El alfabeto coreano , conocido como Hangul / Hangeul [nota 1] en Corea del Sur y Chosŏn'gŭl en Corea del Norte , es un sistema de escritura para el idioma coreano creado por el Rey Sejong el Grande en 1443. [2] [3] Las letras para las cinco consonantes básicas reflejan la forma de los órganos del habla que se utilizan para pronunciarlas y se modifican sistemáticamente para indicar características fonéticas ; De manera similar, las letras de las vocales se modifican sistemáticamente para sonidos relacionados, lo que hace que Hangul sea un sistema de escritura característico .[4] : 120 [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]
Alfabeto coreano 한글 Hangul (Hangeul) 조선 글 Chosŏn'gŭl | |
---|---|
Tipo de secuencia de comandos | |
Creador | Sejong de Joseon |
Periodo de tiempo | 1443-presente |
Dirección | Hangul generalmente se escribe horizontalmente, de izquierda a derecha y clásicamente de derecha a izquierda. También está escrito verticalmente, de arriba hacia abajo y de derecha a izquierda. |
Base de impresión | Dirección de escritura (diferentes variantes de Hangul): de izquierda a derecha, de arriba a abajo, de arriba a abajo, de derecha a izquierda |
Idiomas | Coreano , Jeju , Cia-Cia , Taiwán Guión oficial de: Corea del Sur Corea del Norte China ( Provincia de Jilin : Prefectura Autónoma Coreana de Yanbian y Condado Autónomo Coreano de Changbai ) |
ISO 15924 | |
ISO 15924 | Hang , 286 , Hangul (Hangŭl, Hangeul) |
Unicode | |
Alias Unicode | Hangul |
Rango Unicode | U + 1100 – U + 11FF U + 3130 – U + 318F U + A960 – U + A97F U + D7B0 – U + D7FF |
La ortografía Hangul moderna usa 24 letras básicas: 14 letras consonantes ( ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ) y 10 letras vocales ( ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ). También hay 27 letras complejas formadas combinando las letras básicas: 5 letras consonantes tensas (ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ), 11 letras consonantes complejas (ㄳ ㄵ ㄶ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅄ) y 11 letras vocales complejas (ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅢ). Ya no se utilizan cuatro letras básicas del alfabeto original: 1 letra de vocal (ㆍ) y 3 letras de consonante (ㅿ ㆁ ㆆ).
Las letras coreanas están escritas en bloques silábicos con las letras alfabéticas dispuestas en dos dimensiones. Por ejemplo, Hangeul en coreano se escribe 한글, no ㅎㅏ ㄴㄱ ㅡ ㄹ. Estas sílabas comienzan con una letra consonante, luego una letra vocal y luego potencialmente otra letra consonante ( coreano : 받침 ; RR : baht chim ). Si la sílaba comienza con un sonido de vocal, entonces la consonante "ㅇ" actuará como un marcador de posición silencioso. Sin embargo, cuando "ㅇ" comienza una oración o se coloca después de una pausa larga, hace que suene la parada glotal . Las sílabas pueden comenzar con consonantes básicas o tensas, pero no complejas. La vocal puede ser básica o compleja, mientras que la segunda consonante puede ser básica, compleja o un número limitado de consonantes tensas. La forma en que se estructura la sílaba depende de si la vocal es una vocal "alta" (línea de base vertical) o una vocal "gruesa" (línea de base horizontal); si la vocal es "alta", entonces la primera consonante y la vocal se escriben encima de la segunda consonante (si hay una), mientras que si una vocal es "gruesa", entonces todos los componentes se escriben individualmente de arriba a abajo. [11]
Como combina las características de los sistemas de escritura alfabéticos y silábicos, se ha descrito como un "silabario alfabético". [5] [12] Como en la escritura tradicional china y japonesa, los textos coreanos se escribían tradicionalmente de arriba a abajo, de derecha a izquierda, y ocasionalmente todavía se escriben de esta manera con fines estilísticos. Hoy en día, normalmente se escribe de izquierda a derecha con espacios entre palabras y puntuación de estilo occidental . [6]
Es el sistema de escritura oficial de Corea , que incluye tanto a Corea del Norte como a Corea del Sur. Es un sistema de escritura cooficial en la prefectura autónoma coreana de Yanbian y el condado autónomo coreano de Changbai en la provincia de Jilin , China . También se usa a veces para escribir el idioma Cia-Cia que se habla cerca de la ciudad de Baubau , Indonesia . El lingüista taiwanés Hsu Tsao-te
