El calvinismo (también llamado tradición reformada , cristianismo reformado , protestantismo reformado o fe reformada ) es una rama importante del protestantismo que sigue la tradición teológica y las formas de práctica cristiana establecidas por Juan Calvino y otros teólogos de la era de la Reforma . Enfatiza la soberanía de Dios y la autoridad de la Biblia .
Los calvinistas se separaron de la Iglesia Católica Romana en el siglo XVI. Los calvinistas difieren de los luteranos (otra rama importante de la Reforma) en la presencia real de Cristo en la Eucaristía , las teorías de la adoración , el propósito y significado del bautismo y el uso de la ley de Dios para los creyentes , entre otras cosas. [1] [2] El término calvinismo puede inducir a error, porque la tradición religiosa que denota siempre ha sido diversa, con una amplia gama de influencias en lugar de un solo fundador; sin embargo, casi todos se basaron en gran medida en los escritos de Agustín de Hipona mil doscientos años antes. [3] En el contexto de la Reforma, Huldrych Zwingli inició la tradición reformada en 1519 en la ciudad de Zürich . Sus seguidores fueron instantáneamente etiquetados como zwinglianos , de acuerdo con la práctica católica de nombrar la herejía como su fundador. [ cita requerida ] Muy pronto, a Zwinglio se le unieron Martin Bucer , Wolfgang Capito , William Farel , Johannes Oecolampadius y otros pensadores reformados tempranos.
El homónimo del movimiento, el reformador francés Juan Calvino, renunció al catolicismo romano y abrazó los puntos de vista protestantes a fines de la década de 1520 o principios de la de 1530, ya que Huldrych Zwingli ya abrazó las primeras nociones de la tradición reformada posterior . El movimiento se llamó primero calvinismo , refiriéndose a Juan Calvino, a principios de la década de 1550 por los luteranos que se oponían a él. Muchos dentro de la tradición lo encuentran un término indescriptivo o inapropiado y preferirían que se usara la palabra Reformado . [4] [5] Los teólogos reformados más importantes incluyen a Calvino, Zwingli, Martin Bucer , William Farel , Heinrich Bullinger , Peter Martyr Vermigli , Theodore Beza y John Knox . En el siglo XX, Abraham Kuyper , Herman Bavinck , BB Warfield , J. Gresham Machen , Karl Barth , Martyn Lloyd-Jones , Cornelius Van Til , Gordon Clark , RC Sproul y JI Packer fueron influyentes. Los teólogos reformados contemporáneos incluyen a John MacArthur , Timothy J. Keller , David Wells y Michael Horton .
La tradición reformada está representada en gran parte por las familias denominacionales reformadas continentales , presbiterianas , anglicanas evangélicas , congregacionalistas y bautistas reformadas . Varias formas de gobierno eclesiástico son ejercidas por un grupo de iglesias reformadas, incluidas las presbiterianas , congregacionalistas y algunas episcopales . La asociación reformada más grande es la Comunión Mundial de Iglesias Reformadas con más de 100 millones de miembros en 211 denominaciones miembros en todo el mundo. [6] [7] Hay federaciones reformadas más conservadoras como la Comunidad Reformada Mundial y la Conferencia Internacional de Iglesias Reformadas , así como iglesias independientes .
Etimología
El calvinismo lleva el nombre de Juan Calvino . Fue utilizado por primera vez por un teólogo luterano en 1552. Era una práctica común de la Iglesia Católica Romana nombrar lo que consideraba una herejía en honor a su fundador. Sin embargo, el término salió por primera vez de los círculos luteranos. Calvino denunció la designación él mismo:
No podrían insultarnos más que esta palabra, calvinismo. No es difícil adivinar de dónde viene un odio tan mortal que me tienen en contra.
- Juan Calvino, Leçons ou commentaires et expositions sur les révélations du prophète Jeremie , 1565 [8]
A pesar de su connotación negativa, esta designación se hizo cada vez más popular para distinguir a los calvinistas de los luteranos y de las nuevas ramas protestantes que surgieron más tarde. La gran mayoría de las iglesias que remontan su historia a Calvino (incluidos los presbiterianos, los congregacionalistas y una fila de otras iglesias calvinistas) no lo usan por sí mismas, ya que la designación "reformada" es más generalmente aceptada y preferida, especialmente en el inglés. mundo hablante . Además, estas iglesias afirman ser —de acuerdo con las propias palabras de Juan Calvino— "renovadas de acuerdo con el verdadero orden del evangelio".
Desde la controversia arminiana , la tradición reformada, como una rama del protestantismo que se distingue del luteranismo, se dividió en dos grupos separados: arminianos y calvinistas. [9] [10] Sin embargo, ahora es raro llamar a los arminianos parte de la tradición reformada, siendo la mayoría de los arminianos miembros de las iglesias metodistas e iglesias bautistas generales . Si bien la tradición teológica reformada aborda todos los temas tradicionales de la teología cristiana, la palabra calvinismo se usa a veces para referirse a puntos de vista calvinistas particulares sobre la soteriología y la predestinación , que se resumen en parte en los cinco puntos del calvinismo . Algunos también han argumentado que el calvinismo en su conjunto enfatiza la soberanía o el gobierno de Dios en todas las cosas, incluida la salvación.
Historia
Los teólogos reformados de primera generación incluyen a Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531), Martin Bucer (1491-1551), Wolfgang Capito (1478-1541), John Oecolampadius (1482-1531) y Guillaume Farel (1489-1565). Estos reformadores procedían de diversos antecedentes académicos, pero ya se pueden detectar en su pensamiento distinciones posteriores dentro de la teología reformada, especialmente la prioridad de las Escrituras como fuente de autoridad. Las Escrituras también se vieron como un todo unificado, lo que llevó a una teología del pacto de los sacramentos del bautismo y la Cena del Señor como signos visibles del pacto de gracia . Otro presente distintivo reformado en estos teólogos fue su negación de la presencia corporal de Cristo en la Cena del Señor . Cada uno de estos teólogos también entendió que la salvación es solo por gracia, y afirmó una doctrina de elección particular (la enseñanza de que algunas personas son elegidas por Dios para la salvación ). Martín Lutero y su sucesor Philipp Melanchthon fueron indudablemente influencias significativas en estos teólogos y, en mayor medida, en los teólogos reformados posteriores. La doctrina de la justificación solo por la fe , también conocida como sola fide, [11] fue una herencia directa de Lutero. [12]
