión critica tanto la meditación ascética del jainismo como la meditación del "yo real, alma" del hinduismo. [327]
Cuatro rupa-jhāna
Los textos budistas enseñan varios esquemas de meditación. Uno de los más destacados es el de las cuatro rupa-jhānas (cuatro meditaciones en el reino de la forma), que son "etapas de concentración que se profundiza progresivamente". [328] Según Gethin, son estados de "perfecta atención, quietud y lucidez". [329] Se describen en el Canon Pali como estados de trance sin deseo. [330] En los primeros textos, se representa al Buda entrando en jhāna tanto antes de despertar bajo el árbol bodhi como antes de su nirvana final (ver: el Mahāsaccaka-sutta y el Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta ). [331] [332]
Los cuatro rupa-jhānas son: [328] [333]
- Primer jhāna : se puede ingresar al primer dhyana cuando uno está apartado de la sensualidad y las cualidades torpes, debido a la retirada y al esfuerzo correcto. Hay pīti ("rapto") y sukha ("placer" no sensual ) como resultado de la reclusión, mientras que vitarka-vicara (pensamiento y examen) continúa.
- Segundo jhāna : hay pīti ("rapto") y sukha ("placer") no sensual como resultado de la concentración ( samadhi-ji , "nacido de samadhi"); ekaggata (unificación de la conciencia) libre de vitarka-vicara ("pensamiento discursivo"); sampasadana ("tranquilidad interior").
- Tercer jhāna : pīti desaparece, hay upekkhā (ecuánime; "desapego afectivo"), y uno está atento, alerta y siente placer ( sukha ) con el cuerpo;
- Cuarto jhāna : una etapa de "pura ecuanimidad y atención plena" ( upekkhāsatipārisuddhi ), sin ningún placer o dolor, felicidad o tristeza.
Existe una amplia variedad de opiniones académicas (tanto de los eruditos modernos como de los budistas tradicionales) sobre la interpretación de estos estados meditativos, así como diferentes opiniones sobre cómo practicarlos. [328] [334]
Los adornos sin forma
A menudo, agrupados en el esquema jhāna, hay otros cuatro estados meditativos, a los que en los primeros textos se hace referencia como arupa samāpattis (logros sin forma). Estos también se conocen en la literatura de comentarios como jhānas inmateriales / amorfos ( arūpajhānas ). El primer logro informe es un lugar o reino de espacio infinito ( ākāsānañcāyatana ) sin forma ni color ni forma. El segundo se denomina el reino de la conciencia infinita ( viññāṇañcāyatana ); el tercero es el reino de la nada ( ākiñcaññāyatana ), mientras que el cuarto es el reino de "ni percepción ni no percepción". [335] Los cuatro rupa-jhānasen la práctica budista conducen al renacimiento en reinos celestiales rupa Brahma exitosamente mejores , mientras que arupa-jhānas conducen a los cielos arupa. [336] [337]
Meditación y comprensión
En el canon Pali, el Buda describe dos cualidades meditativas que se apoyan mutuamente: samatha (pali; sánscrito: śamatha ; "calma") y vipassanā (sánscrito: vipaśyanā , perspicacia). [338] El Buda compara estas cualidades mentales con un "par de mensajeros veloces" que juntos ayudan a transmitir el mensaje del nibbana (SN 35.245). [339]
Las diversas tradiciones budistas generalmente ven la meditación budista dividida en esos dos tipos principales. [340] [341] Samatha también se llama "meditación calmante", y se centra en aquietar y concentrar la mente, es decir, desarrollar samadhi y las cuatro dhyānas . Según Damien Keown, vipassanā , mientras tanto, se centra en "la generación de percepción penetrante y crítica ( paññā )". [342]
Existen numerosas posiciones doctrinales y desacuerdos dentro de las diferentes tradiciones budistas con respecto a estas cualidades o formas de meditación. Por ejemplo, en Pali Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta (AN 4.170), se dice que uno puede desarrollar la calma y luego la perspicacia, o la perspicacia y luego la calma, o ambas al mismo tiempo. [343] Mientras tanto, en el Abhidharmakośakārikā de Vasubandhu , se dice que vipaśyanā se practica una vez que se ha alcanzado el samadhi mediante el cultivo de los cuatro fundamentos de la atención plena ( smṛtyupasthāna s). [344]
Comenzando con los comentarios de La Vallee Poussin , una serie de eruditos han argumentado que estos dos tipos de meditación reflejan una tensión entre dos tradiciones budistas antiguas diferentes con respecto al uso de dhyāna, una que se centró en la práctica basada en la percepción y la otra que se centró puramente en dhyāna . [345] [346] Sin embargo, otros académicos como Analayo y Rupert Gethin han estado en desacuerdo con esta tesis de los "dos caminos", y en cambio ven ambas prácticas como complementarias. [346] [347]
El Brahma-vihara
Los cuatro inconmensurables o cuatro moradas, también llamados Brahma-viharas , son virtudes o direcciones para la meditación en las tradiciones budistas, que ayudan a una persona a renacer en el reino celestial (Brahma). [348] [349] [350] Tradicionalmente se cree que estos son una característica de la deidad Brahma y la morada celestial en la que reside. [351]
Los cuatro Brahma-vihara son:
- La bondad amorosa (Pāli: mettā , sánscrito: maitrī ) es buena voluntad activa hacia todos; [349] [352]
- La compasión (pali y sánscrito: karuṇā ) resulta de metta ; es identificar el sufrimiento ajeno como propio; [349] [352]
- Alegría empática ( pali y sánscrito: muditā ): es el sentimiento de alegría porque los demás son felices, incluso si uno no contribuyó a ello; es una forma de alegría compasiva; [352]
- Ecuanimidad (Pāli: upekkhā , sánscrito: upekṣā ): es ecuanimidad y serenidad, tratando a todos con imparcialidad. [349] [352]
Según Peter Harvey, las escrituras budistas reconocen que las cuatro prácticas de meditación Brahmavihara "no se originaron dentro de la tradición budista". [353] [nota 27] El Brahmavihara (a veces como Brahmaloka), junto con la tradición de la meditación y los cuatro inconmensurables anteriores se encuentran en la literatura védica y sramánica anterior a Buda y posterior a Buda. [355] [356] Los aspectos de la práctica de Brahmavihara para los renacimientos en el reino celestial han sido una parte importante de la tradición de meditación budista. [357] [358]
Según Gombrich, el uso budista del brahma-vihāra se refería originalmente a un estado mental despierto y una actitud concreta hacia otros seres que equivalía a "vivir con Brahman" aquí y ahora. La tradición posterior tomó esas descripciones demasiado literalmente, vinculándolas con la cosmología y entendiéndolas como "vivir con Brahman" mediante el renacimiento en el mundo de Brahma. [359] Según Gombrich, "el Buda enseñó que la bondad, lo que los cristianos tienden a llamar amor, era un camino hacia la salvación". [360]
Tantra, visualización y cuerpo sutil
Algunas tradiciones budistas, especialmente las asociadas con el budismo tántrico (también conocido como Vajrayana y Mantra secreto) utilizan imágenes y símbolos de deidades y Budas en la meditación. Esto generalmente se hace visualizando mentalmente una imagen de Buda (o alguna otra imagen mental, como un símbolo, un mandala, una sílaba, etc.) y usando esa imagen para cultivar la calma y la percepción. También se puede visualizar e identificarse con la deidad imaginada. [361] [362] Si bien las prácticas de visualización han sido particularmente populares en Vajrayana, también pueden encontrarse en las tradiciones Mahayana y Theravada. [363]
En el budismo tibetano, las técnicas tántricas únicas que incluyen la visualización (pero también la recitación de mantras , mandalas y otros elementos) se consideran mucho más efectivas que las meditaciones no tántricas y son uno de los métodos de meditación más populares. [364] Los métodos del Insuperable Yoga Tantra ( anuttarayogatantra ) se consideran a su vez como los más elevados y avanzados. La práctica de Anuttarayoga se divide en dos etapas, la etapa de generación y la etapa de finalización.En la Etapa de Generación, uno medita sobre la vacuidad y se visualiza a sí mismo como una deidad, además de visualizar su mandala. El enfoque está en desarrollar una apariencia clara y orgullo divino (el entendimiento de que uno mismo y la deidad son uno). [365] Este método también se conoce como yoga de la deidad ( devata yoga ). Se utilizan numerosas deidades de meditación ( yidam ), cada una con un mandala, un mapa simbólico circular utilizado en la meditación. [366]
En la etapa de finalización, uno medita sobre la realidad última basada en la imagen que se ha generado. Las prácticas de la etapa de finalización también incluyen técnicas como tummo y phowa . Se dice que funcionan con elementos corporales sutiles , como los canales de energía ( nadi ), las esencias vitales ( bindu ), los "vientos vitales" ( vayu ) y los chakras . [367] Se considera que las energías sutiles del cuerpo influyen en la conciencia de manera poderosa y, por lo tanto, se utilizan para generar la 'gran dicha' ( maha-sukha ) que se utiliza para alcanzar la naturaleza luminosa de la mente.y la realización de la naturaleza vacía e ilusoria de todos los fenómenos ("el cuerpo ilusorio"), que conduce a la iluminación. [368] [369]
Las prácticas de finalización a menudo se agrupan en diferentes sistemas, como los seis dharmas de Naropa y los seis yogas de Kalachakra . En el budismo tibetano, también hay prácticas y métodos que a veces se consideran fuera de las dos etapas tántricas, principalmente Mahamudra y Dzogchen ( Atiyoga ).