desarrolló y usó un alfabeto Hangul modificado para representar el Hokkien taiwanés hablado y luego fue apoyado por Ang Ui-jin (ver Hangul taiwanés ). [13] [14]Nombres
Nombres oficiales
Nombre coreano (Corea del Norte) | |
Chosŏn'gŭl | 조선 글 |
---|---|
Romanización revisada | Joseon (-) geul |
McCune – Reischauer | Chosŏn'gŭl |
IPA | Pronunciación de coreano: [tso.sɔn.ɡɯl] |
Nombre coreano (Corea del Sur) | |
Hangul | 한글 |
---|---|
Romanización revisada | Han (-) geul |
McCune – Reischauer | Han'gŭl [15] |
IPA | Pronunciación de coreano: [ha (ː) n.ɡɯl] |
El alfabeto coreano fue originalmente llamado Hunminjeong'eum ( 훈민정음 ) por el rey Sejong el Grande en 1443. [10] Hunminjeong'eum ( 훈민정음 ) es también el documento que explica la lógica y la ciencia detrás del guión en 1446.
El nombre hangeul ( 한글 ) fue acuñado por el lingüista coreano Ju Si-gyeong en 1912. El nombre combina la antigua palabra coreana han ( 한 ), que significa "grande", y geul ( 글 ), que significa "escritura". La palabra han se usa para referirse a Corea en general, por lo que el nombre también significa "escritura coreana". [16] Se ha romanizado de varias formas:
- Hangeul o han-geul en la romanización revisada del coreano , que el gobierno de Corea del Sur utiliza en las publicaciones en inglés y fomenta para todos los fines.
- Han'gŭl en el sistema McCune-Reischauer , a menudo se escribe con mayúscula y se traduce sin los signos diacríticos cuando se usa como una palabra en inglés, Hangul, como aparece en muchos diccionarios de inglés.
- hān kul en la romanización de Yale , un sistema recomendado para estudios lingüísticos técnicos.
Los norcoreanos llaman al alfabeto Chosŏn'gŭl ( 조선 글 ), después de Chosŏn , el nombre norcoreano de Corea . [17] Allí se utiliza una variante del sistema McCune-Reischauer para la romanización.
Otros nombres
Hasta mediados del siglo XX, la élite coreana prefirió escribir utilizando caracteres chinos llamados Hanja . Se refirieron a Hanja como jinseo (진서 / 真 書) o "letras verdaderas". Algunos relatos dicen que la élite se refirió al alfabeto coreano burlonamente como 'amkeul ( 암클 ) que significa "escritura de mujeres", y ' ahaetgeul ( 아 햇글 ) que significa "escritura de niños", aunque no hay evidencia escrita de esto. [18]
Los partidarios del alfabeto coreano se refirieron a él como jeong'eum ( 정음 / 正音) que significa "pronunciación correcta", gungmun ( 국문 / 國文) que significa "escritura nacional" y eonmun ( 언문 / 諺 文) que significa " escritura vernácula ". [18]
Historia
Creación
Coreanos escribieron principalmente usando el chino clásico junto con los sistemas de escritura fonética nativas que son anteriores a Hangul por cientos de años, incluyendo Idu guión , hyangchal , gugyeol y Gakpil. [19] [20] [21] [22] Sin embargo, muchos coreanos de clase baja eran analfabetos debido a diferencias fundamentales entre los idiomas coreano y chino, y la gran cantidad de caracteres chinos. [23] Para promover la alfabetización entre la gente común, el cuarto rey de la dinastía Joseon , Sejong el Grande , creó y promulgó personalmente un nuevo alfabeto. [3] [23] [24] Aunque se asume ampliamente que el rey Sejong ordenó al Salón de los Dignos que inventara el Hangul, los registros contemporáneos como el Veritable Records of King Sejong y el prefacio de Jeong Inji al Hunminjeongeum Haerye enfatizan que él inventó él mismo. [25]
El alfabeto coreano fue diseñado para que las personas con poca educación pudieran aprender a leer y escribir. Un dicho popular sobre el alfabeto es: "Un hombre sabio puede familiarizarse con ellos antes de que termine la mañana; incluso un hombre estúpido puede aprenderlos en el espacio de diez días". [26]
El proyecto se completó a finales de diciembre de 1443 o enero de 1444, y se describió en 1446 en un documento titulado Hunminjeong'eum ( Los sonidos adecuados para la educación de la gente ), por lo que originalmente se nombró al alfabeto en sí. [18] La fecha de publicación del Hunminjeongeum , el 9 de octubre, se convirtió en el Día Hangul en Corea del Sur. Su equivalente norcoreano, el Día Chosŏn'gŭl, es el 15 de enero.