Juan Calvino (1509–64), Heinrich Bullinger (1504–75), Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563), Peter Martyr Vermigli (1500–62) y Andreas Hyperius (1511–64) pertenecen a la segunda generación de teólogos reformados. Los Institutos de la religión cristiana de Calvino (1536-1559) fue una de las teologías más influyentes de la época. [13] Hacia mediados del siglo XVI, los reformados comenzaron a comprometer sus creencias con confesiones de fe , lo que daría forma a la definición futura de la fe reformada. El Consenso Tigurinus de 1549 reunió a quienes siguieron la teología conmemorativa de la Cena del Señor de Zwinglio y Bullinger , que enseñaba que la Cena simplemente sirve como un recordatorio de la muerte de Cristo, y la opinión de Calvino de que la Cena sirve como un medio de gracia con Cristo realmente presente, aunque espiritualmente más que corporalmente. El documento demuestra la diversidad y la unidad en la teología reformada temprana. El resto del siglo XVI vio una explosión de actividad confesional. La estabilidad y amplitud de la teología reformada durante este período contrasta notablemente con la amarga controversia experimentada por los luteranos antes de la Fórmula de la Concordia de 1579 . [14]
Debido a la obra misional de Calvino en Francia, su programa de reforma finalmente llegó a las provincias de habla francesa de los Países Bajos. El calvinismo fue adoptado en el Electorado del Palatinado bajo Federico III , lo que llevó a la formulación del Catecismo de Heidelberg en 1563. Esta y la Confesión Belga fueron adoptadas como estándares confesionales en el primer sínodo de la Iglesia Reformada Holandesa en 1571. En 1573, Guillermo el Silencioso se unió a la Iglesia Calvinista. El calvinismo fue declarado religión oficial del Reino de Navarra por la reina reinante Juana de Albret después de su conversión en 1560. Los principales teólogos, ya sean calvinistas o simpatizantes del calvinismo, se establecieron en Inglaterra (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr y Jan Łaski ) y Escocia ( John Knox ). Durante la Guerra Civil Inglesa , los puritanos calvinistas produjeron la Confesión de Westminster , que se convirtió en el estándar confesional para los presbiterianos en el mundo de habla inglesa. Habiéndose establecido en Europa, el movimiento continuó extendiéndose a otras partes del mundo, incluidas América del Norte, Sudáfrica y Corea. [15]
Calvino no vivió para ver la base de su trabajo convertirse en un movimiento internacional; pero su muerte permitió que sus ideas surgieran de su ciudad de origen, triunfaran mucho más allá de sus fronteras y establecieran su propio carácter distintivo. [dieciséis]
Propagar
Aunque gran parte del trabajo de Calvino se realizó en Ginebra , sus publicaciones difundieron sus ideas de una iglesia correctamente reformada a muchas partes de Europa. En Suiza , algunos cantones todavía son reformados y algunos son católicos. El calvinismo se convirtió en el sistema teológico de la mayoría en Escocia (ver John Knox ), los Países Bajos (ver William Ames , TJ Frelinghuysen y Wilhelmus à Brakel ), algunas comunidades en Flandes y partes de Alemania (especialmente estas adyacentes a los Países Bajos) en el Palatinate , Kassel y Lippe con gente como Olevianus y su colega Zacharias Ursinus . En Hungría y en la entonces independiente Transilvania , el calvinismo era una religión importante. En el siglo XVI, la Reforma ganó muchos partidarios en el este de Hungría y las regiones pobladas por Hungría en Transilvania. En estas partes, los nobles reformados protegieron la fe. Casi todos los duques de Transilvania fueron reformados. Hoy en día hay alrededor de 3,5 millones de reformados húngaros en todo el mundo. [17] Fue influyente en Francia, Lituania y Polonia antes de ser borrado en su mayoría debido a las actividades de contrarreforma emprendidas por el monarca en cada país. En Polonia se desconectó del calvinismo la corriente polaca llamada Hermanos Polacos . Esta corriente se inició el 22 de enero de 1556, cuando Piotr de Goniądz (Peter Gonesius), un estudiante polaco, se pronunció en contra de la doctrina de la Trinidad durante el sínodo general de las iglesias reformadas ( calvinistas ) de Polonia celebrado en el pueblo de Secemin. . [18] El calvinismo ganó cierta popularidad en Escandinavia , especialmente en Suecia, pero fue rechazado a favor del luteranismo después del Sínodo de Upsala en 1593. [19]
La mayoría de los colonos en el Atlántico medio estadounidense y Nueva Inglaterra eran calvinistas, incluidos los puritanos ingleses , los hugonotes franceses y los colonos holandeses de Nueva Amsterdam (Nueva York) y los presbiterianos escoceses-irlandeses del interior de los Apalaches. Protestantes inconformes , puritanos , separatistas , independientes , grupos religiosos ingleses que salieron de la Guerra Civil inglesa y otros disidentes ingleses que no estaban satisfechos con el grado en que la Iglesia de Inglaterra había sido reformada, sostenían opiniones abrumadoramente reformadas. A menudo se los cita entre los principales fundadores de los Estados Unidos de América. Los colonos calvinistas hugonotes holandeses y franceses también fueron los primeros colonizadores europeos de Sudáfrica, a partir del siglo XVII, que se conocieron como boers o afrikaners .
Sierra Leona fue colonizada en gran parte por colonos calvinistas de Nueva Escocia , que eran en gran parte leales negros, gente negra que había luchado por los británicos durante la Guerra de Independencia de Estados Unidos . John Marrant había organizado una congregación allí bajo los auspicios de Huntingdon Connection . Algunas de las comuniones calvinistas más grandes fueron iniciadas por misioneros de los siglos XIX y XX . Especialmente grandes son los de Indonesia , Corea y Nigeria . En Corea del Sur hay 20.000 congregaciones presbiterianas con alrededor de 9 a 10 millones de miembros de iglesia, dispersos en más de 100 denominaciones presbiterianas. En Corea del Sur, el presbiterianismo es la denominación cristiana más grande. [20]
Un informe de 2011 del Pew Forum on Religious and Public Life estimó que los miembros de iglesias presbiterianas o reformadas representan el 7% de los 801 millones de protestantes estimados en todo el mundo, o aproximadamente 56 millones de personas. [22] Aunque la fe reformada ampliamente definida es mucho más grande, ya que constituye congregacionalista (0,5%), la mayoría de las iglesias unidas y unidas (uniones de diferentes denominaciones) (7,2%) y muy probablemente algunas de las otras denominaciones protestantes (38,2%). %). Las tres son categorías distintas de presbiteriano o reformado (7%) en este informe.
La familia de iglesias reformadas es una de las denominaciones cristianas más grandes. Según adherents.com, las iglesias reformadas / presbiterianas / congregacionales / unidas representan a 75 millones de creyentes en todo el mundo. [23]
La Comunión Mundial de Iglesias Reformadas , que incluye algunas Iglesias Unidas (la mayoría de ellas son principalmente reformadas; ver Uniendo e iglesias unidas para más detalles), tiene 80 millones de creyentes. [24] La CMIR es la tercera comunión cristiana más grande del mundo, después de la Iglesia Católica Romana y las Iglesias Ortodoxas Orientales. [23]
Muchas iglesias reformadas conservadoras que son fuertemente calvinistas formaron la Fraternidad Reformada Mundial, que tiene alrededor de 70 denominaciones miembros. La mayoría no forman parte de la Comunión Mundial de Iglesias Reformadas debido a su atuendo ecuménico. La Conferencia Internacional de Iglesias Reformadas es otra asociación conservadora.
La Iglesia de Tuvalu es la única iglesia estatal oficialmente establecida en la tradición calvinista en el mundo.