Práctica: monjes, laicos
Según Peter Harvey, siempre que el budismo ha sido saludable, no solo los laicos ordenados sino también más comprometidos han practicado la meditación formal. [370] Sin embargo, el canto devocional en voz alta, agrega Harvey, ha sido la práctica budista más prevalente y se considera una forma de meditación que produce "energía, alegría, bondad y calma", purifica la mente y beneficia al cantor. [371]
A lo largo de la mayor parte de la historia budista, la meditación se ha practicado principalmente en la tradición monástica budista, y la evidencia histórica sugiere que la meditación seria por parte de los laicos ha sido una excepción. [372] [373] [374] En la historia reciente, una minoría de monjes en los monasterios budistas ha practicado la meditación sostenida. [375] El interés occidental en la meditación ha llevado a un renacimiento en el que las antiguas ideas y preceptos budistas se adaptan a las costumbres occidentales y se interpretan de manera liberal, presentando el budismo como una forma de espiritualidad basada en la meditación. [375]
Perspicacia y conocimiento
Prajñā (sánscrito) o paññā (Pāli) es sabiduría o conocimiento de la verdadera naturaleza de la existencia. Otro término que se asocia con prajñā y que a veces es equivalente a él es vipassanā ( pali ) o vipaśyanā (sánscrito), que a menudo se traduce como "perspicacia". En los textos budistas, a menudo se dice que la facultad de intuición se cultiva a través de los cuatro establecimientos de la atención plena. [376]
En los primeros textos, Paññā se incluye como una de las "cinco facultades" ( indriya ) que comúnmente se enumeran como elementos espirituales importantes a cultivar (ver por ejemplo: AN I 16). Paññā, junto con samadhi, también figura como uno de los "entrenamientos en los estados mentales superiores" ( adhicittasikkha ). [376]
La tradición budista considera la ignorancia ( avidyā ), una ignorancia fundamental, un malentendido o una mala percepción de la naturaleza de la realidad, como una de las causas básicas de dukkha y samsara . Superar esta ignorancia es parte del camino hacia el despertar. Esta superación incluye la contemplación de la impermanencia y la naturaleza no propia de la realidad, [377] [378] y esto desarrolla el desapego por los objetos del apego y libera al ser de dukkha y saṃsāra . [379] [380] [381]
Prajñā es importante en todas las tradiciones budistas. Se describe de diversas maneras como sabiduría con respecto a la naturaleza impermanente y no-yo de los dharmas (fenómenos), el funcionamiento del karma y el renacimiento, y el conocimiento del origen dependiente. [382] Del mismo modo, vipaśyanā se describe de manera similar, como en el Paṭisambhidāmagga , donde se dice que es la contemplación de las cosas como impermanentes, insatisfactorias y no-yo. [383]
Algunos eruditos como Bronkhorst y Vetter han argumentado que la idea de que el insight conduce a la liberación fue un desarrollo posterior en el budismo y que existen inconsistencias con la presentación budista temprana del samadhi y el insight. [384] [385] [nota 28] Sin embargo, otros como Collett Cox y Damien Keown han argumentado que el insight es un aspecto clave del temprano proceso budista de liberación, que coopera con samadhi para eliminar los obstáculos a la iluminación (es decir, la āsavas ). [387] [388]
En el budismo Theravāda, el enfoque de la meditación vipassanā es conocer continua y completamente cómo los fenómenos ( dhammas ) son impermanentes ( annica ), no-Yo ( anatta ) y dukkha . [389] [390] El método más utilizado en el Theravāda moderno para la práctica de vipassanā es el que se encuentra en el Satipatthana Sutta . [391] Existe cierto desacuerdo en el Theravāda contemporáneo con respecto a samatha y vipassanā. Algunos en el Movimiento Vipassana enfatizan fuertemente la práctica del insight sobre samatha, y otros Theravadins no están de acuerdo con esto. [391]
En el budismo Mahāyāna, también se enseña y se practica el desarrollo de la intuición ( vipaśyanā ) y la tranquilidad ( śamatha ). Las diferentes escuelas del budismo Mahāyāna tienen un gran repertorio de técnicas de meditación para cultivar estas cualidades. Estos incluyen la visualización de varios Budas, la recitación del nombre de un Buda, el uso de mantras budistas tántricos y dharanis. [392] [393] La comprensión del budismo Mahāyāna también incluye la obtención de una comprensión directa de ciertos puntos de vista filosóficos Mahāyāna, como el punto de vista de la vacuidad y el punto de vista de la conciencia únicamente. Esto se puede ver en textos de meditación como el Bhāvanākrama de Kamalaśīla ("Etapas de la meditación", siglo IX), que enseña la comprensión (vipaśyanā ) desde la perspectiva de Yogācāra-Madhyamaka. [394]
Devoción
Según Harvey, la mayoría de las formas de budismo "consideran saddhā (Skt śraddhā ), 'confianza plena ' o 'fe', como una cualidad que debe equilibrarse con la sabiduría y como preparación o acompañamiento de la meditación". [395] Debido a esta devoción (sct. Bhakti; Pali: bhatti) es una parte importante de la práctica de la mayoría de los budistas. [396] Las prácticas devocionales incluyen la oración ritual, la postración, las ofrendas, la peregrinación y el canto. [397] La devoción budista generalmente se centra en algún objeto, imagen o lugar que se considera sagrado o espiritualmente influyente. Ejemplos de objetos de devoción incluyen pinturas o estatuas de budas y bodhisattvas, estupas y árboles bodhi. [398]El canto en grupo público para devocionales y ceremoniales es común a todas las tradiciones budistas y se remonta a la antigua India, donde el canto ayudó a memorizar las enseñanzas transmitidas oralmente. [399] Los rosarios llamados malas se utilizan en todas las tradiciones budistas para contar el canto repetido de fórmulas o mantras comunes. El canto es, por tanto, un tipo de meditación grupal devocional que conduce a la tranquilidad y comunica las enseñanzas budistas. [400]
En el budismo de la tierra pura de Asia oriental, la devoción al Buda Amitabha es la práctica principal. En el budismo de Nichiren, la devoción al Sutra del loto es la práctica principal. Las prácticas devocionales como las pujas han sido una práctica común en el budismo Theravada, donde se hacen ofrendas y oraciones en grupo a las deidades y, en particular, a las imágenes de Buda. [401] Según Karel Werner y otros eruditos, el culto devocional ha sido una práctica importante en el budismo Theravada , y la devoción profunda es parte de las tradiciones budistas desde los primeros días. [402] [403]
La devoción al gurú es una práctica central del budismo indo-tibetano. [404] [405] El gurú se considera esencial y para el devoto budista, el gurú es el "maestro iluminado y maestro ritual" en las búsquedas espirituales Vajrayana. [404] [406] Para alguien que busca la Budeidad, el gurú es el Buda, el Dharma y la Sangha, escribió el erudito budista Sadhanamala del siglo XII. [406]
La veneración y la obediencia a los maestros también es importante en el budismo Theravada y Zen. [407]
Vegetarianismo y ética animal
Basado en el principio indio de ahimsa (no dañar), la ética de Buda condena enérgicamente el daño a todos los seres sintientes, incluidos todos los animales. Por lo tanto, condenó el sacrificio de animales de los brahmanes, así como la caza y la matanza de animales para comer. [408] Esto llevó a varias políticas de los reyes budistas como Asoka destinadas a proteger a los animales, como el establecimiento de "días sin matanza" y la prohibición de la caza en determinadas circunstancias. [409]
Sin embargo, los primeros textos budistas describen al Buda permitiendo a los monjes comer carne. Esto parece deberse a que los monjes mendigaban por su comida y, por lo tanto, se suponía que aceptaban cualquier comida que se les ofreciera. [410] Esto se vio atenuado por la regla de que la carne tenía que estar "tres veces limpia", lo que significaba que "no habían visto, no habían oído y no tenían motivos para sospechar que el animal había sido sacrificado para que la carne pudiera ser entregado a ellos ". [411] Además, aunque el Buda no promovió explícitamente el vegetarianismo en sus discursos, afirmó que ganarse la vida con el comercio de la carne no era ético. [412] Sin embargo, esta regla no era una promoción de una dieta específica, sino una regla contra la matanza real de animales para la alimentación. [413]También hubo un cisma famoso que ocurrió en la comunidad budista cuando Devadatta intentó hacer obligatorio el vegetarianismo y Buda no estuvo de acuerdo. [411]
En contraste con esto, varios sutras y textos Mahayana como el sutra Mahaparinirvana , el sutra Surangama y el sutra Lankavatara afirman que el Buda promovió el vegetarianismo por compasión. [414] Pensadores indios Mahayana como Shantideva promovieron la evitación de la carne. [415] A lo largo de la historia, la cuestión de si los budistas deben ser vegetarianos ha sido un tema muy debatido y hay una variedad de opiniones sobre este tema entre los budistas modernos.
En el budismo de Asia oriental, se espera que la mayoría de los monjes sean vegetarianos, y la práctica se considera muy virtuosa y es adoptada por algunos laicos devotos. La mayoría de los Theravadins en Sri Lanka y el sudeste asiático no practican el vegetarianismo y comen todo lo que ofrece la comunidad laica, que en su mayoría tampoco es vegetariana. Pero hay excepciones, algunos monjes optan por ser vegetarianos y algunos abades como Ajahn Sumedho han animado a la comunidad laica a donar comida vegetariana a los monjes. [416] Mientras tanto, Mahasi Sayadaw ha recomendado el vegetarianismo como la mejor manera de asegurarse de que la comida sea pura de tres maneras. [417] Además, el nuevo movimiento religioso Santi Asoke, promueve el vegetarianismo. Según Peter Harvey, en el mundo Theravada, el vegetarianismo es "universalmente admirado, pero poco practicado". [417] Debido a la regla contra la matanza, en muchos países budistas, la mayoría de los carniceros y otras personas que trabajan en el comercio de carne no son budistas. [418]
Asimismo, la mayoría de los budistas tibetanos han tendido históricamente a no ser vegetarianos, sin embargo, ha habido algunos debates fuertes y argumentos pro-vegetarianos por parte de algunos tibetanos pro-vegetarianos. [419] Algunas figuras influyentes han hablado y escrito a favor del vegetarianismo a lo largo de la historia, incluidas figuras bien conocidas como Shabkar y el 17º Karmapa Ogyen Trinley Dorje , quien ha impuesto el vegetarianismo en todos sus monasterios. [420]
Textos budistas
El budismo, como todas las religiones indias, fue inicialmente una tradición oral en la antigüedad. [421] Las palabras de Buda, las primeras doctrinas, conceptos y sus interpretaciones tradicionales se transmitieron oralmente de una generación a la siguiente. Los primeros textos orales se transmitieron en lenguas indo-arias medias llamadas Prakrits , como Pali , mediante el uso de recitación comunitaria y otras técnicas mnemotécnicas . [422]
Los primeros textos canónicos budistas probablemente se escribieron en Sri Lanka, unos 400 años después de la muerte de Buda. [421] Los textos eran parte de los Tripitakas , y posteriormente aparecieron muchas versiones afirmando ser las palabras del Buda. Los textos de comentarios eruditos budistas, con autores nombrados, aparecieron en la India alrededor del siglo II d.C. [421] Estos textos se escribieron en pali o sánscrito, a veces en idiomas regionales, como manuscritos de hojas de palma , corteza de abedul, pergaminos pintados, tallados en las paredes del templo y más tarde en papel. [421]
A diferencia de lo que es la Biblia para el cristianismo y el Corán es para el Islam , pero como todas las religiones indias antiguas importantes, no hay consenso entre las diferentes tradiciones budistas en cuanto a lo que constituyen las escrituras o un canon común en el budismo. [421] La creencia generalizada entre los budistas es que el corpus canónico es vasto. [423] [424] [425] Este corpus incluye los antiguos Sutras organizados en Nikayas o Agamas , que a su vez forman parte de tres canastas de textos llamados Tripitakas . [426]Cada tradición budista tiene su propia colección de textos, muchos de los cuales son traducciones de antiguos textos budistas en pali y sánscrito de la India. El canon budista chino , por ejemplo, incluye 2184 textos en 55 volúmenes, mientras que el canon tibetano comprende 1108 textos, todos afirmados haber sido hablados por Buda, y otros 3461 textos compuestos por eruditos indios venerados en la tradición tibetana. [427] La historia textual budista es vasta; más de 40.000 manuscritos, en su mayoría budistas, algunos no budistas, fueron descubiertos en 1900 solo en la cueva china de Dunhuang. [427]
Textos budistas tempranos
The Early Buddhist Texts refers to the literature which is considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist material. The first four Pali Nikayas, and the corresponding Chinese Āgamas are generally considered to be among the earliest material.[428][429][430] Apart from these, there are also fragmentary collections of EBT materials in other languages such as Sanskrit, Khotanese, Tibetan and Gāndhārī. The modern study of early Buddhism often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources to identify parallel texts and common doctrinal content.[431] One feature of these early texts are literary structures which reflect oral transmission, such as widespread repetition.[432]
| Pāli Canon |
|---|
| 1. Vinaya Piṭaka |
| 1. Suttavibhaṅga2. Khandhaka3. Parivāra |
| 2. Sutta Piṭaka |
| 1. Dīgha Nikāya2. Majjhima Nikāya3. Saṃyutta Nikāya4. Aṅguttara Nikāya5. Khuddaka Nikāya |
| 3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka |
| 1. Dhammasaṅgaṇī2. Vibhaṅga3. Dhātukathā4. Puggalapaññatti5. Kathāvatthu6. Yamaka7. Paṭṭhāna |
The Tripitakas
After the development of the different early Buddhist schools, these schools began to develop their own textual collections, which were termed Tripiṭakas (Triple Baskets).[433]
Many early Tripiṭakas, like the Pāli Tipitaka, were divided into three sections: Vinaya Pitaka (focuses on monastic rule), Sutta Pitaka (Buddhist discourses) and Abhidhamma Pitaka, which contain expositions and commentaries on the doctrine.