Otro documento publicado en 1446 y titulado Hunminjeong'eum Haerye (" Explicación y ejemplos de Hunminjeong'eum ") fue descubierto en 1940. Este documento explica que el diseño de las consonantes se basa en la fonética articulatoria y el diseño de las vocales se basa en sobre los principios del yin y el yang y la armonía de las vocales .
Oposición
El alfabeto coreano enfrentó oposición en la década de 1440 por parte de la élite literaria, incluidos Choe Manri y otros eruditos confucianos coreanos . Creían que Hanja era el único sistema de escritura legítimo. También vieron la circulación del alfabeto coreano como una amenaza para su estatus. [23] Sin embargo, el alfabeto coreano entró en la cultura popular como pretendía el rey Sejong, utilizado especialmente por mujeres y escritores de ficción popular. [27]
El rey Yeonsangun prohibió el estudio y la publicación del alfabeto coreano en 1504, después de que se publicara un documento que criticaba al rey. [28] De manera similar, el rey Jungjong abolió el Ministerio de Eonmun, una institución gubernamental relacionada con la investigación Hangul, en 1506. [29]
Renacimiento
Sin embargo, a finales del siglo XVI se produjo un resurgimiento del alfabeto coreano a medida que florecían la poesía gasa y sijo . En el siglo XVII, las novelas del alfabeto coreano se convirtieron en un género importante . [30] Sin embargo, el uso del alfabeto coreano había estado sin estandarización ortográfica durante tanto tiempo que la ortografía se había vuelto bastante irregular. [27]
En 1796, el erudito holandés Isaac Titsingh se convirtió en la primera persona en llevar un libro escrito en coreano al mundo occidental . Su colección de libros incluía el libro japonés Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu ( Una descripción ilustrada de tres países ) de Hayashi Shihei . [31] Este libro, que fue publicado en 1785, describe el Reino de Joseon [32] y el alfabeto coreano. [33] En 1832, el Fondo de Traducción Oriental de Gran Bretaña e Irlanda apoyó la publicación abreviada póstuma de la traducción francesa de Titsingh. [34]
Gracias al creciente nacionalismo coreano , el impulso de los reformistas de Gabo y la promoción del alfabeto coreano por parte de los misioneros occidentales en las escuelas y la literatura, [35] el alfabeto coreano Hangul fue adoptado en documentos oficiales por primera vez en 1894. [28] Escuela primaria Los textos comenzaron a usar el alfabeto coreano en 1895, y Tongnip Sinmun , establecido en 1896, fue el primer periódico impreso tanto en coreano como en inglés. [36]
Reformas y prohibición bajo el dominio japonés
Después de la anexión japonesa, que ocurrió en 1910, el japonés se convirtió en el idioma oficial de Corea. Sin embargo, el alfabeto coreano todavía se enseñaba en escuelas establecidas en Corea construidas después de la anexión y el coreano se escribía en una escritura mixta Hanja-Hangul, donde la mayoría de las raíces léxicas se escribían en Hanja y las formas gramaticales en el alfabeto coreano, similar y aparentemente en imitación de la escritura japonesa . Japón prohibió la literatura coreana anterior en las escuelas públicas, lo que se convirtió en obligatorio para los niños. [37]
La ortografía del alfabeto coreano se estandarizó parcialmente en 1912, cuando la vocal arae'a ( ㆍ ), que ahora ha desaparecido del coreano, se restringió a las raíces sino-coreanas : las consonantes enfáticas se estandarizaron a ㅺ, ㅼ, ㅽ, ㅆ , ㅾ y consonantes finales restringidas a ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅇ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ . Las vocales largas se marcaron con un punto diacrítico a la izquierda de la sílaba, pero esto se eliminó en 1921. [27]