Teología
Revelación y escritura
Los teólogos reformados creen que Dios comunica el conocimiento de sí mismo a las personas a través de la Palabra de Dios. La gente no puede saber nada acerca de Dios excepto a través de esta autorrevelación. No se justifica la especulación sobre cualquier cosa que Dios no haya revelado a través de su Palabra. El conocimiento que las personas tienen de Dios es diferente del que tienen de cualquier otra cosa porque Dios es infinito , y las personas finitas son incapaces de comprender un ser infinito. Si bien el conocimiento revelado por Dios a las personas nunca es incorrecto, tampoco es exhaustivo. [25]
Según los teólogos reformados, la autorrevelación de Dios es siempre a través de su hijo Jesucristo , porque Cristo es el único mediador entre Dios y las personas. La revelación de Dios a través de Cristo viene a través de dos canales básicos. La primera es la creación y la providencia , que es la creación de Dios y su obra continua en el mundo. Esta acción de Dios da a todos conocimiento acerca de Dios, pero este conocimiento solo es suficiente para hacer a las personas culpables de su pecado; no incluye el conocimiento del evangelio. El segundo canal a través del cual Dios se revela a sí mismo es la redención , que es el evangelio de salvación de la condenación, que es el castigo por el pecado. [26]
En la teología reformada, la Palabra de Dios toma varias formas. Jesucristo mismo es el Verbo encarnado. Las profecías sobre él que se dice que se encuentran en el Antiguo Testamento y el ministerio de los apóstoles que lo vieron y comunicaron su mensaje son también la Palabra de Dios. Además, la predicación de los ministros acerca de Dios es la misma Palabra de Dios porque se considera que Dios habla a través de ellos. Dios también habla a través de escritores humanos en la Biblia , que está compuesta de textos apartados por Dios para la autorrevelación. [27] Los teólogos reformados enfatizan la Biblia como un medio singularmente importante por el cual Dios se comunica con las personas. La gente obtiene conocimiento de Dios de la Biblia que no se puede obtener de ninguna otra manera. [28]
Los teólogos reformados afirman que la Biblia es verdadera, pero surgen diferencias entre ellos sobre el significado y el alcance de su veracidad. [29] Los seguidores conservadores de los teólogos de Princeton opinan que la Biblia es verdadera e infalible , o incapaz de error o falsedad, en todos los lugares. [30] Este punto de vista es muy similar al de la ortodoxia católica y al evangelicalismo moderno . [31] Otro punto de vista, influenciado por las enseñanzas de Karl Barth y la neo-ortodoxia , se encuentra en la Iglesia Presbiteriana (EE.UU.) 's Confesión de 1967 . Aquellos que adoptan este punto de vista creen que la Biblia es la fuente principal de nuestro conocimiento de Dios, pero también que algunas partes de la Biblia pueden ser falsas, no testigos de Cristo y no normativas para la iglesia de hoy. [30] Desde este punto de vista, Cristo es la revelación de Dios, y las Escrituras dan testimonio de esta revelación en lugar de ser la revelación misma. [32]
Teología del pacto
Los teólogos reformados usan el concepto de pacto para describir la forma en que Dios entra en comunión con las personas en la historia. [33] El concepto de pacto es tan prominente en la teología reformada que la teología reformada en su conjunto a veces se llama "teología del pacto". [34] Sin embargo, los teólogos de los siglos XVI y XVII desarrollaron un sistema teológico particular llamado " teología del pacto " o "teología federal" que muchas iglesias reformadas conservadoras continúan afirmando hoy. [33] Este marco ordena la vida de Dios con las personas principalmente en dos pactos: el pacto de obras y el pacto de gracia. [35]
El pacto de obras se hace con Adán y Eva en el Jardín del Edén . Los términos del pacto son que Dios proporciona una vida bendecida en el jardín con la condición de que Adán y Eva obedezcan la ley de Dios a la perfección. Debido a que Adán y Eva rompieron el pacto al comer del fruto prohibido , quedaron sujetos a la muerte y fueron expulsados del jardín. Este pecado fue transmitido a toda la humanidad porque se dice que todas las personas están en Adán como cabeza de pacto o "federal". Los teólogos federales generalmente infieren que Adán y Eva habrían ganado la inmortalidad si hubieran obedecido perfectamente. [36]
Se dice que un segundo pacto, llamado pacto de gracia, se hizo inmediatamente después del pecado de Adán y Eva. En él, Dios ofrece bondadosamente la salvación de la muerte con la condición de tener fe en Dios. Este pacto se administra de diferentes maneras a lo largo del Antiguo y Nuevo Testamento, pero conserva la esencia de estar libre de un requisito de perfecta obediencia. [37]
A través de la influencia de Karl Barth, muchos teólogos reformados contemporáneos han descartado el pacto de obras, junto con otros conceptos de teología federal. Barth vio el pacto de obras como desconectado de Cristo y del evangelio, y rechazó la idea de que Dios obra con las personas de esta manera. En cambio, Barth argumentó que Dios siempre interactúa con las personas bajo el pacto de gracia, y que el pacto de gracia está libre de toda condición. La teología de Barth y lo que le sigue se ha llamado "monocovenantal" en oposición al esquema "bi-pacto" de la teología federal clásica. [38] Los teólogos reformados contemporáneos conservadores, como John Murray , también han rechazado la idea de pactos basados en la ley en lugar de la gracia. Michael Horton , sin embargo, ha defendido el pacto de obras como una combinación de principios de ley y amor. [39]
Dios
En su mayor parte, la tradición reformada no modificó el consenso medieval sobre la doctrina de Dios . [40] El carácter de Dios se describe principalmente con tres adjetivos: eterno, infinito e inmutable. [41] Teólogos reformados como Shirley Guthrie han propuesto que en lugar de concebir a Dios en términos de sus atributos y libertad para hacer lo que le plazca, la doctrina de Dios debe basarse en la obra de Dios en la historia y su libertad para vivir con y capacitar a las personas. [42]
Tradicionalmente, los teólogos reformados también han seguido la tradición medieval que se remonta a antes de los primeros concilios de la iglesia de Nicea y Calcedonia sobre la doctrina de la Trinidad . Se afirma que Dios es un solo Dios en tres personas: Padre , Hijo y Espíritu Santo . El Hijo (Cristo) es engendrado eternamente por el Padre y el Espíritu Santo procede eternamente del Padre y del Hijo. [43] Sin embargo, los teólogos contemporáneos también han sido críticos con aspectos de las opiniones occidentales aquí. Basándose en la tradición oriental , estos teólogos reformados han propuesto un " trinitarismo social " donde las personas de la Trinidad solo existen en su vida juntas como personas en relación. [43] Las confesiones reformadas contemporáneas como la Confesión de los Barmen y la Breve Declaración de Fe de la Iglesia Presbiteriana (EE.UU.) han evitado el lenguaje sobre los atributos de Dios y han enfatizado su trabajo de reconciliación y empoderamiento de las personas. [44] La teóloga feminista Letty Russell usó la imagen de la asociación para las personas de la Trinidad. Según Russell, pensar de esta manera anima a los cristianos a interactuar en términos de compañerismo en lugar de reciprocidad. [45] El teólogo conservador reformado Michael Horton, sin embargo, ha argumentado que el trinitarismo social es insostenible porque abandona la unidad esencial de Dios en favor de una comunidad de seres separados. [46]
Cristo y la expiación
Los teólogos reformados afirman la creencia cristiana histórica de que Cristo es eternamente una persona con una naturaleza divina y humana . Los cristianos reformados han enfatizado especialmente que Cristo verdaderamente se hizo humano para que la gente pudiera ser salva. [47] La naturaleza humana de Cristo ha sido un punto de discordia entre la cristología reformada y luterana . De acuerdo con la creencia de que los humanos finitos no pueden comprender la divinidad infinita, los teólogos reformados sostienen que el cuerpo humano de Cristo no puede estar en múltiples lugares al mismo tiempo. Debido a que los luteranos creen que Cristo está presente corporalmente en la Eucaristía , sostienen que Cristo está presente corporalmente en muchos lugares simultáneamente. Para los cristianos reformados, tal creencia niega que Cristo realmente se haya hecho humano. [48] Algunos teólogos reformados contemporáneos se han alejado del lenguaje tradicional de una persona en dos naturalezas, considerándolo ininteligible para la gente contemporánea. En cambio, los teólogos tienden a enfatizar el contexto y la particularidad de Jesús como judío del primer siglo. [49]
Juan Calvino y muchos teólogos reformados que lo siguieron describen la obra de redención de Cristo en términos de tres oficios : profeta , sacerdote y rey . Se dice que Cristo es un profeta porque enseña la doctrina perfecta, un sacerdote porque intercede ante el Padre en nombre de los creyentes y se ofrece a sí mismo como sacrificio por el pecado, y un rey porque gobierna la iglesia y lucha contra los creyentes ' en nombre de. El triple oficio vincula la obra de Cristo con la obra de Dios en el antiguo Israel . [50] Muchos, pero no todos, los teólogos reformados continúan haciendo uso del triple oficio como marco debido a su énfasis en la conexión de la obra de Cristo con Israel. Sin embargo, a menudo han reinterpretado el significado de cada uno de los oficios. [51] Por ejemplo, Karl Barth interpretó el oficio profético de Cristo en términos de compromiso político a favor de los pobres. [52]