The Pāli Tipitaka (also known as the Pali Canon) of the Theravada School constitutes the only complete collection of Buddhist texts in an Indic language which has survived until today.[434] However, many Sutras, Vinayas and Abhidharma works from other schools survive in Chinese translation, as part of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. According to some sources, some early schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.[435]
Much of the material in the Pali Canon is not specifically "Theravadin", but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey, it contains material at odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy. He states: "The Theravadins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period."[436]
Abhidharma and the commentaries
A distinctive feature of many Tripitaka collections is the inclusion of a genre called Abhidharma, which dates from the 3rd century BCE and later. According to Collett Cox, the genre began as explanations and elaborations of the teachings in the suttas but over time evolved into an independent system of doctrinal exposition.[437]
Over time, the various Abhidharma traditions developed various disagreements which each other on points of doctrine, which were discussed in the different Abhidharma texts of these schools.[45] The major Abhidharma collections which modern scholars have the most information about are those of the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda schools.[438]
In Sri Lanka and South India, the Theravāda Abhidhamma system was the most influential. In addition to the Abhidharma project, some of the schools also began accumulating a literary tradition of scriptural commentary on their respective Tripitakas. These commentaries were particularly important in the Theravāda school, and the Pali commentaries (Aṭṭhakathā) remain influential today. Both Abhidhamma and the Pali commentaries influenced the Visuddhimagga, an important 5th-century text by the Theravada scholar Buddhaghosa, who also translated and compiled many of the Aṭṭhakathās from older Sinhalese sources.[439][440]
The Sarvāstivāda school was one of the most influential Abhidharma traditions in North India.[441] The magnum opus of this tradition was the massive Abhidharma commentary called the Mahāvibhaṣa ('Great Commentary'), compiled at a great synod in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka II (c. 158–176).[442] The Abhidharmakosha of Vasubandhu is another very influential Abhidharma work from the northern tradition, which continues to be studied in East Asian Buddhism and in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.[443]
Mahāyāna texts
The Mahāyāna sūtras are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the Buddha. Modern historians generally hold that the first of these texts were composed probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE.[444][445][446]
In Mahāyāna, these texts are generally given greater authority than the early Āgamas and Abhidharma literature, which are called "Śrāvakayāna" or "Hinayana" to distinguish them from Mahāyāna sūtras.[447] Mahāyāna traditions mainly see these different classes of texts as being designed for different types of persons, with different levels of spiritual understanding. The Mahāyāna sūtras are mainly seen as being for those of "greater" capacity.[448][better source needed]
The Mahāyāna sūtras often claim to articulate the Buddha's deeper, more advanced doctrines, reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle). Besides the teaching of the bodhisattva, Mahāyāna texts also contain expanded cosmologies and mythologies, with many more Buddhas and powerful bodhisattvas, as well as new spiritual practices and ideas.[449]
The modern Theravada school does not treat the Mahāyāna sūtras as authoritative or authentic teachings of the Buddha.[450] Likewise, these texts were not recognized as authoritative by many early Buddhist schools and in some cases, communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika school split up due to this disagreement.[451]
Recent scholarship has discovered many early Mahāyāna texts which shed light into the development of Mahāyāna. Among these is the Śālistamba Sutra which survives in Tibetan and Chinese translation. This text contains numerous sections which are remarkably similar to Pali suttas.[452][453] The Śālistamba Sutra was cited by Mahāyāna scholars such as the 8th-century Yasomitra to be authoritative.[454] This suggests that Buddhist literature of different traditions shared a common core of Buddhist texts in the early centuries of its history, until Mahāyāna literature diverged about and after the 1st century CE.[452]
Mahāyāna also has a very large literature of philosophical and exegetical texts. These are often called śāstra (treatises) or vrittis (commentaries). Some of this literature was also written in verse form (karikās), the most famous of which is the Mūlamadhyamika-karikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by Nagarjuna, the foundational text of the Madhyamika school.
Tantric texts
During the Gupta Empire, a new class of Buddhist sacred literature began to develop, which are called the Tantras.[455] By the 8th century, the tantric tradition was very influential in India and beyond. Besides drawing on a Mahāyāna Buddhist framework, these texts also borrowed deities and material from other Indian religious traditions, such as the Śaiva and Pancharatra traditions, local god/goddess cults, and local spirit worship (such as yaksha or nāga spirits).[456][457]
Some features of these texts include the widespread use of mantras, meditation on the subtle body, worship of fierce deities, and antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and performing sexual rituals.[458][459][460]
History
Historical roots
Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the first millennium BCE.[461] This was a period of great intellectual ferment and socio-cultural change known as the "Second urbanisation", marked by the growth of towns and trade, the composition of the Upanishads and the historical emergence of the Śramaṇa traditions.[462][463][note 29]
New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads, and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaṇa movements.[466][467][468] The term Śramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as Ājīvika.[469]
Several Śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy.[470] According to Martin Wilshire, the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and the latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these.[471] Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical ascetic groups shared and used several similar ideas,[472] but the Śramaṇa traditions also drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts and philosophical roots, states Wiltshire, to formulate their own doctrines.[470][473] Brahmanical motifs can be found in the oldest Buddhist texts, using them to introduce and explain Buddhist ideas.[474] For example, prior to Buddhist developments, the Brahmanical tradition internalised and variously reinterpreted the three Vedic sacrificial fires as concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint.[475] Buddhist texts also refer to the three Vedic sacrificial fires, reinterpreting and explaining them as ethical conduct.[476]
The Śramaṇa religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as Atman (soul, self), Brahman, the nature of afterlife, and they rejected the authority of the Vedas and Upanishads.[477][478][479] Buddhism was one among several Indian religions that did so.[479]
Indian Buddhism
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods:[480] Early Buddhism (occasionally called pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism: The period of the early Buddhist schools, Early Mahayana Buddhism, Late Mahayana, and the era of Vajrayana or the "Tantric Age".
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
According to Lambert Schmithausen Pre-sectarian Buddhism is "the canonical period prior to the development of different schools with their different positions."[481]
The early Buddhist Texts include the four principal Pali Nikāyas [note 30] (and their parallel Agamas found in the Chinese canon) together with the main body of monastic rules, which survive in the various versions of the patimokkha.[482][483][484] However, these texts were revised over time, and it is unclear what constitutes the earliest layer of Buddhist teachings. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pāli Canon and other texts.[note 31] The reliability of the early sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.[487] According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[485][note 32]
According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:[492]
- "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"[note 33]
- "Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"[note 34]
- "Cautious optimism in this respect."[note 35]
The Core teachings
According to Mitchell, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, which has led most scholars to conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, Nirvana, the three marks of existence, the five aggregates, dependent origination, karma and rebirth.[499]
According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's Śālistamba Sūtra.[500] A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada Majjhima Nikaya and Sarvastivada Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines.[501] Richard Salomon, in his study of the Gandharan texts (which are the earliest manuscripts containing early discourses), has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools."[502]
However, some scholars argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among the various doctrines found in these early texts, which point to alternative possibilities for early Buddhism.[503][504][505] The authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines have been questioned. For example, some scholars think that karma was not central to the teaching of the historical Buddha, while other disagree with this position.[506][507] Likewise, there is scholarly disagreement on whether insight was seen as liberating in early Buddhism or whether it was a later addition to the practice of the four jhānas.[488][508][509] Scholars such as Bronkhorst also think that the four noble truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".[510] According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way".[141] In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.[141]
Ashokan Era and the early schools
According to numerous Buddhist scriptures, soon after the parinirvāṇa (from Sanskrit: "highest extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. Many modern scholars question the historicity of this event.[511] However, Richard Gombrich states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Buddha's teaching likely began during Buddha's lifetime, and they served a similar role of codifying the teachings.[512]
The so called Second Buddhist council resulted in the first schism in the Sangha. Modern scholars believe that this was probably caused when a group of reformists called Sthaviras ("elders") sought to modify the Vinaya (monastic rule), and this caused a split with the conservatives who rejected this change, they were called Mahāsāṃghikas.[513][514] While most scholars accept that this happened at some point, there is no agreement on the dating, especially if it dates to before or after the reign of Ashoka.[515]
Buddhism may have spread only slowly throughout India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE), who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (such as at Sanchi and Bharhut), temples (such as the Mahabodhi Temple) and to its spread throughout the Maurya Empire and into neighbouring lands such as Central Asia and to the island of Sri Lanka.
During and after the Mauryan period (322–180 BCE), the Sthavira community gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravada school which tended to congregate in the south and another which was the Sarvāstivāda school, which was mainly in north India. Likewise, the Mahāsāṃghika groups also eventually split into different Sanghas. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.[516]
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate their own version of Tripiṭaka (triple basket of texts).[47][517] In their Tripiṭaka, each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya basket (disciplinary code) and some schools also added an Abhidharma basket which were texts on detailed scholastic classification, summary and interpretation of the Suttas.[47][518] The doctrine details in the Abhidharmas of various Buddhist schools differ significantly, and these were composed starting about the third century BCE and through the 1st millennium CE.[519][520][521]
Post-Ashokan expansion
According to the edicts of Aśoka, the Mauryan emperor sent emissaries to various countries west of India to spread "Dharma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighbouring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.[522]
In central and west Asia, Buddhist influence grew, through Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs and ancient Asian trade routes, a phenomenon known as Greco-Buddhism. An example of this is evidenced in Chinese and Pali Buddhist records, such as Milindapanha and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. The Milindapanha describes a conversation between a Buddhist monk and the 2nd-century BCE Greek king Menander, after which Menander abdicates and himself goes into monastic life in the pursuit of nirvana.[523][524] Some scholars have questioned the Milindapanha version, expressing doubts whether Menander was Buddhist or just favourably disposed to Buddhist monks.[525]
The Kushan empire (30–375 CE) came to control the Silk Road trade through Central and South Asia, which brought them to interact with Gandharan Buddhism and the Buddhist institutions of these regions. The Kushans patronised Buddhism throughout their lands, and many Buddhist centers were built or renovated (the Sarvastivada school was particularly favored), especially by Emperor Kanishka (128–151 CE).[526][527] Kushan support helped Buddhism to expand into a world religion through their trade routes.[528] Buddhism spread to Khotan, the Tarim Basin, and China, eventually to other parts of the far east.[527] Some of the earliest written documents of the Buddhist faith are the Gandharan Buddhist texts, dating from about the 1st century CE, and connected to the Dharmaguptaka school.[529][530][531]
The Islamic conquest of the Iranian Plateau in the 7th-century, followed by the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan and the later establishment of the Ghaznavid kingdom with Islam as the state religion in Central Asia between the 10th- and 12th-century led to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.[532]
Mahāyāna Buddhism
The origins of Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") Buddhism are not well understood and there are various competing theories about how and where this movement arose. Theories include the idea that it began as various groups venerating certain texts or that it arose as a strict forest ascetic movement.[533]
The first Mahāyāna works were written sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE.[445][533] Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts, mainly those of Lokakṣema. (2nd century CE).[note 36] Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the first versions of the Prajnaparamita series, along with texts concerning Akṣobhya, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.[535][note 37]
There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, with a separate monastic code (Vinaya), but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas.[537][538] Records written by Chinese monks visiting India indicate that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks could be found in the same monasteries, with the difference that Mahāyāna monks worshipped figures of Bodhisattvas, while non-Mahayana monks did not.[539]
Mahāyāna initially seems to have remained a small minority movement that was in tension with other Buddhist groups, struggling for wider acceptance.[540] However, during the fifth and sixth centuries CE, there seems to have been a rapid growth of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which is shown by a large increase in epigraphic and manuscript evidence in this period. However, it still remained a minority in comparison to other Buddhist schools.[541]
Mahāyāna Buddhist institutions continued to grow in influence during the following centuries, with large monastic university complexes such as Nalanda (established by the 5th-century CE Gupta emperor, Kumaragupta I) and Vikramashila (established under Dharmapala c. 783 to 820) becoming quite powerful and influential. During this period of Late Mahāyāna, four major types of thought developed: Mādhyamaka, Yogācāra, Buddha-nature (Tathāgatagarbha), and the epistemological tradition of Dignaga and Dharmakirti.[542] According to Dan Lusthaus, Mādhyamaka and Yogācāra have a great deal in common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.[543]
Late Indian Buddhism and Tantra
During the Gupta period (4th–6th centuries) and the empire of Harṣavardana (c. 590–647 CE), Buddhism continued to be influential in India, and large Buddhist learning institutions such as Nalanda and Valabahi Universities were at their peak.[544] Buddhism also flourished under the support of the Pāla Empire (8th–12th centuries). Under the Guptas and Palas, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana developed and rose to prominence. It promoted new practices such as the use of mantras, dharanis, mudras, mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the Buddhist Tantras. This new esoteric form of Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogi magicians called mahasiddhas.[545][546]
The question of the origins of early Vajrayana has been taken up by various scholars. David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a "pan-Indian religious substrate" which is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava.[547]
According to Indologist Alexis Sanderson, various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism. Sanderson has argued that Buddhist tantras can be shown to have borrowed practices, terms, rituals and more form Shaiva tantras. He argues that Buddhist texts even directly copied various Shaiva tantras, especially the Bhairava Vidyapitha tantras.[548][549] Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's claims for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of the Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established"[550] and that the Shaiva tradition also appropriated non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions. Thus while "there can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by Kapalika and other Saiva movements" argues Davidson, "the influence was apparently mutual."[551]
Already during this later era, Buddhism was losing state support in other regions of India, including the lands of the Karkotas, the Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. This loss of support in favor of Hindu faiths like Vaishnavism and Shaivism, is the beginning of the long and complex period of the Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent.[552] The Islamic invasions and conquest of India (10th to 12th century), further damaged and destroyed many Buddhist institutions, leading to its eventual near disappearance from India by the 1200s.[553]
Spread to East and Southeast Asia
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question.[554][note 38] The first documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin.[556]
The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian An Shigao (148–180 CE).[557] The first known Mahāyāna scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE.[558] From China, Buddhism was introduced into its neighbours Korea (4th century), Japan (6th–7th centuries), and Vietnam (c. 1st–2nd centuries).[559][560]
During the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907), Chinese Esoteric Buddhism was introduced from India and Chan Buddhism (Zen) became a major religion.[561][562] Chan continued to grow in the Song dynasty (960–1279) and it was during this era that it strongly influenced Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism.[563] Pure Land Buddhism also became popular during this period and was often practised together with Chan.[564] It was also during the Song that the entire Chinese canon was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks.[565]
During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia. Johannes Bronkhorst states that the esoteric form was attractive because it allowed both a secluded monastic community as well as the social rites and rituals important to laypersons and to kings for the maintenance of a political state during succession and wars to resist invasion.[566] During the Middle Ages, Buddhism slowly declined in India,[567] while it vanished from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state religion.[568][569]
The Theravada school arrived in Sri Lanka sometime in the 3rd century BCE. Sri Lanka became a base for its later spread to Southeast Asia after the 5th century CE (Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and coastal Vietnam).[570][571] Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion in Burma during the Mon Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1552).[572] It also became dominant in the Khmer Empire during the 13th and 14th centuries and in the Thai Sukhothai Kingdom during the reign of Ram Khamhaeng (1237/1247–1298).[573][574]
Schools and traditions
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravāda or Mahāyāna.[575] This classification is also used by some scholars[576] and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.[web 8] An alternative scheme used by some scholars divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravāda (or "Southern Buddhism", "South Asian Buddhism"), East Asian Buddhism (or just "Eastern Buddhism") and Indo-Tibetan Buddhism (or "Northern Buddhism").[note 39]
Some scholars[note 40] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. Hinayana (literally "lesser or inferior vehicle") is sometimes used by Mahāyāna followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravāda emerged, but as the Hinayana term is considered derogatory, a variety of other terms are used instead, including: Śrāvakayāna, Nikaya Buddhism, early Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism and conservative Buddhism.[577][578]
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them:[579][580]
- Both Theravāda and Mahāyāna accept and revere the Buddha Sakyamuni as the founder, Mahāyāna also reveres numerous other Buddhas, such as Amitabha or Vairocana as well as many other bodhisattvas not revered in Theravāda.
