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Parte del entorno construido: viviendas en zonas suburbanas en Colorado Springs, Colorado .

En planificación urbana , arquitectura e ingeniería civil , el término entorno construido, o mundo construido , se refiere al entorno creado por el hombre que proporciona el escenario para la actividad humana , incluidos hogares , edificios , zonificación , calles, aceras , espacios abiertos, opciones de transporte, y más. [1] Se define como "el espacio creado por el hombre en el que las personas viven, trabajan y se recrean en el día a día". [2]

El entorno construido es relevante en los campos de la arquitectura , el urbanismo , la salud pública , la sociología y la antropología , entre otros. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Afecta la forma en que la sociedad maniobra y funciona físicamente, así como aspectos menos tangibles de la sociedad, como la desigualdad racial. El tema del entorno construido también incluye las formas en que las comunidades han abordado los problemas ambientales que han surgido como resultado de tal alteración del medio ambiente para las actividades humanas entre las plantas y los animales. [8]

El entorno construido se compone de características físicas. Sin embargo, cuando se estudia, el entorno construido a menudo destaca la conexión entre el espacio físico y las consecuencias sociales. [6] Varios aspectos del entorno construido contribuyen a la investigación sobre vivienda y segregación , actividad física, acceso a alimentos, cambio climático y racismo ambiental . [9] [10] [11]

Historia [ editar ]

Los primeros conceptos de entorno construido datan de la Antigüedad clásica : Hippodamus de Miletos , conocido como el "padre del urbanismo" [¿ por quién? ] , desarrollaron ciudades griegas desde 498 a. C. hasta 408 a. C. que crearon orden mediante el uso de planos de cuadrícula que trazaban mapas de la ciudad. [12] Estos primeros planes de la ciudad finalmente dieron paso al movimiento City Beautiful a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, inspirado por Daniel Hudson Burnham , un reformista del movimiento progresista que promovió activamente "una reforma del paisaje junto con el cambio político. " [13]El esfuerzo se realizó en asociación con otros que creían que embellecer las ciudades estadounidenses mejoraría la brújula moral de las ciudades y alentaría a la clase alta a gastar su dinero en las ciudades. Este proceso de embellecimiento incluyó parques y diseño arquitectónico. [14] A mediados de siglo, el diseño modernista "indiferente" influyó en el carácter del trabajo y los espacios públicos, seguido de lo que Alexander describe como un "resurgimiento del interés relacionado con el concepto de lugar (incluido el entorno construido) de finales del siglo XX", y su relevancia para la salud mental y otros campos de estudio ". [15]

El entorno construido tiene importantes implicaciones sociales y físicas. La preocupación por el entorno construido se puede encontrar en la literatura antropológica ya a principios del siglo XIX en los estudios de historia social y cultural. [7] Las primeras teorías reconocieron que el refugio y la organización de la ciudad no solo eran utilitarios, sino que reflejaban la cultura de las sociedades que lo erigieron. Durkheim, un teórico sociológico fundamental, reconoció de manera similar que la organización espacial es un producto de factores sociales, pero también juega un papel en la reproducción de formas sociales. [dieciséis]

Entorno construido moderno [ editar ]

Actualmente, los entornos construidos se utilizan típicamente para describir el campo interdisciplinario que aborda el diseño, la construcción, la gestión y el uso de estos entornos creados por el hombre como un todo interrelacionado, así como su relación con las actividades humanas a lo largo del tiempo (en lugar de un elemento particular en aislamiento o en un solo momento en el tiempo). El campo generalmente no se considera como una profesión tradicional o disciplina académica por derecho propio, sino que se basa en áreas como economía , derecho, políticas públicas , sociología , antropología , salud pública, administración , geografía , diseño, ingeniería, tecnología ysostenibilidad ambiental . Dentro del campo de la salud pública, los entornos construidos se denominan áreas de construcción o renovación en un esfuerzo por mejorar el bienestar de la comunidad a través de la construcción de “paisajes y estructuras habitables estéticamente, mejoradas para la salud y ambientalmente mejoradas”. [17] Por ejemplo: el grupo de usuarios de bosques comunitarios en Nepal es una institución multidimensional que ofrece bienes y servicios a las comunidades a través del manejo de recursos naturales (ver Adaptación al cambio climático en Nepal ).