Los cristianos creen que la muerte y resurrección de Jesús hace posible que los creyentes obtengan el perdón del pecado y la reconciliación con Dios a través de la expiación . Los protestantes reformados generalmente se suscriben a una visión particular de la expiación llamada expiación sustitutiva penal , que explica la muerte de Cristo como un pago de sacrificio por el pecado. Se cree que Cristo murió en lugar del creyente, quien es considerado justo como resultado de este pago de sacrificio. [53]
Pecado
En la teología cristiana, las personas son creadas buenas y a la imagen de Dios, pero el pecado las corrompe , lo que las hace imperfectas y demasiado egoístas. [54] Los cristianos reformados, siguiendo la tradición de Agustín de Hipona , creen que esta corrupción de la naturaleza humana fue provocada por el primer pecado de Adán y Eva, una doctrina llamada pecado original . Aunque los primeros autores cristianos enseñaron los elementos de la muerte física, la debilidad moral y la propensión al pecado dentro del pecado original, Agustín fue el primer cristiano en agregar el concepto de culpa heredada ( reatus ) de Adán por el cual cada infante nace eternamente condenado y los humanos carecen de cualquier capacidad residual para responder a Dios. [55] Los teólogos reformados enfatizan que esta pecaminosidad afecta a toda la naturaleza de una persona, incluida su voluntad. Este punto de vista, que el pecado domina a las personas de tal manera que no pueden evitarlo, se ha llamado depravación total . [56] En inglés coloquial, el término "depravación total" puede malinterpretarse fácilmente en el sentido de que las personas están ausentes de cualquier bondad o son incapaces de hacer nada bueno. Sin embargo, la enseñanza reformada es en realidad que mientras las personas continúan llevando la imagen de Dios y pueden hacer cosas que aparentemente parecen buenas, sus intenciones pecaminosas afectan toda su naturaleza y acciones para que no agraden a Dios. [57] Desde un punto de vista calvinista, una persona que ha pecado estaba predestinada a pecar, y no importa lo que una persona haga, irá al cielo o al infierno basándose en esa determinación. No hay arrepentimiento del pecado ya que lo más malo son las propias acciones, pensamientos y palabras del pecador. [58]
Some contemporary theologians in the Reformed tradition, such as those associated with the PC(USA)'s Confession of 1967, have emphasized the social character of human sinfulness. These theologians have sought to bring attention to issues of environmental, economic, and political justice as areas of human life that have been affected by sin.[59]
Salvation
Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who have faith in Christ.[60] Faith is not purely intellectual, but involves trust in God's promise to save.[61] Protestants do not hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that faith alone is sufficient.[60]
Justification is the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of those who believe in Christ. It is historically held by Protestants to be the most important article of Christian faith, though more recently it is sometimes given less importance out of ecumenical concerns.[62] People are not on their own able even to fully repent of their sin or prepare themselves to repent because of their sinfulness. Therefore, justification is held to arise solely from God's free and gracious act.[63]
Sanctification is the part of salvation in which God makes the believer holy, by enabling them to exercise greater love for God and for other people.[64] The good works accomplished by believers as they are sanctified are considered to be the necessary outworking of the believer's salvation, though they do not cause the believer to be saved.[61] Sanctification, like justification, is by faith, because doing good works is simply living as the son of God one has become.[65]
Predestination
Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in Christ by their own will. While people are said to retain will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable not to sin because of the corruption of their nature due to original sin. Reformed Christians believe that God predestined some people to be saved and others were predestined to eternal damnation.[66] This choice by God to save some is held to be unconditional and not based on any characteristic or action on the part of the person chosen. This view is opposed to the Arminian view that God's choice of whom to save is conditional or based on his foreknowledge of who would respond positively to God.[67]
Karl Barth reinterpreted the Reformed doctrine of predestination to apply only to Christ. Individual people are only said to be elected through their being in Christ.[68] Reformed theologians who followed Barth, including Jürgen Moltmann, David Migliore, and Shirley Guthrie, have argued that the traditional Reformed concept of predestination is speculative and have proposed alternative models. These theologians claim that a properly trinitarian doctrine emphasizes God's freedom to love all people, rather than choosing some for salvation and others for damnation. God's justice towards and condemnation of sinful people is spoken of by these theologians as out of his love for them and a desire to reconcile them to himself.[69]
Five points of Calvinism
Most objections to and attacks on Calvinism focus on the "five points of Calvinism", also called the doctrines of grace, and remembered by the mnemonic "TULIP".[70] The five points are popularly said to summarize the Canons of Dort;[71] however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited atonement.[72] The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 booklet The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented by David N. Steele and Curtis C. Thomas. The origins of the five points and the acronym are uncertain, but they appear to be outlined in the Counter Remonstrance of 1611, a less known Reformed reply to the Arminians that occurred prior to the Canons of Dort.[73] The acronym was used by Cleland Boyd McAfee as early as circa 1905.[74] An early printed appearance of the T-U-L-I-P acronym is in Loraine Boettner's 1932 book, The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination.[75] The acronym was very cautiously if ever used by Calvinist apologists and theologians before the booklet by Steele and Thomas.[76]
The central assertion of these points is that God saves every person upon whom he has mercy, and that his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or inability of humans.
- "Total depravity", also called "total inability", asserts that as a consequence of the fall of man into sin, every person is enslaved to sin. People are not by nature inclined to love God, but rather to serve their own interests and to reject the rule of God. Thus, all people by their own faculties are morally unable to choose to trust God for their salvation and be saved (the term "total" in this context refers to sin affecting every part of a person, not that every person is as evil as they could be).[77] This doctrine is derived from Calvin's interpretation of Augustine's explanation about Original Sin.[78] While the phrases "totally depraved" and "utterly perverse" were used by Calvin, what was meant was the inability to save oneself from sin rather than being absent of goodness. Phrases like "total depravity" cannot be found in the Canons of Dort, and the Canons as well as later Reformed orthodox theologians arguably offer a more moderate view of the nature of fallen humanity than Calvin.[79]
- "Unconditional election" asserts that God has chosen from eternity those whom he will bring to himself not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people; rather, his choice is unconditionally grounded in his mercy alone. God has chosen from eternity to extend mercy to those he has chosen and to withhold mercy from those not chosen. Those chosen receive salvation through Christ alone. Those not chosen receive the just wrath that is warranted for their sins against God.[80]
- "Limited atonement", also called "particular redemption" or "definite atonement", asserts that Jesus's substitutionary atonement was definite and certain in its purpose and in what it accomplished. This implies that only the sins of the elect were atoned for by Jesus's death. Calvinists do not believe, however, that the atonement is limited in its value or power, but rather that the atonement is limited in the sense that it is intended for some and not all. Some Calvinists have summarized this as "The atonement is sufficient for all and efficient for the elect."[81]
- "Irresistible grace", also called "efficacious grace", asserts that the saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith. This means that when God sovereignly purposes to save someone, that individual certainly will be saved. The doctrine holds that this purposeful influence of God's Holy Spirit cannot be resisted, but that the Holy Spirit, "graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate, to believe, to repent, to come freely and willingly to Christ." This is not to deny the fact that the Spirit's outward call (through the proclamation of the Gospel) can be, and often is, rejected by sinners; rather, it is that inward call which cannot be rejected.