- Both accept the Middle Way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three Jewels, the Three marks of existence and the Bodhipakṣadharmas (aids to awakening).
- Mahāyāna focuses mainly on the bodhisattva path to Buddhahood which it sees as universal and to be practiced by all persons, while Theravāda does not focus on teaching this path and teaches the attainment of arhatship as a worthy goal to strive towards. The bodhisattva path is not denied in Theravāda, it is generally seen as a long and difficult path suitable for only a few.[581] Thus the Bodhisattva path is normative in Mahāyāna, while it is an optional path for a heroic few in Theravāda.[582]
- Mahāyāna sees the arhat's nirvana as being imperfect and inferior or preliminary to full Buddhahood. It sees arhatship as selfish, since bodhisattvas vow to save all beings while arhats save only themselves.[583] Theravāda meanwhile does not accept that the arhat's nirvana is an inferior or preliminary attainment, nor that it is a selfish deed to attain arhatship since not only are arhats described as compassionate but they have destroyed the root of greed, the sense of "I am".[582]
- Mahāyāna accepts the authority of the many Mahāyāna sutras along with the other Nikaya texts like the Agamas and the Pali canon (though it sees Mahāyāna texts as primary), while Theravāda does not accept that the Mahāyāna sutras are buddhavacana (word of the Buddha) at all.[584]
Theravāda school
The Theravāda tradition bases itself on the Pāli Canon, considers itself to be the more orthodox form of Buddhism and tends to be more conservative in doctrine and monastic discipline.[585][586][587] The Pāli Canon is the only complete Buddhist canon surviving in an ancient Indian language. This language, Pāli, serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca.[588] Besides the Pāli Canon, Theravāda scholastics also often rely on a post-canonical Pāli literature which comments on and interprets the Pāli Canon. These later works such as the Visuddhimagga, a doctrinal summa written in the fifth century by the exegete Buddhaghosa also remain influential today.[589]
Theravāda derives from the Mahāvihāra (Tāmraparṇīya) sect, a Sri Lankan branch of the Vibhajyavāda Sthaviras, which began to establish itself on the island from the 3rd century BCE onwards.
Theravāda flourished in south India and Sri Lanka in ancient times; from there it spread for the first time into mainland Southeast Asia about the 11th century into its elite urban centres.[590] By the 13th century, Theravāda had spread widely into the rural areas of mainland Southeast Asia,[590] displacing Mahayana Buddhism and some traditions of Hinduism.[591][592][593]
In the modern era, Buddhist figures such as Anagarika Dhammapala and King Mongkut sought to re-focus the tradition on the Pāli Canon, as well as emphasize the rational and "scientific" nature of Theravāda while also opposing "superstition".[594] This movement, often termed Buddhist modernism, has influenced most forms of modern Theravāda. Another influential modern turn in Theravāda is the Vipassana Movement, which led to the widespread adoption of meditation by laypersons.
Theravāda is primarily practised today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in the west, especially as part of the Vipassana Movement.
Mahāyāna traditions
Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") refers to all forms of Buddhism which consider the Mahāyāna Sutras as authoritative scriptures and accurate rendering of Buddha's words.[452] These traditions have been the more liberal form of Buddhism allowing different and new interpretations that emerged over time.[595] The focus of Mahāyāna is the path of the bodhisattva (bodhisattvayāna), though what this path means is interpreted in many different ways.
The first Mahāyāna texts date to sometime between the 1st century BCE and the 2st century CE. It remained a minority movement until the time of the Guptas and Palas, when great Mahāyāna monastic centres of learning such as Nālandā University were established as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.[596][597] These universities supported Buddhist scholarship, as well as studies into non-Buddhist traditions and secular subjects such as medicine. They hosted visiting students who then spread Buddhism to East and Central Asia.[596][598]
Native Mahāyāna Buddhism is practised today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam (also commonly referred to as "Eastern Buddhism"). The Buddhism practised in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also a form of Mahāyāna, but is also different in many ways due to its adoption of tantric practices and is discussed below under the heading of "Vajrayāna" (also commonly referred to as "Northern Buddhism").
There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, of which "the Pure Land school of Mahāyāna is the most widely practised today."[599] In most of China, these different strands and traditions are generally fused together. Vietnamese Mahāyāna is similarly very eclectic. In Japan in particular, they form separate denominations with the five major ones being: Nichiren, peculiar to Japan; Pure Land; Shingon, a form of Vajrayana; Tendai, and Zen. In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.[600]
Vajrayāna traditions
The goal and philosophy of the Vajrayāna remains Mahāyānist, but its methods are seen by its followers as far more powerful, so as to lead to Buddhahood in just one lifetime.[601] The practice of using mantras was adopted from Hinduism, where they were first used in the Vedas.[602]
Tibetan Buddhism preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth-century India.[13] Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.[603] A central feature of Buddhist Tantra is deity yoga which includes visualisation and identification with an enlightened yidam or meditation deity and its associated mandala. Another element of Tantra is the need for ritual initiation or empowerment (abhiṣeka) by a Guru or Lama.[604] Some Tantras like the Guhyasamāja Tantra features new forms of antinomian ritual practice such as the use taboo substances like alcohol, sexual yoga, and charnel ground practices which evoke wrathful deities.[605][606]
Monasteries and temples
Buddhist institutions are often housed and centered around monasteries (Sanskrit:viharas) and temples. Buddhist monastics originally followed a life of wandering, never staying in one place for long. During the three month rainy season (vassa) they would gather together in one place for a period of intense practice and then depart again.[607][608] Some of the earliest Buddhist monasteries were at groves (vanas) or woods (araññas), such as Jetavana and Sarnath's Deer Park. There originally seems to have been two main types of monasteries, monastic settlements (sangharamas) were built and supported by donors, and woodland camps (avasas) were set up by monks. Whatever structures were built in these locales were made out of wood and were sometimes temporary structures built for the rainy season.[609][610]
Over time, the wandering community slowly adopted more settled cenobitic forms of monasticism.[611] Also, these monasteries slowly evolved from the simpler collections of rustic dwellings of early Buddhism into larger more permanent structures meant to house the entire community, who now lived in a more collective fashion.[612] During the Gupta era, even larger monastic university complexes (like Nalanda) arose, with larger and more artistically ornate structures, as well as large land grants and accumulated wealth.[613]
There are many different forms of Buddhist structures. Classic Indian Buddhist institutions mainly made use of the following structures: monasteries, rock-hewn cave complexes (such as the Ajanta Caves), stupas (funerary mounds which contained relics), and temples such as the Mahabodhi Temple.[614]
In Southeast Asia, the most widespread institutions are centered on wats, which refers to an establishment with various buildings such as an ordination hall, a library, monks' quarters and stupas. East Asian Buddhist institutions also use various structures including monastic halls, temples, lecture halls, bell towers and pagodas. In Japanese Buddhist temples, these different structures are usually grouped together in an area termed the garan. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Buddhist institutions are generally housed in gompas. They include monastic quarters, stupas and prayer halls with Buddha images.
The complexity of Buddhist institutions varies, ranging from minimalist and rustic forest monasteries to large monastic centers like Tawang Monastery. The core of traditional Buddhist institutions is the monastic community (Sangha) who manage and lead religious services. They are supported by the lay community who visit temples and monasteries for religious services and holidays.
In the modern era, the Buddhist "meditation centre", which is mostly used by laypersons and often also staffed by them, has also become widespread.[615]
Buddhism in the modern era
Colonial era
Buddhism has faced various challenges and changes during the colonisation of Buddhist states by Christian countries and its persecution under modern states. Like other religions, the findings of modern science has challenged its basic premises. One response to some of these challenges has come to be called Buddhist modernism. Early Buddhist modernist figures such as the American convert Henry Olcott (1832–1907) and Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) reinterpreted and promoted Buddhism as a scientific and rational religion which they saw as compatible with modern science.[616]
East Asian Buddhism meanwhile suffered under various wars which ravaged China during the modern era, such as the Taiping rebellion and World War II (which also affected Korean Buddhism). During the Republican period (1912–49), a new movement called Humanistic Buddhism was developed by figures such as Taixu (1899–1947), and though Buddhist institutions were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), there has been a revival of the religion in China after 1977.[617] Japanese Buddhism also went through a period of modernisation during the Meiji period.[618] In Central Asia meanwhile, the arrival of Communist repression to Tibet (1966–1980) and Mongolia (between 1924–1990) had a strong negative impact on Buddhist institutions, though the situation has improved somewhat since the 80s and 90s.[619]
Buddhism in the West
While there were some encounters of Western travellers or missionaries such as St. Francis Xavier and Ippolito Desideri with Buddhist cultures, it was not until the 19th century that Buddhism began to be studied by Western scholars. It was the work of pioneering scholars such as Eugène Burnouf, Max Müller, Hermann Oldenberg and Thomas William Rhys Davids that paved the way for modern Buddhist studies in the West. The English words such as Buddhism, "Boudhist", "Bauddhist" and Buddhist were coined in the early 19th-century in the West,[620] while in 1881, Rhys Davids founded the Pali Text Society – an influential Western resource of Buddhist literature in the Pali language and one of the earliest publisher of a journal on Buddhist studies.[621] It was also during the 19th century that Asian Buddhist immigrants (mainly from China and Japan) began to arrive in Western countries such as the United States and Canada, bringing with them their Buddhist religion. This period also saw the first Westerners to formally convert to Buddhism, such as Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott.[622] An important event in the introduction of Buddhism to the West was the 1893 World Parliament of Religions, which for the first time saw well-publicized speeches by major Buddhist leaders alongside other religious leaders.