Una segunda reforma colonial ocurrió en 1930. La arae-a fue abolida: las consonantes enfáticas se cambiaron a ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅉ y consonantes más finales ㄷ, ㅈ, ㅌ, ㅊ, ㅍ, ㄲ, ㄳ, ㄵ, Se permitieron ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅄ , lo que hizo que la ortografía fuera más morfofonémica . La doble consonante ㅆ se escribió sola (sin vocal) cuando aparecía entre sustantivos, y la partícula nominativa - 가 se introdujo después de las vocales, reemplazando - 이 . [27]
Ju Si-gyeong , el lingüista que había acuñado el término Hangul para reemplazar a Eonmun o "Escritura vulgar" en 1912, estableció la Sociedad de Investigación del Idioma Coreano (más tarde rebautizada como Sociedad Hangul ), que reformó aún más la ortografía con el Sistema Estandarizado de Hangul en 1933. El cambio principal fue hacer que el alfabeto coreano fuera lo más práctico posible desde el punto de vista morfofonémico, dadas las letras existentes. [27] En 1940 se publicó un sistema para transliterar ortografías extranjeras .
Japón prohibió el idioma coreano en las escuelas en 1938 como parte de una política de asimilación cultural , [38] y todas las publicaciones en idioma coreano fueron prohibidas en 1941. [39]
Nuevas reformas
La ortografía definitiva del alfabeto coreano moderno se publicó en 1946, justo después de la independencia de Corea del dominio japonés. En 1948, Corea del Norte intentó hacer el guión perfectamente morfofonémico mediante la adición de nuevas letras , y en 1953, Syngman Rhee en Corea del Sur intentó simplificar la ortografía volviendo a la ortografía colonial de 1921, pero ambas reformas fueron abandonadas después de solo un tiempo. pocos años. [27]
Tanto Corea del Norte como Corea del Sur han utilizado el alfabeto coreano o la escritura mixta como su sistema de escritura oficial, con un uso cada vez menor de Hanja. A partir de la década de 1970, Hanja comenzó a experimentar un declive gradual en la escritura comercial o no oficial en el Sur debido a la intervención del gobierno, y algunos periódicos surcoreanos ahora solo usan Hanja como abreviaturas o desambiguación de homónimos. [ cita requerida ] Ha habido un amplio debate sobre el futuro de Hanja en Corea del Sur. [ cita requerida ] Corea del Norte instaló el alfabeto coreano como su sistema de escritura exclusivo en 1949 y prohibió completamente el uso de Hanja.
Uso contemporáneo
La Sociedad Hunminjeong'eum de Seúl intenta difundir el uso del alfabeto coreano a los idiomas no escritos de Asia. [40] En 2009, el alfabeto coreano fue adoptado extraoficialmente por la ciudad de Baubau , en el sureste de Sulawesi , Indonesia , para escribir el idioma Cia-Cia . [41] [42] [43] Varios oradores indonesios de Cia-Cia que visitaron Seúl generaron una gran atención de los medios en Corea del Sur, y fueron recibidos a su llegada por Oh Se-hoon , el alcalde de Seúl . [44] En octubre de 2012 se confirmó que los intentos de difundir el uso del alfabeto coreano en Indonesia fracasaron. [45] Algunas personas continúan usando el alfabeto coreano en casa o de manera cooficial.
Letras
Las letras del alfabeto coreano se llaman jamo (자모). Hay 19 consonantes (자음) y 21 vocales (모음) utilizadas en el alfabeto moderno. Fueron nombrados por primera vez en Hunmongjahoe , un libro de texto de hanja escrito por Choe Sejin .