- "Perseverance of the saints" (also known as "perseverance of God with the saints" and "preservation of the believing") (the word "saints" is used to refer to all who are set apart by God, and not of those who are exceptionally holy, canonized, or in heaven) asserts that since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end. Those who apparently fall away either never had true faith to begin with (1 John 2:19), or, if they are saved but not presently walking in the Spirit, they will be divinely chastened (Hebrews 12:5–11) and will repent (1 John 3:6–9).[82]
More recently, a broad range of theologians have sought to reformulate the TULIP terminology to reflect more accurately the Canons of Dort; one recent effort has been PROOF, standing for Planned Grace, Resurrecting Grace, Outrageous Grace, Overcoming Grace, and Forever Grace.[83]
Comparison among Protestants
Protestant beliefs about salvation | |||
This table summarizes the classical views of three Protestant beliefs about salvation.[84] | |||
Topic | Calvinism | Lutheranism | Arminianism |
---|---|---|---|
Human will | Total depravity:[85] Humanity possesses "free will",[86] but it is in bondage to sin,[87] until it is "transformed".[88] | Original Sin:[85] Humanity possesses free will in regard to "goods and possessions", but is sinful by nature and unable to contribute to its own salvation.[89][90][91] | Total depravity: Humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not "freedom from sin” unless enabled by "prevenient grace".[92] |
Election | Unconditional election. | Unconditional election.[85][93] | Conditional election in view of foreseen faith or unbelief.[94] |
Justification and atonement | Justification by faith alone. Various views regarding the extent of the atonement.[95] | Justification for all men,[96] completed at Christ's death and effective through faith alone.[97][98][99][100] | Justification made possible for all through Christ's death, but only completed upon choosing faith in Jesus.[101] |
Conversion | Monergistic,[102] through the means of grace, irresistible. | Monergistic,[103][104] through the means of grace, resistible.[105] | Synergistic, resistible due to the common grace of free will.[106] However, irresistible conversion is possible.[107] |
Perseverance and apostasy | Perseverance of the saints: the eternally elect in Christ will certainly persevere in faith.[108] | Falling away is possible,[109] but God gives gospel assurance.[110][111] | Preservation is conditional upon continued faith in Christ; with the possibility of a final apostasy.[112] |
Church
Reformed Christians see the Christian Church as the community with which God has made the covenant of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God. This covenant extends to those under the "old covenant" whom God chose, beginning with Abraham and Sarah.[113] The church is conceived of as both invisible and visible. The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God. The visible church is the institutional body which contains both members of the invisible church as well as those who appear to have faith in Christ, but are not truly part of God's elect.[114]
In order to identify the visible church, Reformed theologians have spoken of certain marks of the Church. For some, the only mark is the pure preaching of the gospel of Christ. Others, including John Calvin, also include the right administration of the sacraments. Others, such as those following the Scots Confession, include a third mark of rightly administered church discipline, or exercise of censure against unrepentant sinners. These marks allowed the Reformed to identify the church based on its conformity to the Bible rather than the Magisterium or church tradition.[114]
Worship
Regulative principle of worship
The regulative principle of worship is a teaching shared by some Calvinists and Anabaptists on how the Bible orders public worship. The substance of the doctrine regarding worship is that God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for worship in the Church and that everything else is prohibited. As the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical instruments with icons, which he considered violations of the Ten Commandments' prohibition of graven images.[115]
On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocated a cappella exclusive psalmody in worship,[116] though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as psalms,[115] and this practice typified presbyterian worship and the worship of other Reformed churches for some time. The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being sung, the Lords prayer being sung, Benedictions.[117]
Since the 19th century, however, some of the Reformed churches have modified their understanding of the regulative principle and make use of musical instruments, believing that Calvin and his early followers went beyond the biblical requirements[115] and that such things are circumstances of worship requiring biblically rooted wisdom, rather than an explicit command. Despite the protestations of those who hold to a strict view of the regulative principle, today hymns and musical instruments are in common use, as are contemporary worship music styles with elements such as worship bands.[118]
Sacraments
The Westminster Confession of Faith limits the sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper. Sacraments are denoted "signs and seals of the covenant of grace."[119] Westminster speaks of "a sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and effects of the one are attributed to the other."[120] Baptism is for infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the Reformed except Baptists and some Congregationalists. Baptism admits the baptized into the visible church, and in it all the benefits of Christ are offered to the baptized.[120] On the Lord's supper, Westminster takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union and Zwinglian memorialism: "the Lord's supper really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the bread and wine; yet, as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements themselves are to their outward senses."[119]
The 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith does not use the term sacrament, but describes baptism and the Lord's supper as ordinances, as do most Baptists Calvinist or otherwise. Baptism is only for those who "actually profess repentance towards God", and not for the children of believers.[121] Baptists also insist on immersion or dipping, in contradistinction to other Reformed Christians.[122] The Baptist Confession describes the Lord's supper as "the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally, but spiritually present to the faith of believers in that ordinance", similarly to the Westminster Confession.[123] There is significant latitude in Baptist congregations regarding the Lord's supper, and many hold the Zwinglian view.
Logical order of God's decree
There are two schools of thought regarding the logical order of God's decree to ordain the fall of man: supralapsarianism (from the Latin: supra, "above", here meaning "before" + lapsus, "fall") and infralapsarianism (from the Latin: infra, "beneath", here meaning "after" + lapsus, "fall"). The former view, sometimes called "high Calvinism", argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation. Infralapsarianism, sometimes called "low Calvinism", is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with reference to who would be saved.
Supralapsarians believe that God chose which individuals to save logically prior to the decision to allow the race to fall and that the Fall serves as the means of realization of that prior decision to send some individuals to hell and others to heaven (that is, it provides the grounds of condemnation in the reprobate and the need for salvation in the elect). In contrast, infralapsarians hold that God planned the race to fall logically prior to the decision to save or damn any individuals because, it is argued, in order to be "saved", one must first need to be saved from something and therefore the decree of the Fall must precede predestination to salvation or damnation.
These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort, an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around Europe, and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism (Canons of Dort, First Point of Doctrine, Article 7). The Westminster Confession of Faith also teaches (in Hodge's words "clearly impl[ies]") the infralapsarian[124] view, but is sensitive to those holding to supralapsarianism.[125] The Lapsarian controversy has a few vocal proponents on each side today, but overall it does not receive much attention among modern Calvinists.
Iglesias reformadas
The Reformed tradition is largely represented by the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Evangelical Anglican, Congregationalist, and Reformed Baptist denominational families.
Continental Reformed Churches
Considered to be the oldest and most orthodox bearers of the Reformed faith, the continental Reformed Churches uphold the Helvetic Confessions and Heidelberg Catechism, which were adopted in Zurich and Heidelberg, respectively.[126] In the United States, immigrants belonging to the continental Reformed Churches joined the Dutch Reformed Church there, as well as the Anglican Church.[127]
Congregational Churches
The Congregational Churches are a part of the Reformed tradition founded under the influence of New England Puritanism.[128] The Savoy Declaration is the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches.[129] An example of a Christian denomination belonging to the Congregationalist tradition is the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference.
Presbyterian Churches
The Presbyterian Churches are a part of the Reformed tradition and were influenced by John Knox's teachings in the Church of Scotland. Presbyterianism upholds the Westminster Confession of Faith.
Evangelical Anglicanism
Historic Anglicanism is a part of the wider Reformed tradition, as "the founding documents of the Anglican church—the Book of Homilies, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion—expresses a theology in keeping with the Reformed theology of the Swiss and South German Reformation."[130] The Most Rev. Peter Robinson, presiding bishop of the United Episcopal Church of North America, writes:[131]
Cranmer's personal journey of faith left its mark on the Church of England in the form of a Liturgy that remains to this day more closely allied to Lutheran practice, but that liturgy is couple to a doctrinal stance that is broadly, but decidedly Reformed. ... The 42 Articles of 1552 and the 39 Articles of 1563, both commit the Church of England to the fundamentals of the Reformed Faith. Both sets of Articles affirm the centrality of Scripture, and take a monergist position on Justification. Both sets of Articles affirm that the Church of England accepts the doctrine of predestination and election as a 'comfort to the faithful' but warn against over much speculation concerning that doctrine. Indeed a casual reading of the Wurttemburg Confession of 1551,[132] the Second Helvetic Confession, the Scots Confession of 1560, and the XXXIX Articles of Religion reveal them to be cut from the same bolt of cloth.[131]
Reformed Baptist Churches
Reformed Baptist Churches, also known as Primitive Baptist Churches, are Baptists (a Christian denominational family that teaches credobaptism rather than infant baptism) who adhere to Reformed theology as explicated in the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith.[133]
Variantes de la teología reformada
Amyraldism
Amyraldism (or sometimes Amyraldianism, also known as the School of Saumur, hypothetical universalism,[136] post redemptionism,[137] moderate Calvinism,[138] or four-point Calvinism) is the belief that God, prior to his decree of election, decreed Christ's atonement for all alike if they believe, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then elected those whom he will bring to faith in Christ, thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine of unconditional election. The efficacy of the atonement remains limited to those who believe.
Named after its formulator Moses Amyraut, this doctrine is still viewed as a variety of Calvinism in that it maintains the particularity of sovereign grace in the application of the atonement. However, detractors like B. B. Warfield have termed it "an inconsistent and therefore unstable form of Calvinism."[139]
Hyper-Calvinism
Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a view that appeared among the early English Particular Baptists in the 18th century. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to "repent and believe" is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation. The term also occasionally appears in both theological and secular controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety of theological determinism, predestination, or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.
The Westminster Confession of Faith says that the gospel is to be freely offered to sinners, and the Larger Catechism makes clear that the gospel is offered to the non-elect.[140][141]
Neo-Calvinism
Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is the movement initiated by the theologian and former Dutch prime minister Abraham Kuyper. James Bratt has identified a number of different types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders—split into the Reformed Church "West" and the Confessionalists; and the Neo-Calvinists—the Positives and the Antithetical Calvinists. The Seceders were largely infralapsarian and the Neo-Calvinists usually supralapsarian.[142]
Kuyper wanted to awaken the church from what he viewed as its pietistic slumber. He declared:
No single piece of our mental world is to be sealed off from the rest and there is not a square inch in the whole domain of human existence over which Christ, who is sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!'[143]
This refrain has become something of a rallying call for Neo-Calvinists.