The 20th century saw a prolific growth of new Buddhist institutions in Western countries, including the Buddhist Society, London (1924), Das Buddhistische Haus (1924) and Datsan Gunzechoinei in St Petersburg. The publication and translations of Buddhist literature in Western languages thereafter accelerated. After the second world war, further immigration from Asia, globalisation, the secularisation on Western culture as well a renewed interest in Buddhism among the 60s counterculture led to further growth in Buddhist institutions.[623] Influential figures on post-war Western Buddhism include Shunryu Suzuki, Jack Kerouac, Alan Watts, Thích Nhất Hạnh, and the 14th Dalai Lama. While Buddhist institutions have grown, some of the central premises of Buddhism such as the cycles of rebirth and Four Noble Truths have been problematic in the West.[624][625][626] In contrast, states Christopher Gowans, for "most ordinary [Asian] Buddhists, today as well as in the past, their basic moral orientation is governed by belief in karma and rebirth".[627] Most Asian Buddhist laypersons, states Kevin Trainor, have historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices seeking better rebirth,[628] not nirvana or freedom from rebirth.[629]
Buddhism has spread across the world,[631][632] and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While Buddhism in the West is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East it is regarded as familiar and traditional. In countries such as Cambodia and Bhutan, it is recognised as the state religion and receives government support.
In certain regions such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, militants have targeted violence and destruction of historic Buddhist monuments.[633][634]
Neo-Buddhism movements
A number of modern movements in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th century.[635][636] These new forms of Buddhism are diverse and significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices.[637]
In India, B.R. Ambedkar launched the Navayana tradition – literally, "new vehicle". Ambedkar's Buddhism rejects the foundational doctrines and historic practices of traditional Theravada and Mahayana traditions, such as monk lifestyle after renunciation, karma, rebirth, samsara, meditation, nirvana, Four Noble Truths and others.[638][639][640] Ambedkar's Navayana Buddhism considers these as superstitions and re-interprets the original Buddha as someone who taught about class struggle and social equality.[641][642] Ambedkar urged low caste Indian Dalits to convert to his Marxism-inspired[640] reinterpretation called the Navayana Buddhism, also known as Bhimayana Buddhism. Ambedkar's effort led to the expansion of Navayana Buddhism in India.[643][641]
The Thai King Mongkut (r. 1851–68), and his son King Chulalongkorn (r. 1868–1910), were responsible for modern reforms of Thai Buddhism.[644] Modern Buddhist movements include Secular Buddhism in many countries, Won Buddhism in Korea, the Dhammakaya movement in Thailand and several Japanese organisations, such as Shinnyo-en, Risshō Kōsei Kai or Soka Gakkai.
Some of these movements have brought internal disputes and strife within regional Buddhist communities. For example, the Dhammakaya movement in Thailand teaches a "true self" doctrine, which traditional Theravada monks consider as heretically denying the fundamental anatta (not-self) doctrine of Buddhism.[645][646][647]
Sexual abuse and misconduct
Buddhism has not been immune from sexual abuse and misconduct scandals, with victims coming forward in various buddhist schools such as Zen and Tibetan.[648][649][650][651] “There are huge cover ups in the Catholic church, but what has happened within Tibetan Buddhism is totally along the same lines,” says Mary Finnigan, an author and journalist who has been chronicling such alleged abuses since the mid-80s. [652] One notably covered case in media of various Western country was that of Sogyal Rinpoche which began in 1994,[653] and end up by his retirement from his position as Rigpa's spiritual director in 2017.[654]
Cultural influence
Buddhism has had a profound influence on various cultures, especially in Asia. Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist art, Buddhist architecture, Buddhist cuisine and Buddhist festivals continue to be influential elements of the modern Culture of Asia, especially in East Asia and the Sinosphere as well as in Southeast Asia and the Indosphere. According to Litian Fang, Buddhism has "permeated a wide range of fields, such as politics, ethics, philosophy, literature, art and customs," in these Asian regions.[655]
Buddhist teachings influenced the development of modern Hinduism as well as other Asian religions like Taoism and Confucianism. For example, various scholars have argued that key Hindu thinkers such as Adi Shankara and Patanjali, author of the Yoga sutras, were influenced by Buddhist ideas.[656][657] Likewise, Buddhist practices were influential in the early development of Indian Yoga.[658]
Buddhist philosophers like Dignaga were very influential in the development of Indian logic and epistemology.[659] Buddhist educational institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila preserved various disciplines of classical Indian knowledge such as Grammar and Medicine and taught foreign students from China.[660]
In an effort to preserve their sacred scriptures, Buddhist institutions such as temples and monasteries housed schools which educated the populace and promoted writing and literacy. This led to high levels of literacy among some traditional Buddhist societies such as Burma. According to David Steinberg, "Early British observers claimed that Burma was the most literate state between Suez and Japan, and one British traveler in the early nineteenth century believed that Burmese women had a higher percentage of literacy than British women."[661]
Buddhist institutions were also at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to bookmaking, including paper, and block printing which Buddhists sometimes deployed on a large scale. The first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947.[662]
Buddhists were also influential in the study and practice of traditional forms of Indian medicine. Buddhists spread these traditional approaches to health, sometimes called "Buddhist medicine", throughout East and Southeast Asia, where they remain influential today in regions like Sri Lanka, Burma, Tibet and Thailand.[663]
In the Western world, Buddhism has had a strong influence on modern New Age spirituality and other alternative spiritualities. This began with its influence on 20th century Theosophists such as Helena Blavatsky, which were some of the first Westerners to take Buddhism seriously as a spiritual tradition.[664]
More recently, Buddhist meditation practices have influenced the development of modern psychology, particularly the practice of Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and other similar mindfulness based modalities.[665][666] The influence of Buddhism on psychology can also be seen in certain forms of modern psychoanalysis.[667][668]
Buddhism also influenced the modern avant-garde movements during the 1950s and 60s through people like D. T. Suzuki and his influence on figures like Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg.[669]
Relationships with other religious traditions
Shamanism
Shamanism is a widespread practice in Buddhist societies. Buddhist monasteries have long existed alongside local shamanic traditions. Lacking an institutional orthodoxy, Buddhists adapted to the local cultures, blending their own traditions with pre-existing shamanic culture. There was very little conflict between the sects, mostly limited to the shamanic practice of animal sacrifice, which Buddhists see as equivalent to killing one's parents. However, Buddhism requires acceptance of Buddha as the greatest being in the cosmos, and local shamanic traditions were bestowed an inferior status.[670]
Research into Himalayan religion has shown that Buddhist and shamanic traditions overlap in many respects: the worship of localized deities, healing rituals and exorcisms. The shamanic Gurung people have adopted some of the Buddhist beliefs such and rebirth but maintain the shamanic rites of "guiding the soul" after death. Geoffrey Samuel describes Shamanic Buddhism: "Vajrayana Buddhism as practiced in Tibet may be described as shamanic, in that it is centered around communication with an alternative mode of reality via the alternative states of consciousness of Tantric Yoga".[670]
Demographics
Buddhism is practised by an estimated 488 million,[5] 495 million,[671] or 535 million[672] people as of the 2010s, representing 7% to 8% of the world's total population.
China is the country with the largest population of Buddhists, approximately 244 million or 18% of its total population.[5][note 41] They are mostly followers of Chinese schools of Mahayana, making this the largest body of Buddhist traditions. Mahayana, also practised in broader East Asia, is followed by over half of world Buddhists.[5]
According to a demographic analysis reported by Peter Harvey:[672] Mahayana has 360 million adherents; Theravada has 150 million adherents; and Vajrayana has 18 million adherents.
According to Johnson & Grim (2013), Buddhism has grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910, of which 137 million were in Asia, to 495 million in 2010, of which 487 million are in Asia.[671] Over 98% of all Buddhists live in the Asia-Pacific and South Asia region.[674] North America had about 3.9 million Buddhists, Europe 1.3 million, while South America, Africa and the Middle East had an estimated combined total of about 1 million Buddhists in 2010.[674]
Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan, Myanmar, Cambodia, Hong Kong,[675] Japan,[676] Tibet, Laos, Macau,[677] Mongolia, Singapore,[678] Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.[679] Large Buddhist populations live in Mainland China, Taiwan, North Korea, Nepal and South Korea.[680] In Russia, Buddhists form majority in Tuva (52%) and Kalmykia (53%). Buryatia (20%) and Zabaykalsky Krai (15%) also have significant Buddhist populations.[681]
Buddhism is also growing by conversion. In United States, only about a third (32%) of Buddhists in the United States are Asian; a majority (53%) are white. Buddhism in the America is primarily made up of native-born adherents, whites and converts.[682] In New Zealand, about 25–35% of the total Buddhists are converts to Buddhism.[683][684] Buddhism has also spread to the Nordic countries; for example, the Burmese Buddhists founded in the city of Kuopio in North Savonia the first Buddhist monastery of Finland, named the Buddha Dhamma Ramsi monastery.[685]
The 10 countries with the largest Buddhist population densities are:[674]
| Country | Estimated Buddhist population | Buddhists as % of total population |
|---|---|---|
 Cambodia | 13,690,000 | 97% |
 Thailand | 64,420,000 | 93% |
 Burma | 38,410,000 | 80% |
 Bhutan | 563,000 | 75% |
 Sri Lanka | 14,450,000 | 70% |
 Laos | 4,092,000 | 66% |
 Mongolia | 1,521,000 | 55% |
 Japan | 45,820,000 or 84,653,000 | 36% or 67%[686] |
 Singapore | 1,726,000 | 33%[687] |
 Taiwan | 4,946,000 or 8,000,000 | 21% or 35%[688] |
 China | 244,130,000 | 18% |
 India | 7,955,207 | 0.8%[689] |
See also
- Outline of Buddhism
- Buddhist philosophy
- Buddhism by country
- Buddhism and Eastern religions
- Buddhism and Hinduism
- Buddhism and science
- Jewish Buddhist
- Chinese folk religion
- Easily confused Buddhist representations
- Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand
- Index of Buddhism-related articles
- Tengrism and Buddhism
- Indian religions
- Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
- Buddhism, Jainism and Bhakti movement
- List of books related to Buddhism
- List of Buddhist temples
- Nonviolence
- Criticism of Buddhism
- Persecution of Buddhists
- Vaishnavism
- Akriyavada
Notes
- ^ Buddhist texts such as the Jataka tales of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, and early biographies such as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu, the Sarvāstivādin Lalitavistara Sūtra, give different accounts about the life of the Buddha; many include stories of his many rebirths, and some add significant embellishments.[20][21] Keown and Prebish state, "In the past, modern scholars have generally accepted 486 or 483 BCE for this [Buddha's death], but the consensus is now that they rest on evidence which is too flimsy.[22] Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies."[23][24][25][26]
- ^ The exact identity of this ancient place is unclear. Please see Gautama Buddha article for various sites identified.