La tecnología está desempeñando un papel fundamental en la configuración de las industrias de hoy al aumentar los procesos, optimizar las actividades e integrar las innovaciones para impulsar el funcionamiento de las empresas y organizaciones en una multitud de industrias y ayudarlas a alcanzar nuevas alturas. El modelado de información de construcción ( BIM ) es una práctica destacada. Se trata de una ilustración y una descripción general previa a la ejecución de las características físicas y funcionales de los lugares. Las herramientas BIM ayudan al planificador a tomar una decisión informada preparada para el futuro con respecto a un edificio u otro activo construido. La gestión inteligente de edificios, la topografía basada en drones, la impresión 3D y el sistema de transporte inteligente son una implementación reciente de la tecnología en un entorno construido moderno.

Características destacadas del entorno construido [ editar ]

Carretera 610 en Houston, Texas

Opciones de transporte [ editar ]

Las opciones de transporte dentro de una comunidad juegan un papel importante en las comunidades, tanto social como físicamente. Estas opciones pueden incluir carreteras, aceras, infraestructura de transporte público.

Carreteras y carreteras [ editar ]

Las carreteras, si bien están destinadas principalmente a promover el tránsito, también pueden servir como barreras físicas en el entorno construido. Un estudio de la Universidad de Cornell utilizó datos del censo para comparar la diferencia entre la distancia lineal y la distancia por carretera en las ciudades estadounidenses. Los resultados encontraron que la distancia de la carretera era desproporcionadamente alta entre grupos de diferentes grupos raciales, mientras que está mucho más cerca de la distancia lineal dentro de los grupos de vecindarios. [18] Las carreteras principales también pueden dividir el espacio social al reducir la transitabilidad y separar las áreas comerciales de las residenciales. [19]

Aceras [ editar ]

Mapa del metro de la ciudad de Nueva York

Las aceras son una característica importante del entorno construido que permiten la movilidad de los peatones y aumentan la transitabilidad. La calidad y el servicio de las aceras pueden verse afectados por factores como el patrullaje policial, la limpieza, las obstrucciones y los daños en la superficie, como las grietas. [20]

Transporte público [ editar ]

El transporte público eleva el valor de la propiedad al mejorar el acceso a los recursos circundantes, reduce el costo de vida al reducir la necesidad de un automóvil y mejora la huella ambiental de un área al reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. [9] Los estudios muestran que el uso del suelo y la infraestructura de tránsito tienen un gran impacto en el uso del transporte público en las ciudades a nivel mundial. [21] Se ha demostrado que las decisiones de las personas de conducir, caminar, andar en bicicleta o utilizar el transporte público están influenciadas por factores espaciales como la densidad. [22]

Las investigaciones muestran que la disponibilidad y la naturaleza de los carriles y senderos para bicicletas afectan el número y el comportamiento de los ciclistas. [23] Además, la construcción de carriles para bicicletas en Estados Unidos a veces ha sido reconocida como un símbolo de gentrificación, ya que atrae a residentes blancos más jóvenes e impacta la demografía de un lugar. [24]

Edificios [ editar ]

La ubicación, el diseño y la distribución de los edificios tienen un impacto en la función y la eficacia del servicio de un edificio. La ubicación de un edificio puede influir en cómo se utilizará un edificio y con qué frecuencia. [25] Además, el diseño del espacio interior, según lo determinado por arquitectos y diseñadores, tiene un gran impacto en cómo funciona el espacio y el comportamiento que promueve. [26]

Parques y espacios verdes [ editar ]

Los parques brindan una serie de beneficios para el vecindario, incluida la promoción de la actividad física y el bienestar ambiental. [27] La ubicación y accesibilidad de los parques también tiene una gran influencia en las comunidades circundantes, incluso impactando factores ambientales como la temperatura. [28]

Impacto del entorno construido [ editar ]

Vivienda y segregación [ editar ]

Features in the built environment present physical barriers which constitute the boundaries between neighborhoods.[29] Roads and railways, for instance, play a large role in how people can feasibly navigate their environment.[18] This can result in the isolation of certain communities from various resources and from each other.[18] The placement of roads, highways, and sidewalks also determines what access people have to jobs and childcare close to home, especially in areas where most people do not own vehicles. Walkability directly influences community, so the way a neighborhood is built affects the outcomes and opportunities of the community that lives there.[19] Even less physically imposing features, such as architectural design, can distinguish the boundaries between communities and decrease movement across neighborhood lines.[30]