Christian Reconstructionism
Christian Reconstructionism is a fundamentalist[144] Calvinist theonomic movement that has remained rather obscure.[145] Founded by R. J. Rushdoony, the movement has had an important influence on the Christian Right in the United States.[146][147] The movement declined in the 1990s and was declared dead in a 2008 Church History journal article.[148] However, it lives on in small denominations such as the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and as a minority position in other denominations. Christian Reconstructionists are usually postmillennialists and followers of the presuppositional apologetics of Cornelius Van Til. They tend to support a decentralized political order resulting in laissez-faire capitalism.[149]
New Calvinism
New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world.[150] In March 2009, Time magazine described the New Calvinism as one of the "10 ideas changing the world".[151] Some of the major figures who have been associated with the New Calvinism are John Piper,[150] Mark Driscoll, Al Mohler,[151] Mark Dever,[152] C. J. Mahaney, and Tim Keller.[153] New Calvinists have been criticized for blending Calvinist soteriology with popular Evangelical positions on the sacraments and continuationism.[154]
Influencias sociales y económicas
Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of Aristotle) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful.[155]
He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers.[156]
In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe evolved when the Protestant (particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment. In other words, the Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated emergence of modern capitalism.[157] In his book, apart from Calvinists, Weber also discusses Lutherans (especially Pietists, but also notes differences between traditional Lutherans and Calvinists), Methodists, Baptists, Quakers, and Moravians (specifically referring to the Herrnhut-based community under Count von Zinzendorf's spiritual lead).
Política y sociedad
Calvin's concepts of God and man led to ideas which were gradually put into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics and society. After their fight for independence from Spain (1579), the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, granted asylum to religious minorities, e.g. French Huguenots, English Independents (Congregationalists), and Jews from Spain and Portugal. The ancestors of the philosopher Baruch Spinoza were Portuguese Jews. Aware of the trial against Galileo, René Descartes lived in the Netherlands, out of reach of the Inquisition, from 1628 to 1649.[158] Pierre Bayle, a Reformed Frenchman, also felt safer in the Netherlands than in his home country. He was the first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists. Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of the Bible and his ideas about natural law in the Netherlands.[159][160] Moreover, the Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that could not be published elsewhere, such as Galileo's Discorsi (1638).[161]
Alongside the liberal development of the Netherlands came the rise of modern democracy in England and North America. In the Middle Ages, state and church had been closely connected. Martin Luther's doctrine of the two kingdoms separated state and church in principle.[162] His doctrine of the priesthood of all believers raised the laity to the same level as the clergy.[163] Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his concept of church government. The Huguenots added synods whose members were also elected by the congregations. The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government, which was essentially a representative democracy.[164] Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists are organized in a similar way. These denominations and the Anglican Church were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees.[165][166]
In another factor in the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world, Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government (mixed government). He appreciated the advantages of democracy.[167] His political thought aimed to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers).[citation needed] Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political absolutism and furthered the cause of democracy.[168] The Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.[169][170] Enjoying self-rule, they practiced separation of powers.[171][172] Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, founded by Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn, respectively, combined democratic government with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews.[173][174][175]
In England, Baptists Thomas Helwys (c. 1575 – c. 1616), and John Smyth (c. 1554 – c. 1612) influenced the liberal political thought of the Presbyterian poet and politician John Milton (1608–1674) and of the philosopher John Locke (1632–1704),[citation needed] who in turn had both a strong impact on the political development in their home country (English Civil War of 1642–1651), Glorious Revolution of 1688) as well as in North America.[176][177] The ideological basis of the American Revolution was largely provided by the radical Whigs, who had been inspired by Milton, Locke, James Harrington (1611–1677), Algernon Sidney (1623–1683), and other thinkers. The Whigs' "perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged on Puritanism".[178] The United States Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution and (American) Bill of Rights initiated a tradition of human and civil rights that continued in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and the constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e. g. Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and other European countries. It is also echoed in the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[179]
In the nineteenth century, churches based on or influenced by Calvin's theology became deeply involved in social reforms, e.g. the abolition of slavery (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Abraham Lincoln, and others), women suffrage, and prison reforms.[180][181] Members of these churches formed co-operatives to help the impoverished masses.[182] The founders of the Red Cross Movement, including Henry Dunant, were Reformed Christians. Their movement also initiated the Geneva Conventions.[183][184][185]
Some sources would view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive. The Boers and Afrikaner Calvinists combined ideas from Calvinism and Kuyperian theology to justify apartheid in South Africa.[186] As late as 1974 the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify apartheid.[187] In 1990 the Dutch Reformed Church document Church and Society maintained that although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under God's sovereign guidance, "...everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom of God."[188] These views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South Africa. Pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church helped reverse apartheid in South Africa.[citation needed]
Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists founded Harvard (1636), Yale (1701), and about a dozen other colleges.[189]
Ver también
- List of Calvinist educational institutions in North America
- List of Reformed denominations
- Synod of Jerusalem (1672): Eastern Orthodox council rejecting Calvinist beliefs
- Criticism of Protestantism
- The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) – Max Weber's analysis of Calvinism's influence on society and economics
Doctrine
- Common grace
- Reformed confessions of faith
Related
- Boer Calvinists: Boere-Afrikaners that hold to Reformed theology
- Huguenots: followers of Calvinism in France, originating in the 16th and 17th century
- Pilgrims: English Separatists who left Europe for America in search of religious toleration, eventually settling in New England
- Presbyterians: Calvinists in Scotland, Ireland and England
- Puritans: English Protestants who wanted to purify the Church of England
- Continental Reformed church: Calvinist churches originating in continental Europe
- Waldensians: Italian Protestants, preceded Calvinism but today identify with Reformed theology
Similar groups in other traditions
- Ājīvika, an ancient Indian religion with a similarly deterministic view of predestination
- Crypto-Calvinism: German Protestants accused of Calvinist leanings within the Lutheran church in the late-16th century
- Jansenism: a radical, Roman Catholic Augustinian school with some doctrinal distinctives similar to those of Calvinism
- Calvinistic Methodists
Opposing views
- Amyraldism
- Arminianism
- Catholicism
- Augustinianism
- Christian universalism
- Eastern Orthodoxy
- Palamism
- Free Grace theology
- Open theism
- Lutheranism
- Molinism
- Socinianism
Referencias
- ^ Schaff, Philip. "Protestantism". New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. IX. pp. 297–299.
- ^ Muller, Richard A. (2006). Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms: Drawn Principally from Protestant Scholastic Theology (1st ed.). Baker Book House. pp. 320–321. ISBN 978-0801020643.
- ^ Hill, Graham. "Augustine's Influence on Calvin, Luther, and Zwingli". The Global Church Project. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
- ^ Hägglund, Bengt (2007). Teologins Historia [History of Theology] (in German). Translated by Gene J. Lund (Fourth Revised ed.). Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House.
- ^ Muller 2004, p. 130.
- ^ "Theology and Communion". Wcrc.ch. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ "Member Churches". Wcrc.ch. Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Bernard Cottret (22 May 2003). Calvin, A Biography. A&C Black. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-567-53035-6.
- ^ "Reformed Churches". Christian Cyclopedia.
- ^ Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity, Vol. Two: The Reformation to the Present Day (New York: HarperCollins, 1985; reprint – Peabody: Prince Press, 2008) 180
- ^ "Sola Fide". Lutheran Reformation. 16 June 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- ^ Muller 2004, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Muller 2004, p. 132.
- ^ Muller 2004, p. 135.
- ^ Holder 2004, pp. 246–256; McGrath 1990, pp. 198–199
- ^ Pettegree 2004, p. 222
- ^ "The Reformed Church". Hungarian Reformed Church of Australia. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
- ^ Hewett, Phillip (2004). Racovia: An Early Liberal Religious Community. Blackstone Editions. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0972501750.
- ^ "The Reformation in Germany And Scandinavia". Vlib.iue.it. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Chris Meehan (4 October 2010). "Touched by Devotion in South Korea". Christian Reformed Church. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Goh, Robbie B.H. (2005). Christianity in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 80. ISBN 981-230-297-2.