- ^ Bihar is derived from Vihara, which means monastery.[27]
- ^ Other details about Buddha'a background are contested in modern scholarship. For example, Buddhist texts assert that Buddha described himself as a kshatriya (warrior class), but states Gombrich, little is known about his father and there is no proof that his father even knew the term kshatriya.[30] Mahavira, whose teachings helped establish another major ancient religion Jainism, is also claimed to be ksatriya by his early followers. Further, early texts of both Jainism and Buddhism suggest they emerged in a period of urbanisation in ancient India, one with city nobles and prospering urban centres, states, agricultural surplus, trade and introduction of money.[31]
- ^ The earliest Buddhist biographies of the Buddha mention these Vedic-era teachers. However, outside of these early Buddhist texts, these names do not appear which has led some scholars to raise doubts about the historicity of these claims.[36][38] According to Alexander Wynne, the evidence suggests that Buddha studied under these Vedic-era teachers and they "almost certainly" taught him, but the details of his education are unclear.[36][39]
- ^ The Theravada tradition traces its origins as the oldest tradition holding the Pali Canon as the only authority, Mahayana tradition revers the Canon but also the derivative literature that developed in the 1st millennium CE and its roots are traceable to the 1st century BCE, while Vajrayana tradition is closer to the Mahayana, includes Tantra, is the younger of the three and traceable to the 1st millennium CE.[50][51]
- ^ On samsara, rebirth and redeath:
* Paul Williams: "All rebirth is due to karma and is impermanent. Short of attaining enlightenment, in each rebirth one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in accordance with the completely impersonal causal nature of one's own karma. The endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, is samsara."[55]
* Buswell and Lopez on "rebirth": "An English term that does not have an exact correlate in Buddhist languages, rendered instead by a range of technical terms, such as the Sanskrit Punarjanman (lit. "birth again") and Punabhavan (lit. "re-becoming"), and, less commonly, the related PUNARMRTYU (lit. "redeath")."[56]
See also Perry Schmidt-Leukel (2006) pp. 32–34,[57] John J. Makransky (1997) p. 27.[58] for the use of the term "redeath." The term Agatigati or Agati gati (plus a few other terms) is generally translated as 'rebirth, redeath'; see any Pali-English dictionary; e.g. pp. 94–95 of Rhys Davids & William Stede, where they list five Sutta examples with rebirth and re-death sense.[59] - ^ Graham Harvey: "Siddhartha Gautama found an end to rebirth in this world of suffering. His teachings, known as the dharma in Buddhism, can be summarized in the Four Noble truths."[61] Geoffrey Samuel (2008): "The Four Noble Truths [...] describe the knowledge needed to set out on the path to liberation from rebirth."[62] See also [63][64][65][55][66][61][67][web 1][web 2]
The Theravada tradition holds that insight into these four truths is liberating in itself.[68] This is reflected in the Pali canon.[69] According to Donald Lopez, "The Buddha stated in his first sermon that when he gained absolute and intuitive knowledge of the four truths, he achieved complete enlightenment and freedom from future rebirth."[web 1]
The Maha-parinibbana Sutta also refers to this liberation.[web 3] Carol Anderson: "The second passage where the four truths appear in the Vinaya-pitaka is also found in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta (D II 90–91). Here, the Buddha explains that it is by not understanding the four truths that rebirth continues."[70]
On the meaning of moksha as liberation from rebirth, see Patrick Olivelle in the Encyclopædia Britannica.[web 4] - ^ As opposite to sukha, "pleasure," it is better translated as "pain."[71]
- ^ This explanation is more common in commentaries on the Four Noble Truths within the Theravada tradition: e.g. Ajahn Sucitta (2010); Ajahn Sumedho (ebook)[full citation needed]; Rahula (1974); etc.
- ^ Ending rebirth:
* Graham Harvey: "The Third Noble Truth is nirvana. The Buddha tells us that an end to suffering is possible, and it is nirvana. Nirvana is a "blowing out," just as a candle flame is extinguished in the wind, from our lives in samsara. It connotes an end to rebirth"[61]
* Spiro: "The Buddhis message then, as I have said, is not simply a psychological message, i.e. that desire is the cause of suffering because unsatisfied desire produces frustration. It does contain such a message to be sure; but more importantly it is an eschatological message. Desire is the cause of suffering because desire is the cause of rebirth; and the extinction of desire leads to deliverance from suffering because it signals release from the Wheel of Rebirth."[63]
* John J. Makransky: "The third noble truth, cessation (nirodha) or nirvana, represented the ultimate aim of Buddhist practice in the Abhidharma traditions: the state free from the conditions that created samsara. Nirvana was the ultimate and final state attained when the supramundane yogic path had been completed. It represented salvation from samsara precisely because it was understood to comprise a state of complete freedom from the chain of samsaric causes and conditions, i.e., precisely because it was unconditioned (asamskrta)."[65]
* Walpola Rahula: "Let us consider a few definitions and descriptions of Nirvana as found in the original Pali texts [...] 'It is the complete cessation of that very thirst (tanha), giving it up, renouncing it, emancipation from it, detachment from it.' [...] 'The abandoning and destruction of craving for these Five Aggregates of Attachment: that is the cessation of dukkha. [...] 'The Cessation of Continuity and becoming (Bhavanirodha) is Nibbana.'"[83] - ^ Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms; when described as five realms, the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm.[95]
- ^ This merit gaining may be on the behalf of one's family members.[102][103][104]
- ^ The realms in which a being is reborn are:[107][108][subnote 1]
- Naraka: beings believed in Buddhism to suffer in one of many Narakas (Hells);
- Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible; an important variety is the hungry ghost;[109]
- Tiryag (animals): existence as an animal along with humans; this realm is traditionally thought in Buddhism to be similar to a hellish realm because animals are believed to be driven by impulse; they prey on each other and suffer.[110]
- Manusya (human beings): one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible; A rebirth in this realm is therefore considered as fortunate and an opportunity to end the endless Samsara and associated Dukkha.[111][112]
- Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demi-gods, demons, titans, or anti-gods; recognised in Theravada tradition as part of the heavenly realm;[113]
- Devas including Brahmās: variously translated as gods, deities, angels, or heavenly beings. The vast majority of Buddhist lay people have historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices motivated by rebirth into the Deva realm.[111][114][115]
- ^ Diseases and suffering induced by the disruptive actions of other people are examples of non-karma suffering.[122]
- ^ The emphasis on intent in Buddhism marks its difference from the karma theory of Jainism where karma accumulates with or without intent.[124][125] The emphasis on intent is also found in Hinduism, and Buddhism may have influenced karma theories of Hinduism.[126]
- ^ This Buddhist idea may have roots in the quid-pro-quo exchange beliefs of the Hindu Vedic rituals.[133] The "karma merit transfer" concept has been controversial, not accepted in later Jainism and Hinduism traditions, unlike Buddhism where it was adopted in ancient times and remains a common practice.[130] According to Bruce Reichenbach, the "merit transfer" idea was generally absent in early Buddhism and may have emerged with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism; he adds that while major Hindu schools such as Yoga, Advaita Vedanta and others do not believe in merit transfer, some bhakti Hindu traditions later adopted the idea just like Buddhism.[134]
- ^ Another variant, which may be condensed to the eightfold or tenfold path, starts with a Tathagatha entering this world. A layman hears his teachings, decides to leave the life of a householder, starts living according to the moral precepts, guards his sense-doors, practises mindfulness and the four jhanas, gains the three knowledges, understands the Four Noble Truths and destroys the taints, and perceives that he is liberated.[86]
- ^ The early Mahayana Buddhism texts link their discussion of "emptiness" (shunyata) to Anatta and Nirvana. They do so, states Mun-Keat Choong, in three ways: first, in the common sense of a monk's meditative state of emptiness; second, with the main sense of anatta or 'everything in the world is empty of self'; third, with the ultimate sense of nirvana or realisation of emptiness and thus an end to rebirth cycles of suffering.[147]
- ^ Some scholars such as Cousins and Sangharakshita translate apranaihita as "aimlessness or directionless-ness".[149]
- ^ These descriptions of nirvana in Buddhist texts, states Peter Harvey, are contested by scholars because nirvana in Buddhism is ultimately described as a state of "stopped consciousness (blown out), but one that is not non-existent", and "it seems impossible to imagine what awareness devoid of any object would be like".[155][156]
- ^ Scholars note that better rebirth, not nirvana, has been the primary focus of a vast majority of lay Buddhists. This they attempt through merit accumulation and good kamma.[114][115]
- ^ Wayman and Wayman have disagreed with this view, and they state that the Tathagatagarbha is neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality.[200]
- ^ The hundreds of rules vary by the sangha; 11th-century Chinese monastic texts include rules such as only reciting the Buddha's Word alone, not near commonplace people; not eating prohibited foods such as meat, fish, cheese, onions, garlic, animal fat; abstain from anything that can lead to sensual thoughts; etc.[291]
- ^ Williams refers to Frauwallner (1973, p. 155)
- ^ Many ancient Upanishads of Hinduism describe yoga and meditation as a means to liberation.[316][317][318]
- ^ The Buddha never claimed that the "four immeasurables" were his unique ideas, in a manner similar to "cessation, quieting, nirvana".[354] The Buddhist scripture Digha Nikaya II.251 asserts the Buddha to be calling the Brahmavihara as "that practice", and he then contrasts it with "my practice".[354]
- ^ Tillmann Vetter: "Very likely the cause was the growing influence of a non-Buddhist spiritual environment·which claimed that one can be released only by some truth or higher knowledge. In addition the alternative (and perhaps sometimes competing) method of discriminating insight (fully established after the introduction of the four noble truths) seemed to conform so well to this claim."[386]
According to Bronkhorst, this happened under influence of the "mainstream of meditation," that is, Vedic-Brahmanical oriented groups, which believed that the cessation of action could not be liberating, since action can never be fully stopped. Their solution was to postulate a fundamental difference between the inner soul or self and the body. The inner self is unchangeable, and unaffected by actions. By insight into this difference, one was liberated. To equal this emphasis on insight, Buddhists presented insight into their most essential teaching as equally liberating. What exactly was regarded as the central insight "varied along with what was considered most central to the teaching of the Buddha."[385] - ^ While some interpretations state that Buddhism may have originated as a social reform, other scholars state that it is incorrect and anachronistic to regard the Buddha as a social reformer.[464] Buddha's concern was "to reform individuals, help them to leave society forever, not to reform the world... he never preached against social inequality". Richard Gombrich, quoted by Christopher Queen.[464][465]
- ^ The Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya and Anguttara Nikaya
- ^ The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahīśāsaka, Dharmaguptaka and other schools.[485][486]
- ^ Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of "liberating insight" by Lambert Schmithausen,[488] the overview of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter,[141] the philological work on the four truths by K.R. Norman,[489] the textual studies by Richard Gombrich,[490] and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst.[491]
- ^ Well-known proponents of the first position are A. K. Warder[subnote 2] and Richard Gombrich.[494][subnote 3]
- ^ A proponent of the second position is Ronald Davidson.[subnote 4]
- ^ Well-known proponents of the third position are J.W. de Jong,[496][subnote 5] Johannes Bronkhorst[subnote 6] and Donald Lopez.[subnote 7]
- ^ "The most important evidence – in fact the only evidence – for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema."[534]
- ^ "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" Warder[536]
- ^ See Hill (2009), p. 30, for the Chinese text from the Hou Hanshu, and p. 31 for a translation of it.[555]
- ^ Harvey (1998), Gombrich (1984), Gethin (1998, pp. 1–2); identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism.";
Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia", "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area", "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West";
Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, 1984, p. 279;
Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006. - ^ See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Eliade et al. (1987), pp. 440ff Encyclopedia of Religion
- ^ This is a contested number. Official numbers from the Chinese government are lower, while other surveys are higher. According to Katharina Wenzel-Teuber, in non-government surveys, "49 percent of self-claimed non-believers [in China] held some religious beliefs, such as believing in soul reincarnation, heaven, hell, or supernatural forces. Thus the 'pure atheists' make up only about 15 percent of the sample [surveyed]."[673]
Subnotes
- ^ The realms of rebirths in Buddhism are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence.[web 7] Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the Śuddhāvāsa Worlds or Pure Abodes, can be attained only by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis (non-returners). Rebirths in the Ārūpyadhātu (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas, the highest object of meditation.
- ^ According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication "Indian Buddhism", from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn out.[486] According to Warder, c.q. his publisher: "This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before the great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."[493]
- ^ Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By "the main edifice" I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules."[490]
- ^ Ronald Davidson: "While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early community (disputed)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."[495]
- ^ J.W. De Jong: "It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."[496]
- ^ Bronkhorst: "This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay find, even if no success is guaranteed."[497]
- ^ Lopez: "The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct."[498]
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[b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
[c] John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism";
[d] Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
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[b] Brian Morris (2006). Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-85241-8., Quote: "(...) anatta is the doctrine of non-self, and is an extreme empiricist doctrine that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self is a fiction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doctrine, the individual person consists of five skandhas or heaps – the body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and consciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these five skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suffering."
[c] Gombrich (2005a, p. 47), Quote: "(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon." - ^ a b c d Buswell & Lopez (2003), pp. 708–709.
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- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 74-84.