The segregation of communities is significant because the qualities of any given space directly impact the wellbeing of the people who live and work there.[6] George Galster and Patrick Sharkey refer to this variation in geographic context as "spatial opportunity structure," and claim that the built environment influences socioeconomic outcomes and general welfare.[6] For instance, the history of redlining and housing segregation means that there is less green space in many Black and Hispanic neighborhoods. Access to parks and green space has been proven to be good for mental health which puts these communities at a disadvantage.[9] The historical segregation has contributed to environmental injustice, as these neighborhoods suffer from hotter summers since urban asphalt absorbs heat than trees and grass.[28]

Public health[edit]

Public health research has expanded the list of concerns associated with the built environment to include healthy food access, community gardens, mental health,[31][32] physical health,[33][10][34] walkability, and cycling mobility.[35]

Physical activity[edit]

Further information: Active design and Healthy city

Since, the built environment determines how people move throughout a given space, it influences public health by promoting or discouraging health and wellness. Research has indicated that the way neighborhoods are created can affect both the physical activity and mental health of the communities’ residents.[36] Built environments purposefully designed to improve physical activity are also linked to higher rates of physical activity, which in turn, positively affects health.[37][38] People are generally more active in densely populated areas, areas good street connectivity, and mixed-use communities which incorporate both retail and residential space.[39] As a result, those who prefer to walk and live in walkable environments often have lower obesity rates and drive less compared to those who preferred living in auto-dependent environments.[40]

Further information: Obesity and walking
A separated bike lane in New York City.

Neighborhoods with more walkability have lower rates of obesity, as well as increased physical activity among its residents. They also have lower rates of depression, higher social capital, and less alcohol abuse. Walkability features in these neighborhoods include safety, sidewalk construction, as well as destinations in which to walk.[36] In addition, the perception of a walkable neighborhood, one that is perceived to have good sidewalks and connectivity, is correlated with higher rates of physical activity.[37]

Assessments of walkability have been completed through the use of GIS programs, such as the Street Smart Walk Score. This example of a walkability assessment tool determines distances to grocery stores and other amenities, as well as connectivity and intersection frequency using specific addresses.[41] Assessments such as the Street Smart Walk Score can be utilized by city and country planning departments to improve existing walkability of communities.

To implement walkable neighborhoods, community members and local leaders should focus on policy development. An effective framework that has been utilized in an abundance of communities is the Complete Streets concept of community planning that has been developed by the National Complete Streets Coalition (NCSC).[42] NCSC states that the most successful policies are those that reflect input from a broad group of stakeholders, including transportation planners and engineers, elected officials, transit agencies, public health departments, and members of the community.[42] According to Riggs, 2016, policies may focus on a “Complete Streets” investment, which includes sidewalk bulb-outs and refuges to reduce crossing distances or street widths for pedestrians. Other investments should include installing crosswalks, road markings, benches, shelters and sidewalk art installations.[43] Every community will have a unique method of policy development depending on whether it is an urban, suburban, or rural community and how the policy will combine the variety of transportation modalities. Communities may choose to focus on walkability, but will also need to consider biking, wheeling/rolling, driving, and emergency vehicles. The NCSC policy workbook gives descriptive guidance on how to proceed with policy development whether they be council-driven, council-approved, directives, or citizen vote.[42] When deciding how to proceed with walkability policy development, considerations should be made regarding current and past transportation policies, local community and government support, and how transportation policies have been implemented in the past.

A community garden located in Montreal, Canada.

Public health also addresses additional components of built environments including “cycling mobility”, which refers to the access that an area has granted to safe biking through multiple bike paths and bike lanes.[44] Both walkability and bikeability have been cited as determinants of physical activity.[45]

Built environments containing recreational facilities have been associated with greater physical activity among children.[5] For example, one study found that walking paths, parks with playgrounds, swimming areas, basketball courts and other various recreational facilities increased physical activity among adolescent girls.[46] Urban planning and its utilization of mixed use development are key factors affecting childhood obesity. Mixed use spaces are composed of residential, commercial, cultural, and institutional components.[47] This type of development helps to reduce the distance residents have to travel to access a grocery store or school. It also creates a more walkable and bike friendly environment for residents.

It has been proven that high-density environments, meaning mixed use spaces and neighborhoods with higher walkability and bikeability, will increase physical activity.[48] A multivariable cross-sectional study done by the Harvard School of Public Health examined the association of walkable built environment characteristics with body mass index (BMI) scores among a large sample of children and adolescents.[48] A series of geographic information system variables were used to characterize a walkable built environment.