- ^ Pew Research Center's Forum on Religion and Public Life (19 December 2011), Global Christianity (PDF), pp. 21, 70, archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2013, retrieved 20 November 2015
- ^ a b "Major Branches of Religions".
- ^ "WCRC History". World Communion of Reformed Churches. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
The World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) and the Reformed Ecumenical Council (REC) have merged to form a new body representing more than 80 million Reformed Christians worldwide.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 18–20.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 24–25.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 12.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 28.
- ^ a b Allen 2010, p. 31.
- ^ Farley & Hodgson 1994, p. 77.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 20.
- ^ a b Allen 2010, pp. 34–35.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 230 n. 28.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 44.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 43.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 48.
- ^ Horton 2011a, pp. 420–421.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 54.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 55.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 57–58.
- ^ a b Allen 2010, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Guthrie 2008, pp. 32–33.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 29.
- ^ Horton 2011a, pp. 298–299.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 82.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Stroup 1993, p. 142.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 94.
- ^ Stroup 1993, p. 156–157.
- ^ Stroup 1993, p. 164.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 93.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 66.
- ^ Wilson, Kenneth (2018). Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to 'Non-fee' Free Will: A Comprehensive Methodology. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 35, 37, 93, 127, 140, 146, 150, 153, 221, 231–233, 279–280, 295. ISBN 9783161557538.
- ^ McKim 2001, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Muller, Richard A. (2012). Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Ebook ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. p. 51.
- ^ "Sin – A Calvinist Viewpoint". Learn Theology. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 73.
- ^ a b Allen 2010, pp. 77–78.
- ^ a b McKim 2001, p. 114.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 80.
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 113.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 84.
- ^ Allen 2010, p. 85.
- ^ Calvin, John (1994). Institutes of the Christian Religion. Eerdmans. p. 2206.
- ^ Allen 2010, pp. 100–101.
- ^ McKim 2001, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Guthrie 2008, pp. 47–49.
- ^ Horton 2011b, p. 15.
- ^ Sproul, R C (1997). What is Reformed Theology?. Grand Rapids: Baker Books. pp. 27–28.
- ^ Muller, Richard A. (2012). Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Ebook ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. pp. 50–51.
- Stewart, Kenneth J. (2008). "The Points of Calvinism: Retrospect and Prospect" (PDF). Scottish Bulletin of Evangelical Theology. 26 (2): 189.
- ^ Document translated in DeJong, Peter Y. (1968). Crisis In The Reformed Churches: Essays in Commemoration of the Synod of Dort (1618–1619). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformed Fellowship, Inc. pp. 52–58..
- ^ William H. Wail (1913). The Five Points of Calvinism Historically Considered, The New Outlook 104 (1913).
- ^ Boettner, Loraine. "The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination" (PDF). Bloomingtonrpchurch.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Stewart, Kenneth J. (2008). "The Points of Calvinism: Retrospect and Prospect" (PDF). Scottish Bulletin of Evangelical Theology. 26 (2): 189–193.
- ^ Steele, David; Thomas, Curtis (1963). The Five Points of Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented. p. 25.
The adjective 'total' does not mean that each sinner is as totally or completely corrupt in his actions and thoughts as it is possible for him to be. Instead, the word 'total' is used to indicate that the "whole" of man's being has been affected by sin
- ^ Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). "Original sin". The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192802903.
- ^ Muller, Richard A. (2012). "Was Calvin a Calvinist?". Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Ebook ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-4412-4254-9.
- ^ WCF 1646.
- ^ "The Five Points of Calvinism, TULIP". Calvinistcorner.com. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Loraine Boettner. "The Perseverance of the Saints". The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination.
- ^ See Daniel Montgomery and Timothy Paul Jones, PROOF: Finding Freedom Through the Intoxicating Joy of Irresistible Grace. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2014.
- ^ Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
- ^ a b c "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
Both (Lutherans and Calvinists) agree on the devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for election is Gnadenwahl, election by grace--there is no other kind.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
- ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
- ^ WELS Topical Q&A: WELS vs Assembly of God: "[P]eople by nature are dead in their tranbsgressions (sic) and sin and therefore have no ability to decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John 15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion."
- ^ Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will, saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."
- ^ Henry Cole, trans., Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminister, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
- ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: OUP USA. pp. 157–158.
- ^ The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church, XI. Election. "Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 63.
“Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is conditional."
- ^ The Westminster Confession, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Baker, 2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin as teaching "unlimited atonement".
- ^ "Justification / Salvation". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
Romans 3:23-24, 5:9, 18 are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ.
- ^ "IV. Justification by Grace through Faith". This We Believe. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16). Unbelievers forfeit the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24).
- ^ Becker, Siegbert W. "Objective Justification" (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
- ^ "Universal Justification". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it. Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it. We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God which the Holy Spirit works in us.
- ^ Augsburg Confession, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ's sake. ..."
- ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: OUP USA. p. 136.
Faith is a condition of justification
- ^ Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine’s "monergistic view".
- ^ Diehl, Walter A. "The Age of Accountability". Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism. "In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25).
- ^ Monergism; thefreedictionary.com
- ^ "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 18.
Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace.
- ^ Olson, Roger E. (2010). "One more quick sidebar about clarifying Arminianism". My evangelical, Arminian theological musings. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
Classical Arminianism does NOT say God never interferes with free will. It says God NEVER foreordains or renders certain evil. [...] An Arminian COULD believe in divine dictation of Scripture and not do violence to his or her Arminian beliefs. [...] Arminianism is not in love with libertarian free will –as if that were central in and of itself. Classical Arminians have gone out of our way (beginning with Arminius himself) to make clear that our sole reasons for believe in free will AS ARMINIANS [...] are 1) to avoid making God the author of sin and evil, and 2) to make clear human responsibility for sin and evil.
- ^ The Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".
- ^ "Once saved always saved". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower, Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke 8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's gracious gift.
- ^ "Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
We cannot contribute one speck to our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore, Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 and 2 Timothy 4 for example). My sins threaten and weaken my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and preserves my faith. That’s why Lutherans typically speak of God’s preservation of faith and not the perseverance of the saints. The key is not our perseverance but the Spirit’s preservation.
- ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. pp. 437–438.
- ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. p. 35.
“Many Arminians deny the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints."
- ^ McKim 2001, p. 125.
- ^ a b McKim 2001, p. 126.
- ^ a b c John Barber (25 June 2006). "Luther and Calvin on Music and Worship". Reformed Perspectives Magazine. 8 (26). Retrieved 6 May 2008.
- ^ Brian Schwertley (1998). "Musical Instruments in the Public Worship of God". Retrieved 16 November 2007.
- ^ Maxwell, William D. (1936). An Outline of Christian Worship: Its Development and Forms. London: Oxford University Press.
- ^ John Frame (1996). Worship in Spirit and Truth. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Pub. ISBN 0-87552-242-4.
- ^ a b WCF 1646, XXVII.I.
- ^ a b WCF 1646, XXVII.II.
- ^ . Ch. 28 Sec. 2 – via Wikisource.
- ^ . Ch. 28 Sec. 4 – via Wikisource.
- ^ WCF 1646, XXIX.VII.
- ^ Hodge, Charles (1871). "Systematic Theology – Volume II – Supralapsarianism". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 4 June 2007.
- ^ Hodge, Charles (1871). "Systematic Theology – Volume II – Infralapsarianism". Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 4 June 2007.
- ^ Schaff, Philip (1898). History of the Christian Church: Modern Christianity; the Swiss Reformation, 2d ed., rev. C. Scribner's. p. 222.
- ^ Conkin, Paul Keith (1995). The Uneasy Center: Reformed Christianity in Antebellum America. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4492-2.
Partly because of clustered patterns of settlement and intense ethnic and linguistic identities, Reformed German and Dutch congregations resisted the lure of assimilation, although many Dutch Reformed Christians in the Hudson Valley joined Anglican congregations.
- ^ Queen, Edward L.; Prothero, Stephen R.; Shattuck, Gardiner H. (1 January 2009). Encyclopedia of American Religious History. Infobase Publishing. p. 818. ISBN 9780816066605. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Next in size and historical importance is the United Church of Christ, which is the historic continuation of the Congregational churches founded under the influence of New England Puritanism. The United Church of Christ also subsumed the third major Reformed group, the German Reformed, which (then known as the Evangelical and Reformed Church) merged with the Congregationalists in 1957.