Consonantes
La siguiente tabla muestra las 19 consonantes en orden alfabético de Corea del Sur con equivalentes de romanización revisada para cada letra y pronunciación en IPA (ver fonología coreana para más información).
Hangul | ㄱ | ㄲ | ㄴ | ㄷ | ㄸ | ㄹ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅃ | ㅅ | ㅆ | ㅇ | ㅈ | ㅉ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅌ | ㅍ | ㅎ | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inicial | Romanización | gramo | kk | norte | D | tt | r | metro | B | páginas | s | ss | ' [nota 2] | j | jj | ch | ḳ [nota 3] | ṭ | pag | h |
IPA | / k / | / k͈ / | /norte/ | / t / | / t͈ / | / ɾ / | /metro/ | /pag/ | /pag/ | /s/ | /s/ | silencio | / tɕ / | / t͈ɕ / | / tɕʰ / | / kʰ / | / tʰ / | /pag/ | / h / | |
Final | Romanización | k | k | norte | t | - | l | metro | pag | - | t | t | ng | t | - | t | k | t | pag | t |
IPA | / k̚ / | /norte/ | / t̚ / | - | / ɭ / | /metro/ | /pag/ | - | / t̚ / | /norte/ | / t̚ / | - | / t̚ / | / k̚ / | / t̚ / | /pag/ | / t̚ / |
ㅇ es una sílaba muda , inicialmente y se usa como marcador de posición cuando la sílaba comienza con una vocal. ㄸ, ㅃ y ㅉ nunca se usan sílaba finalmente.
Las consonantes se clasifican a grandes rasgos en cualquiera de las obstruyentes (sonidos producidos cuando el flujo de aire se detiene, ya sea por completo (es decir, una plosiva consonante) o pasa a través de una abertura estrecha (es decir, una fricativa ) o sonantes (sonidos producidos cuando el aire fluye a cabo con poca o ninguna obstrucción a través de la boca, nariz o ambas). [46] La tabla siguiente enumera las consonantes coreanas por sus respectivas categorías y subcategorías.
Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveolo-palatino | Velar | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Obstruente | Detener (oclusivo) | Flojo | p (ㅂ) | t (ㄷ) | k (ㄱ) | ||
Tiempo | p * (ㅃ) | t * (ㄸ) | k * (ㄲ) | ||||
Aspirado | p h (ㅍ) | t h (ㅌ) | k h (ㅋ) | ||||
Fricativa | Flojo | s (ㅅ) | h (ㅎ) | ||||
Tiempo | s * (ㅆ) | ||||||
Africada | Flojo | tɕ (ㅈ) | |||||
Tiempo | tɕ * (ㅉ) | ||||||
Aspirado | tɕ h (ㅊ) | ||||||
Sonorante | Nasal | m (ㅁ) | n (ㄴ) | ŋ (ㅇ) | |||
Líquido (aproximante lateral) | l (ㄹ) |
Todos los obstruyentes coreanos carecen de voz porque la laringe no vibra cuando produce esos sonidos y se distinguen además por el grado de aspiración y tensión. Las consonantes tensas se producen al contraer las cuerdas vocales, mientras que las consonantes muy aspiradas (como el coreano ㅍ, / p h /) se producen al abrirlas. [46]
Se expresan sonorantes coreanos.
Asimilación consonante
La pronunciación de una consonante final de sílaba puede verse afectada por la siguiente letra y viceversa. La siguiente tabla describe estas reglas de asimilación . Los espacios se dejan en blanco cuando no se produce ninguna modificación.