  1. A distance less than 15 km to a private or public recreational open space has been linked to an increase in physical activity among children.[48] This may be due to the influence children have on one another when they see others playing.[48]
  2. Also, a higher number of open spaces increases the likelihood of physical activity among children.[48]
  3. A more densely populated residential area can increase children's proximity to their peers creating a more walkable environment.[48]
  4. Less traffic density can also increase physical activity among children because their parents feel safe when they are walking in the neighborhood.[48]
  5. Lower neighborhood speed limits with more sidewalks and intersections also create a safer environment for children increasing their likelihood to walk in the neighborhood.[48]
  6. Finally, a greater variety of land use mix, or mixed use spaces, result in more children walking.[48]

These built environment characteristics that can increase walkability were found to be generally associated with a lower BMI scores among the children sampled.[48] Another study looking at active commuting, those reporting walking, biking, or skateboarding to school more than three times a week, among elementary aged children had significantly lower BMI than non-active commuters.[49] For these reason, mixed use lands within the built environment are imperative to helping address childhood obesity. Urban sprawl, which has been positively associated with increased obesity, and an overall decline in active transportation in recent decades presents a real need for improving health within the built environment.[49][50] High-density environments bring schools, parks, and grocery stores closer to residents making it convenient to potentially eat healthier foods and exercise on a regular basis. Comprehensive urban planning, such as mixed use development, promotes healthier lifestyles in general.

The strength of the evidence for reducing obesity through environment has been highlighted by the Centers for Disease Control in its Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project, which includes measures of healthy food access and physical activity environments.[51]

Food access[edit]

Access to healthy food is also an important component of the built environment. A higher density of convenience stores has been associated with obesity in children.[52] In contrast, improved access to community supermarkets and farmer's markets is correlated with lower overweight status.[11] Specifically in low income neighborhoods, the presence of a local grocery store is correlated with lower BMI/overweight risk.[53] Community gardens are also considered a part of the built environment, and have been shown to increase fruit and vegetable intake among gardeners.[54] Scholars say that community gardens have also been shown to have positive social and psychological impacts that lead to lower levels of stress, hypertension, and an improved sense of wellness, affecting the overall health of the individual and the community.

See also[edit]

  • Center for the Built Environment
  • City planning
  • Environmental psychology
  • Environmental sustainability
  • Healing environments
  • Healthy building
  • International Association of People-Environment Studies
  • Microbiomes of the built environment
  • National Building Museum
  • Natural environment
  • Public health
  • Social environment
  • Urbanism
  • Urban planning
  • Vernacular architecture
  • Weatherization

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Further reading[edit]

  • Jackson, Richard J.; Dannenberg, Andrew L.; Frumkin, Howard (2013). "Health and the Built Environment: 10 Years After". American Journal of Public Health. 103 (9): 1542–1544. doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301482. PMC 3780695. PMID 23865699.
  • Leyden, Kevin M (2003). "Social Capital and the Built Environment: The Importance of Walkable Neighborhoods" (PDF). American Journal of Public Health. 93 (9): 1546–1551. doi:10.2105/ajph.93.9.1546. PMC 1448008. PMID 12948978. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-18. Retrieved 2014-02-26.
  • Jeb Brugmann, Welcome to the urban revolution: how cities are changing the world, Bloomsbury Press, 2009
  • Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House, New York, 1961
  • Andrew Knight & Les Ruddock, Advanced Research Methods in the Built Environment, Wiley-Blackwell 2008
  • Paul Chynoweth, The Built Environment Interdiscipline: A Theoretical Model for Decision Makers in Research and Teaching, Proceedings of the CIB Working Commission (W089) Building Education and Research Conference, Kowloon Sangri-La Hotel, Hong Kong, 10 - 13 April 2006.
  • Richard J. Jackson with Stacy Sinclair, Designing Healthy Communities, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 2012
  • Russell P. Lopez, The Built Environment and Public Health, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 2012

External links[edit]

  • Australian Sustainable Built Environment Council (ASBEC)
  • Faculty of Built Environment, UTM, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
  • Designing Healthy Communities, link to nonprofit organization and public television documentary of same name
  • The Built Environment and Health: 11 Profiles of Neighborhood Transformation
  • World Zip Code