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- ^ Harvey (1998), p. 54.
- ^ John Bowker, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1997), Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-213965-7
- ^ Williams (2002), p. 64, Quote: In the Mahatanhasankhaya Sutta the Buddha [stresses] that things originate in dependence upon causal conditioning, and this emphasis on causality describes the central feature of Buddhist ontology. All elements of samsara exist in some sense or another relative to their causes and conditions..
- ^ Robert Neville (2004). Jeremiah Hackett (ed.). Philosophy of Religion for a New Century: Essays in Honor of Eugene Thomas Long. Jerald Wallulis. Springer. p. 257. ISBN 978-1-4020-2073-5., Quote: "[Buddhism's ontological hypotheses] that nothing in reality has its own-being and that all phenomena reduce to the relativities of pratitya samutpada. The Buddhist ontological hypothesese deny that there is any ontologically ultimate object such a God, Brahman, the Dao, or any transcendent creative source or principle."
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 153–155.
- ^ Guy Debrock (2012). Paul B. Scheurer (ed.). Newton's Scientific and Philosophical Legacy. G. Debrock. Springer. p. 376, note 12. ISBN 978-94-009-2809-1.
- ^ David J. Kalupahana (1975). Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 54–60. ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1.
- ^ Genjun Sasaki (1986). Linguistic Approach to Buddhist Thought. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-81-208-0038-0.
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 151–152.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 65–72.
- ^ Emmanuel (2013), pp. 51–66.
- ^ Harvey (1998), p. 54, Quote: "The main concrete application of the abstract principle is in the form of a series of conditioned links (nidanas), culminating in the arising of dukkha." (...) "This [doctrine] states the principle of conditionality, that all things, mental and physical, arise and exist due to the presence of certain conditions, and cease once their conditions are removed: nothing (except Nibbana) is independent. The doctrine thus complements the teaching that no permanent, independent self can be found.".
- ^ Gombrich (2006), p. 47.
- ^ Siderits, Mark (2007). "Buddhism as philosophy," p. 39
- ^ Shi Huifeng, Is "Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol.2, 2016.
- ^ Ronkin, Noa (2005). "Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition" p. 91. RoutledgeCurzon.
- ^ Lindtner (1997), p. 324.
- ^ a b Harvey (2013), pp. 244–245.
- ^ a b Crosby, Kate (2013). "Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity," p. 16. John Wiley & Sons.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 27-28.
- ^ Crosby, Kate (2013). "Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity," p. 21. John Wiley & Sons.
- ^ Williams (2008), p. 21.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 162.
- ^ a b Williams (2008), p. 27.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 164.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 31.
- ^ "Dharma", The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 88.
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 85-88.
- ^ Gethin (1998), p. 92.
- ^ Gethin (1998), p. 86.
- ^ Gethin (1998), p. 93.
- ^ "What is the Triple Gem?". www.accesstoinsight.org.
- ^ Williams, Paul (2002), "Buddhist Thought", p. 52, Taylor & Francis Kindle Edition
- ^ Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice. London: Century Paperbacks. p. 81
- ^ a b Drewes, David, Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.
- ^ Williams (2008), p. 60.
- ^ Williams (2008), pp. 195–196.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 175-176.
- ^ Siderits, Mark, Buddhism as philosophy, 2017, p. 149.
- ^ Gold, Jonathan C. (22 April 2011). "Vasubandhu". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive (Summer 2018 Edition).
- ^ Williams (2008), p. 104.
- ^ Williams (2008), p. 107.
- ^ Brunnholzl, Karl, When the Clouds Part, The Uttaratantra and Its Meditative Tradition as a Bridge between Sutra and Tantra, Snow Lion, Boston & London, 2014, page 3.
- ^ Williams (2008), pp. 104–105, 108–109; Quote: "... [The Mahaparinirvana Sutra] refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics.".
- ^ Fowler (1999), pp. 101–102 Quote: "Some texts of the tathagatagarbha literature, such as the Mahaparinirvana Sutra actually refer to an atman, though other texts are careful to avoid the term. This would be in direct opposition to the general teachings of Buddhism on anatta. Indeed, the distinctions between the general Indian concept of atman and the popular Buddhist concept of Buddha-nature are often blurred to the point that writers consider them to be synonymous."
- ^ Suzuki, D.T. (1956), The Lankavatara Sutra. A Mahayana Text. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. p.69
- ^ Williams (2008), p. 112.
- ^ Hookham (1991), p. 96.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 23, 81.
- ^ Keown (1996), pp. 24, 59.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 72.
- ^ Buswell & Lopez (2003), p. 49, antagrahadrsti.
- ^ Carole Anderson (2013), Pain and its Ending, p.143
- ^ a b c d Bucknell, Rod, "The Buddhist Path to Liberation: An Analysis of the Listing of Stages", The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 7, Number 2, 1984
- ^ Gethin (2001), pp. xiii–xiv.
- ^ Ajahn Sucitto (2010), pp. 87–88.
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 81–83.
- ^ Anderson (2013), pp. 64–65.
- ^ Harvey (2016), pp. 253–255.
- ^ Bodhi (2010), pp. 1–13.
- ^ Williams, Tribe & Wynne (2012), p. 52.
- ^ a b c d e f Vetter (1988), pp. 12–13.
- ^ a b c Harvey (2013), pp. 83–85.
- ^ Bodhi (2010), pp. 47–48.
- ^ a b c d Harvey (2013), pp. 83–84.
- ^ a b Gowans (2013), p. 440.
- ^ Andrew Powell (1989). Living Buddhism. University of California Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-520-20410-2.
- ^ David L. Weddle (2010). Miracles: Wonder and Meaning in World Religions. New York University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-8147-9483-8.
- ^ Vetter (1988), p. 12.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 83, 273–274.
- ^ Martine Batchelor (2014). The Spirit of the Buddha. Yale University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-300-17500-4.; Quote: "These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison."
- ^ a b Harvey (2013), p. 83.
- ^ Roderick Bucknell; Chris Kang (2013). The Meditative Way: Readings in the Theory and Practice of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-136-80408-3.
- ^ Crosby, Kate (2013). "Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity," p. 113-114, John Wiley & Sons.
- ^ See for example, the presentation of the path in Henepola Gunaratana (2011). "Eight Mindful Steps to Happiness: Walking the Buddha's Path", Simon and Schuster.
- ^ Shankman, Richard (2008). "The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation," p. 53. Shambhala Publications.
- ^ Mahasi Sayadaw (1994). "The Progress of Insight: A Treatise on Satipatthana Meditation," p. vii Buddhist Publication Society
- ^ Nyanatiloka Thera (2010). "The Buddha's Path to Deliverance: A Systematic Exposition in the Words of the Sutta Piṭaka," p. 42. Buddhist Publication Society.
- ^ a b Nattier (2003), pp. 137–138, 142–146.
- ^ Gyatso (1995), p. 1.
- ^ Nattier (2003), p. 174.
- ^ Hirakawa (1993), p. 297.
- ^ Conze (2001), p. 2001.
- ^ a b Robinson & Johnson (1997), p. 99.
- ^ Nattier (2003), pp. 142–152.
- ^ a b c Robinson & Johnson (1997), pp. 101–102.
- ^ Buswell (2004), pp. 631–632.
- ^ a b Watanabe, Chikafumi (2000), A Study of Mahayanasamgraha III: The Relation of Practical Theories and Philosophical Theories." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Calgary, pp. 38-40.
- ^ Nattier (2003), pp. 151–154.
- ^ a b c Keown (2003), p. 212.
- ^ a b c Shōhei Ichimura (2001). Buddhist Critical Spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 28–29 with footnotes 56, 57. ISBN 978-81-208-1798-2.
- ^ Gyatso (1995), pp. 4–12.
- ^ Buswell (2004), p. 196.
- ^ a b Kōgen Mizuno; Gaynor Sekimori (1996). Essentials of Buddhism: basic terminology and concepts of Buddhist philosophy and practice. Kōsei. pp. 28–29. ISBN 978-4-333-01683-9.
- ^ Buswell (2004), pp. 631–632, 664–665, 809.
- ^ Shōhei Ichimura (2001). Buddhist Critical Spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 114. ISBN 978-81-208-1798-2.
- ^ Carl Olson (2005). The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction. Rutgers University Press. pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-0-8135-3778-8.
- ^ Robert E. Buswell, Robert M. Gimello (1992). "Paths to Liberation: The Marga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought," pp. 313-314. (Studies in East Asian Buddhism). University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Robert E. Buswell, Robert M. Gimello (1992). "Paths to Liberation: The Marga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought," p. 316. (Studies in East Asian Buddhism). University of Hawaii Press.
- ^ Lamrim: the Gradual Path to Enlightenment
- ^ Yin-shun (2012). "The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master," p. 29. Simon and Schuster.
- ^ See for example, Tsong-Kha-Pa (2015) "The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment", chapter three. Shambala Pubs.
- ^ a b Harvey (2013), p. 249.
- ^ Shults (2014), p. 108.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 244.
- ^ a b Williams (2005c), p. 398.
- ^ McFarlane (2001), pp. 187–193.
- ^ Goodman, Charles (2017). "Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 8 July 2010.
- ^ Bodhi Bhikkhu (1997). Great Disciples of the Buddha: Their Lives, Their Works, Their Legacy. Wisdom Publications. p. 387, fn. 12. ISBN 978-0-86171-128-4.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 67.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 69.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 70.
- ^ Harvey (2000), pp. 71-74.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 75.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 76.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 77.
- ^ Keown (2013), p. 616.
- ^ Harvey (2000), pp. 33, 71.
- ^ Ratanakul (2007), p. 241.
- ^ Horigan (1996), p. 276.
- ^ Terwiel (2012), pp. 178–179.
- ^ a b Harvey (2000), p. 80.
- ^ Ledgerwood (2008), p. 152.
- ^ Funayama (2004), p. 105.
- ^ McFarlane (2001), p. 187.
- ^ McFarlane (2001), pp. 187–191.
- ^ Getz (2004), p. 673.
- ^ McFarlane (2001), p. 192.
- ^ McFarlane (2001), pp. 192–193.
- ^ a b c d Richard Gombrich (2012). Buddhist Precept & Practice. Routledge. pp. 76–94. ISBN 978-1-136-15623-6.
- ^ Morgan & Lawton (2007), pp. 62–63.
- ^ Charles Orzech; Henrik Sørensen; Richard Payne (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill Academic. pp. 1013–1014, 1019–1020. ISBN 978-90-04-18491-6.
The Ten Precepts, Dasa Sila, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volume I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu - ^ Yifa (Translator); Zongze Chanyuan Qinggui (2002). The Origins of Buddhist Monastic Codes in China. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 114–132. ISBN 978-0-8248-2494-5.
- ^ a b Gombrich (1988), p. 109.
- ^ Gombrich (1988), p. 93.
- ^ a b c Gombrich (1988), pp. 89–92.
- ^ Gombrich (1988), pp. 101–107.
- ^ a b Anālayo (2003). "Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization," p. 71. Windhorse Publications.
- ^ a b Anālayo (2003). "Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization," p. 225. Windhorse Publications.
- ^ Webster, David (2004). "The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon," p. 124. Routledge.
- ^ Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–1925), p. 377, "Nekkhamma".
- ^ Harvey (1998), p. 199.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 89.
- ^ Emmanuel (2013), p. 492.
- ^ Robert E. Buswell Jr., Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013) "The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism," p. 18. Princeton University Press.
- ^ Johnston, William M. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Monasticism, Routledge, 2013, p. 467-468.
- ^ Analayo (2018) "Satipatthana Meditation, A Practice Guide," chapter 1. Windhorse Publications.
- ^ a b Boin-Webb, Sara. (English trans. from Walpola Rāhula’s French trans. of the Sanskrit; 2001) "Abhidharmasamuccaya: The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy) by Asaṅga", p. 9, Asian Humanities Press.
- ^ Sharf, Robert (2014), "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan" (PDF), Philosophy East and West, 64 (4): 933–964, doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0074
- ^ Kuan (2007), p. 50.
- ^ Vetter, Tilmann (1988), "The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism," p. 5. BRILL.
- ^ Williams (2000), pp. 45–46.