Antes de la última letra del bloque de sílabas | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ㄱ (k) | ㄲ (k) | ㄴ (norte) | ㄷ (t) | ㄹ (l) | ㅁ (metro) | ㅂ (pag) | ㅅ (t) | ㅆ (t) | ㅇ (ng) | ㅈ (t) | ㅊ (t) | ㅋ (k) | ㅌ (t) | ㅍ (pag) | ㅎ (t) | ||
Letra inicial del bloque de sílabas subsiguiente | ㄱ (g) | k + k | n + g | t + g | l + g | m + g | b + g | t + g | - | t + g | t + g | t + g | p + g | h + k | |||
ㄴ (n) | ng + n | n + n | l + l | m + n | m + n | t + n | n + t | t + n | t + n | t + n | p + n | h + n | |||||
ㄷ (d) | k + d | n + d | t + t | l + d | m + d | p + d | t + t | t + t | t + t | t + t | k + d | t + t | p + d | h + t | |||
ㄹ (r) | g + n | l + l | l + l | m + n | m + n | - | ng + n | r | |||||||||
ㅁ (m) | g + m | n + m | t + m | l + m | m + m | m + m | t + m | - | ng + m | t + m | t + m | k + d | t + m | p + m | h + m | ||
ㅂ (b) | g + b | p + p | t + b | - | |||||||||||||
ㅅ (s) | ss + s | ||||||||||||||||
ㅇ (∅) | gramo | kk + h | norte | t | r | metro | pag | s | ss | ng + h | t + ch | t + ch | k + h | t + ch | p + h | h | |
ㅈ (j) | t + ch | ||||||||||||||||
ㅎ (h) | k | kk + h | n + h | t | r / l + h | m + h | pag | t | - | t + ch | t + ch | k | t | pag | - |
La asimilación de consonantes ocurre como resultado de la sonorización intervocálica . Cuando está rodeado de vocales o consonantes sonoras como ㅁ o ㄴ, una parada adoptará las características de su sonido circundante. Dado que las paradas simples (como ㄱ / k /) se producen con cuerdas vocales relajadas que no están tensas, es más probable que se vean afectadas por los sonidos sonoros circundantes (que son producidos por cuerdas vocales que vibran). [46]
A continuación se muestran ejemplos de cómo las consonantes laxas (ㅂ / p /, ㄷ / t /, ㅈ / tɕ / , ㄱ / k /) cambian debido a la ubicación en una palabra. Las letras en negrita muestran un debilitamiento intervocálico o el ablandamiento de las consonantes laxas a sus contrapartes sonoras. [46]
ㅂ
- 밥 [pap] - 'arroz'
- 보리밥 [pori b ap] - 'cebada mezclada con arroz'
ㄷ
- 다 [ta] - 'todos'
- 맏 [mat] - 'mayor'
- 맏아들 [ma d a d ǔl] - 'hijo mayor'
ㅈ
- 죽 [chuk] - 'papilla'
- 콩죽 [k'ong- j uk] - 'papilla de frijoles'
ㄱ
- 공 [kong] - 'pelota'
- 새 공 [sae g ong] - 'pelota nueva'
Las consonantes ㄹ y ㅎ también se debilitan. El líquido ㄹ, cuando está en una posición intervocálica, se debilitará a una [r]. Por ejemplo, la ㄹ final en la palabra 말 ([mal], 'palabra') cambia cuando es seguida por el marcador de sujeto 이 (ㅇ es una consonante sonora), y cambia a una [r] para convertirse en [mari].
ㅎ / h / es muy débil y generalmente se elimina en palabras coreanas, como se ve en palabras como 괜찮아요 / kwanch'an h -ayo / [kwaench'anayo]. Sin embargo, en lugar de eliminarse por completo, deja restos al absorber el siguiente sonido o al actuar como una oclusión glotal. [46]
Las consonantes flojas se tensan cuando siguen a otras obstruyentes debido al hecho de que la articulación de la primera obstruyente no se libera. La tensión se puede ver en palabras como 입구 ('entrada') / ip-ku / que se pronuncia [ip-kku].
Las consonantes del alfabeto coreano se pueden combinar en uno de los 11 grupos de consonantes , que siempre aparecen en la posición final de un bloque de sílabas. Son: ㄳ, ㄵ, ㄶ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅀ y ㅄ.