- ^ Puritans and Puritanism in Europe and America. ABC-CLIO. 2006. p. 534. ISBN 9781576076781.
- ^ Jensen, Michael P. (7 January 2015). "9 Things You Should Really Know About Anglicanism". The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
- ^ a b Robinson, Peter (2 August 2012). "The Reformed Face of Anglicanism". The Old High Churchman. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
- ^ Cross & Livingstone 2005, p. 751.
- ^ Hicks, Tom (30 March 2017). "What is a Reformed Baptist?". Founders Ministries. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
- ^ Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. p.269 Alister E. McGrath – 2005 "The importance of this threefold scheme derives from its adoption by Moses Amyraut as the basis of his distinctive theology.211 Amyraut's 'hypothetical universalism' and his doctrine of the triple covenant between God and humanity is ..."
- ^ Hubert Cunliffe-Jones, A History of Christian Doctrine p. 436 2006 "The appointment of John Cameron, a peripatetic Scottish scholar, to be a professor in the Academy in 1618 introduced a stimulating teacher to the scene, and when in 1626 his pupil, Moses Amyraut (Amyraldus), was called to be a minister ..."
- ^ "Systematic Theology – Volume II – Christian Classics Ethereal Library". Ccel.org. 21 July 2005. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Benjamin B. Warfield, Works vol. V,Calvin and Calvinism, pp. 364–365, and vol. VI, The Westminster Assembly and Its Work, pp. 138–144.
- ^ Michael Horton in J. Matthew Pinson (ed.), Four Views on Eternal Security, 113.
- ^ Warfield, B. B., The Plan of Salvation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1973)
- ^ WCF 1646, VII.III.
- ^ . Question 68 – via Wikisource.
- ^ James Bratt, Dutch Calvinism in Modern America. Wipf and Stock; original Eerdmans (1984)
- ^ James E. McGoldrick, Abraham Kuyper: God's Renaissance Man. (Welwyn, UK: Evangelical Press, 2000).
- ^ Duncan, J. Ligon, III (15 October 1994). Moses' Law for Modern Government. Annual national meeting of the Social Science History Association. Atlanta. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
- ^ Ingersoll, Julie (2013). "Religiously Motivated Violence in the Abortion Debate". In Juergensmeyer, Mark; Kitts, Margo; Jerryson, Michael (eds.). Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 316–317. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199759996.013.0020.
- ^ Clarkson, Frederick (1995). "Christian Reconstructionism". In Berlet, Chip (ed.). Eyes Right!: Challenging the Right Wing Backlash. Boston: South End Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780896085237.
- ^ Ingersoll, Julie (2009). "Mobilizing Evangelicals: Christian Reconstructionism and the Roots of the Religious Right". In Brint, Steven; Schroedel, Jean Reith (eds.). Evangelicals and Democracy in America: Religion and politics. 2. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. p. 180. ISBN 9780871540683.
- ^ Worthen, Molly (2008). "The Chalcedon Problem: Rousas John Rushdoony and the Origins of Christian Reconstructionism". Church History. 77 (2): 399–437. doi:10.1017/S0009640708000590.
- ^ North, Gary; DeMar, Gary (1991). Christian Reconstruction: What it Is, what it Isn't. Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics. p. 81.
- ^ a b Collin (22 September 2006). "Young, Restless, Reformed". Christianity Today. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ a b David van Biema (2009). "10 Ideas Changing the World Right Now: The New Calvinism". Time. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ Burek, Josh (27 March 2010). "Christian faith: Calvinism is back". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Chew, David (June 2010). "Tim Keller and the New Calvinist idea of "Gospel eco-systems"". Christian Research Network. Archived from the original on 11 October 2011.
- ^ Clark, R. Scott (15 March 2009). "Calvinism Old and "New"". Archived from the original on 1 July 2015.
- ^ The letter is quoted in Le Van Baumer, Franklin, editor (1978). Main Currents of Western Thought: Readings in Western Europe Intellectual History from the Middle Ages to the Present. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02233-6.
- ^ See Haas, Guenther H. (1997). The Concept of Equity in Calvin's Ethics. Waterloo, Ont., Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 117ff. ISBN 0-88920-285-0.
- ^ McKinnon, AM (2010). "Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism" (PDF). Sociological Theory. 28 (1): 108–126. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01367.x. hdl:2164/3035. S2CID 144579790.
- ^ Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Descartes, René, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 88
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), p. 396-397
- ^ H. Knittermeyer, Bayle, Pierre, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 947
- ^ Bertolt Brecht, Leben des Galilei, Bild 15
- ^ Heinrich Bornkamm, Toleranz, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 941
- ^ B. Lohse, Priestertum, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 579–580
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, p. 325
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, pp. 329–330, 382, 422–424
- ^ Avis, Paul David Loup, ed. (1989). "The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: Anglicanism Erastian or Apostolic? An Anglican Consensus: Calvinist Episcopalians". Anglicanism and the Christian Church: Theological Resources in Historical Perspective (2 ed.). London: T & T Clark (published 2002). p. 67. ISBN 9780567087454. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
There existed also a genuine, though not slavish, theological affinity between the Anglican and continental theologies, especially the Reformed (Calvinist). A moderate Calvinist view of the 'doctrines of grace' (the interlocking sequence of predestination, election, justification, sanctification, final perseverance, glorification) was, we may say, the norm.
- ^ Jan Weerda, Calvin, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., p. 10
- ^ M. Schmidt, Pilgerväter, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 384
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, p. 18
- ^ "Plymouth Colony Legal Structure". Histarch.uiuc.edu. 14 December 2007. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ Weinstein, Allen; Rubel, David (2002). The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower. New York, N.Y.: DK Publishing, Inc. pp. 56–62. ISBN 0-7894-8903-1.
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in America, pp. 74–76, 99–117
- ^ Hans Fantel (1974), William Penn: Apostle of Dissent, William Morrow and Co., New York, N.Y.
- ^ Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America, Judson Press, Valley Forge
- ^ G. Müller-Schwefe, Milton, John, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 954–955
- ^ Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, p. 398
- ^ Middlekauff, Robert (2005). The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (Revised and Enlarged ed.). New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press. pp. 52, 136. ISBN 978-0-19-531588-2.
- ^ Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), American Life and Institutions, Stuttgart (Germany), p. 34
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 353–375
- ^ M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1769–1771
- ^ Wilhelm Dietrich, Genossenschaften, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), col. 411–412
- ^ Ulrich Scheuner, Genfer Konventionen, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage, col. 407–408
- ^ R. Pfister, Schweiz, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 1614–1615
- ^ Dromi, Shai M. (2020). Above the fray: The Red Cross and the making of the humanitarian NGO sector. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780226680101.
- ^ Swart, Ignatius (2012). Welfare, Religion and Gender in Post-apartheid South Africa: Constructing a South-North Dialogue. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA. p. 326. ISBN 9781920338688. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
- ^ Weisse & Anthonissen 2004, pp. 124–126.
- ^ Weisse & Anthonissen 2004, p. 131.
- ^ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 80, 89, 257.
Bibliografía
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Otras lecturas
- Alston, Wallace M. Jr.; Welker, Michael, eds. (2003). Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0802847768.
- Balserak, Jon (2017). Calvinism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198753711.
- Benedict, Philip (2002). Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300105070.
- Bratt, James D. (1984) Dutch Calvinism in Modern America: A History of a Conservative Subculture excerpt and text search
- Eire, Carlos (2017). Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450–1650. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300111927.
- Hart, D.G. (2013). Calvinism: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, excerpt and text search
- McNeill, John Thomas (1967) [1954]. The History and Character of Calvinism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195007435.
- Leith, John H. (1980). An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition: A Way of Being the Christian Community. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0804204798.
- Muller, Richard A. (2001). The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a Theological Tradition. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195151688.
- ———————— (2003). After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195157017.
- Picken, Stuart D.B. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Calvinism. ISBN 978-0810872240.
- Small, Joseph D., ed. (2005). Conversations with the Confessions: Dialogue in the Reformed Tradition. Geneva Press. ISBN 978-0664502485.
enlaces externos
- Calvinism on In Our Time at the BBC
- "Five Points of Calvinism" by Robert Lewis Dabney.