- ^ Werner, Karel (1977). "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136)". Religious Studies. 13 (3): 289–302. doi:10.1017/S0034412500010076.
- ^ a b Carrithers (1986), p. 30.
- ^ Gombrich (1988), p. 44.
- ^ Miller (1996), p. 8.
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), pp. 1–17.
- ^ Collins (2000), p. 199.
- ^ Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, pp. 25–34
- ^ White, David Gordon (2011). Yoga, Brief History of an Idea. Princeton University Press. pp. 3–5.
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), p. 99.
- ^ Wynne (2007), p. [page needed].
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), p. Part I: page 5.
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), p. 88.
- ^ Gombrich (2007).
- ^ Norman (1997), p. 29.
- ^ Gombrich (1997), p. 131.
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), p. Chapter 9, page 86.
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993), pp. 74 (Chapter 8); 102 (Conclusion).
- ^ a b c Bucknell, Robert S. (1993), "Reinterpreting the Jhanas", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 16 (2)
- ^ Gethin, Rupert (2004), "On the Practice of Buddhist Meditation According to the Pali Nikayas and Exegetical Sources", Buddhismus in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 9: 201–21.
- ^ Kevin Trainor (2004). Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide. Oxford University Press. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-19-517398-7.
- ^ Analayo (2011). "A Comparative Study of the Majjhima-nikāya Volume 1 (Introduction, Studies of Discourses 1 to 90)," p. 243.
- ^ Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (1992), "The Life of the Buddha: According to the Pali Canon" p. 324. Buddhist Publication Society.
- ^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 296–298 (SN 28:1-9).
- ^ see for example: Shankman, Richard (2008), "The Experience of Samadhi," for an overview of the debate within Theravada Buddhism.
- ^ Alex Wayman (1984). Buddhist Insight: Essays. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 86–89. ISBN 978-81-208-0675-7.
- ^ Bruno Petzold (1995). The Classification of Buddhism. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 502–503. ISBN 978-3-447-03373-2.
- ^ Lewis Hodous; William E. Soothill (2003). A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index. Routledge. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-135-79123-0.
- ^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 269–270, 440 n. 13.
- ^ Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-1253.
- ^ Welch (1967), p. 396.
- ^ "What is Theravada Buddhism?". Access to Insight. Access to Insight. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
- ^ Keown (1996), pp. 106–107, context: Chapter 7.
- ^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439.
- ^ De La Vallee Poussin (trans.); Pruden, Leo M. (trans.) Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu. Vol. III, page 925.
- ^ Bronkhorst (1993).
- ^ a b Anālayo. "A Brief Criticism of the ‘Two Paths to Liberation’ Theory" JOCBS. 2016 (11): 38-51.
- ^ Gethin (2001), p. xiv.
- ^ Hirakawa (1993), pp. 172–174.
- ^ a b c d Harvey (2013), pp. 154, 326.
- ^ Carl Olson (2009). The A to Z of Buddhism. Scarecrow. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-8108-7073-4.
- ^ Diane Morgan (2010). Essential Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. ABC-CLIO. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-313-38452-3.
- ^ a b c d Fowler (1999), pp. 60–62.
- ^ Peter Harvey (2001). Buddhism. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-4411-4726-4.
- ^ a b Aronson (1980), p. 71.
- ^ Martin G. Wiltshire (1990). Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 241–264. ISBN 978-3-11-009896-9.
- ^ Jayatilleke, K.N. (2013). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. Routledge. pp. 477–479. ISBN 978-1-134-54287-1.
- ^ Aronson (1980), pp. 60–83.
- ^ Collins (1998), pp. 304–305, fn. 13.
- ^ Gombrich (1997), pp. 84–85.
- ^ Gombrich (1997), p. 62.
- ^ Trainor (2004), p. 87.
- ^ Luis Gomez (2015). Donald S. Lopez Jr. (ed.). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton University Press. pp. 236–243. ISBN 978-1-4008-8007-2.
- ^ Trainor (2004), pp. 86–87.
- ^ Powers (2007), p. 250.
- ^ Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt (2004). Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra, p. 52
- ^ Trainor (2004), pp. 88–89.
- ^ Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt (2004). Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra, p. 45
- ^ Keown, Damien (ed.) with Hodge, Stephen; Jones, Charles; Tinti, Paola (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. Great Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press. P.63. ISBN 0-19-860560-9
- ^ Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé; Guarisco, Elio and McLeod, Ingrid (trans.) (2008) The Treasury of Knowledge: Book Eight, Part Three: The Elements of Tantric Practice, p. 201. Shambhala Publications.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 319.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 243–244, 257–258, 318–319.
- ^ Keown & Prebish (2013), p. 502.
- ^ Jeff Wilson (2014). Mindful America: The Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0-19-938357-3.
- ^ John Powers (2015). The Buddhist World. Routledge. p. 787. ISBN 978-1-317-42016-3.
- ^ a b Keown & Prebish (2013), pp. 502–504.
- ^ a b Kuan (2007), p. 58.
- ^ Trainor (2004), p. 74.
- ^ Conze (2013), pp. 39–40.
- ^ Fowler (1999), pp. 49–52.
- ^ Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa; Frank E. Reynolds; Theodore M. Ludwig (1980). Transitions and Transformations in the History of Religions: Essays in Honor of Joseph M. Kitagawa. Brill Academic. pp. 56–58. ISBN 978-90-04-06112-5., Quote: "Suffering describes the condition of samsaric (this worldly) existence that arises from actions generated by ignorance of anatta and anicca. The doctrines of no-self and impermanence are thus the keystones of dhammic order."
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 73–75, 146–159, 243.
- ^ Buswell (2004), pp. 664–665.
- ^ Kuan (2007), p. 59.
- ^ Vetter (1988), pp. xxxii, xxxiii.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst (1993), pp. 54–55, 96, 99.
- ^ Vetter (1988), p. xxxiii.
- ^ Keown, Damien (1992/2001) "The Nature of Buddhist Ethics," p. 79-82, New York: Palgrave.
- ^ Cox, Collett (1992/1994) “Attainment through Abandonment: The Sarvāstivāda Path of Removing Defilements”, in Paths to Liberation, The Mārga and Its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, R.E. Buswell jr. and R.M. Gimello (ed.), 63–105, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- ^ Ba Khin; Pierluigi Confalonieri (1999). The Clock of Vipassana Has Struck. Pariyatti. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-0-9649484-6-4.
- ^ George D. Chryssides (2012). Historical Dictionary of New Religious Movements. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-8108-6194-7.
- ^ a b Bond (1992), p. 167.
- ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, p. 40.
- ^ Hirakawa (1993), p. 300.
- ^ Adam, Martin T. Meditation and the Concept of Insight in Kamalashila's Bhavanakramas, 2002.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 237.
- ^ Harvey (1998), p. 170.
- ^ Trainor (2004), pp. 84–85, 105, 108–109, 112–113, 116, 165, 185.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 239-240.
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 243.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 243-244.
- ^ Donald Swearer (2003), Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition (Editors: Heine and Prebish), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-514698-1, pp. 9–25
- ^ Karel Werner (1995). Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-0235-0, pp. 45–46
- ^ Trainor (2004), pp. 108–109, Quote: "(...) both textual and archaeological evidence shows that devotion has long been a part of Buddhism. The practice of venerating relics and images has long played a central role even in Buddhist traditions that strongly emphasize that Gautama Buddha was a human being (...)"..
- ^ a b Doris Wolter (2007). Losing the Clouds, Gaining the Sky: Buddhism and the Natural Mind. Simon & Schuster. pp. 59–62, 72–76. ISBN 978-0-86171-359-2.
- ^ Rita M. Gross (1993). Buddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism. State University of New York Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-7914-1403-3.
- ^ a b Stephen C. Berkwitz (2010). South Asian Buddhism: A Survey. Routledge. pp. 130–133. ISBN 978-0-415-45249-6.
- ^ Donald Mitchell (1999). Gethsemani Encounter: A Dialogue on the Spiritual Life by Buddhist and Christian Monastics. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 199–200. ISBN 978-0-8264-1165-5.
- ^ Harvey (2000), pp. 157-158.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 158.
- ^ Harvey (2000), pp. 156-159.
- ^ a b Phelps, Norm (2004). The Great Compassion: Buddhism & Animal Rights. New York: Lantern Books. p. 76. ISBN 1-59056-069-8.
- ^ Vanijja Sutta: Business (Wrong Livelihood) Archived 19 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Buddhism and Vegetarianism, The Rationale for the Buddha's Views on the Consumption of Meat" Archived 2013-10-07 at the Wayback Machine by Dr V. A. Gunasekara" 'The rule of vegetarianism was the fifth of a list of rules which Devadatta had proposed to the Buddha. Devadatta was the founder of the tapasa movement in Buddhism and his special rules involved ascetic and austere practices (forest-dwelling, wearing only rags, etc). The Buddha rejected all the proposed revisions of Devadatta, and it was in this context that he reiterated the tikoiparisuddha rule. (On this see the author's Western Buddhism and a Theravada heterodoxy, BSQ Tracts on Buddhism'
- ^ Phelps, Norm (2004). The Great Compassion: Buddhism & Animal Rights. New York: Lantern Books. pp. 64-65. ISBN 1-59056-069-8.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 163.
- ^ Breiter, Paul (2004). Venerable Father. Paraview Special Editions. p. xii. ISBN 1-931044-81-3.
- ^ a b Harvey (2000), p. 161.
- ^ Harvey (2000), p. 162.
- ^ For an over view of this history, see: Barstow, Geoffrey (2018) Food of Sinful Demons: Meat, Vegetarianism, and the Limits of Buddhism in Tibet. Columbia University Press.
- ^ Talk on Vegetarianism, by Orgyen Trinle Dorje, Karmapa XVII, As Translated Simultaneously by Ringu Tulku Rinpoche 3 January 2007, Full Moon Day, During the 24th annual Great Kagyu Monlam, Bodhgaya, India
- ^ a b c d e Donald Lopez (2004). Buddhist Scriptures. Penguin Books. pp. xi–xv. ISBN 978-0-14-190937-0.
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 39–41.
- ^ Donald Lopez (2004). Buddhist Scriptures. Penguin Books. pp. xii–xiii. ISBN 978-0-14-190937-0.
- ^ Gethin (2008), p. xiv.
- ^ Eliot (1935), p. 16.
- ^ Donald Lopez (2004). Buddhist Scriptures. Penguin Books. pp. xiii–xvii. ISBN 978-0-14-190937-0.
- ^ a b Donald Lopez (2004). Buddhist Scriptures. Penguin Books. pp. xi–xxv. ISBN 978-0-14-190937-0.
- ^ Gethin (1998), pp. 42–43.
- ^ Sujato & Brahmali (2015), pp. 9–10.
- ^ Mun-Keat Choong (1999). The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 3. ISBN 978-81-208-1649-7.
- ^ e.g. "Mun-keat, Choong (2000), The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism" and "Analayo. Early Buddhist Meditation Studies (Volume 1)"
- ^ Anālayo (2008). "Reflections on Comparative Āgama Studies" (PDF). Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal. Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies. 21: 3–21. ISSN 1017-7132.
- ^ Warder (2000), pp. 282–283.
- ^ Crosby, Kate (2013). Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4051-8906-4
- ^ Skilling (1992), p. 114.
- ^ Harvey (1995), p. 9.
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External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Resources from Wikiversity
- Data from Wikidata
- Worldwide Buddhist Information and Education Network, BuddhaNet
- Early Buddhist texts, translations, and parallels, SuttaCentral
- East Asian Buddhist Studies: A Reference Guide, Robert Buswell and William Bodiford, UCLA
- Buddhist Bibliography (China and Tibet), East West Center
- Ten Philosophical Questions: Buddhism, Richard Hayes, Leiden University
- Readings in Theravada Buddhism, Access to Insight
- Readings in Zen Buddhism, Hakuin Ekaku (Ed: Monika Bincsik)
- Readings in Sanskrit Buddhist Canon, Nagarjuna Institute – UWest
- Readings in Buddhism, Vipassana Research Institute (English, Southeast Asian and Indian Languages)
- Religion and Spirituality: Buddhism at Open Directory Project
- The Future of Buddhism series, from Patheos
- Buddhist Art, Smithsonian
- Buddhism – objects, art and history, V&A Museum
- Buddhism for Beginners, Tricycle
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