Combinaciones de grupos de consonantes (p. ej. [de forma aislada] 닭 da g ; [antes de otro bloque de sílabas] 없다 - eo p -ta , 앉아 an-ja ) | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antes de la última letra del bloque de sílabas * | ㄳ (gs) | ㄵ (Nueva Jersey) | ㄶ (Nueva Hampshire) | ㄺ (lg) | ㄻ (lm) | ㄼ (libras) | ㄽ (ls) | ㄾ (lṭ) | ㄿ (lp̣) | ㅀ (lh) | ㅄ (PD) | |
(pronunciación aislada) | gramo | Nueva Jersey | Nueva Hampshire | gramo | metro | B | s | ṭ | pag | h | pag | |
Letra inicial del bloque posterior ** | ㅇ (∅) | g + s | n + j | l + h | l + g | l + m | l + b | l + s | l + ṭ | l + p̣ | l + h | p + s |
ㄷ (d) | g + t | nj + d / nt + ch | n + t | g + d | m + d | b + d | l + t | l + ṭ | p̣ + d | l + t | p + t |
** En los casos en los que los grupos de consonantes van seguidos de palabras que comienzan con ㅇ o ㄷ, el grupo de consonantes se "resyllabifica" a través de un fenómeno fonológico llamado enlace . En palabras donde la primera consonante del grupo de consonantes es ㅂ, ㄱ o ㄴ (las consonantes de parada), la articulación se detiene y la segunda consonante no se puede pronunciar sin soltar la articulación de la primera vez. Por lo tanto, en palabras como 값 / kaps / ('precio'), la ㅅ no se puede articular y, por lo tanto, la palabra se pronuncia como [kap]. La segunda consonante suele revivir cuando va seguida de una palabra con la inicial ㅇ (값 이 → [kapsi]. Otros ejemplos incluyen 삶 (/ salm / [sam], 'vida'). La ㄹ en el grupo de consonantes final generalmente se pierde en pronunciación, sin embargo, cuando es seguida por el marcador de sujeto 이, la ㄹ se revive y la ㅁ toma el lugar de la consonante en blanco ㅇ. Por lo tanto, 삶이 se pronuncia como [sal-mi].
Vocales
La siguiente tabla muestra las 21 vocales utilizadas en el alfabeto coreano moderno en orden alfabético de Corea del Sur con equivalentes de romanización revisada para cada letra y pronunciación en IPA (ver fonología coreana para más información).
Hangul | ㅏ | ㅐ | ㅑ | ㅒ | ㅓ | ㅔ | ㅕ | ㅖ | ㅗ | ㅘ | ㅙ | ㅚ | ㅛ | ㅜ | ㅝ | ㅞ | ㅟ | ㅠ | ㅡ | ㅢ | ㅣ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Romanización revisada | a | ae | ya | yae | eo | mi | yeo | S.M | o | Washington | wae | oe | yo | tu | wo | nosotros | Wisconsin | Yu | UE | ui / yi | I |
IPA | /a/ | / ɛ / | / ja / | / jɛ / | / ʌ / | /mi/ | / jʌ / | / je / | / o / | /Washington/ | / wɛ / | / ø / ~ [nosotros] | / jo / | / u / | / wʌ / | /nosotros/ | / y / ~ [ɥi] | / ju / | / ɯ / | / ɰi / | /I/ |
Las vocales generalmente se dividen en dos categorías: monoftongos y diptongos. Los monoftongos se producen con un solo movimiento articular (de ahí el prefijo mono-), mientras que los diptongos presentan un cambio articulatorio. Los diptongos tienen dos componentes: un deslizamiento (o semivocal) y un monoftongo. Existe cierto desacuerdo sobre exactamente cuántas vocales se consideran monoftongos coreanos; el inventario más grande presenta diez, mientras que algunos académicos han propuesto ocho o nueve. [ quien? ] Esta divergencia revela dos cuestiones: “si el coreano tiene dos vocales redondeadas delanteras (es decir, / ø / y / y /); y, en segundo lugar, si el coreano tiene tres niveles de vocales anteriores en términos de altura vocal (es decir, si / e / y / æ / son distintivos ”. [47] Los estudios fonológicos reales realizados mediante el estudio de datos de formantes muestran que los hablantes actuales de coreano estándar no no diferenciar entre las vocales ㅔ y ㅐ en la pronunciación. [ cita requerida ] [48]
Orden alfabético
El orden alfabético en el alfabeto coreano se llama orden ganada , ( 가나다순 ) después de las tres primeras letras del alfabeto. El orden alfabético del alfabeto coreano no mezcla consonantes y vocales. Más bien, primero son las consonantes velares , luego las coronarias , labiales , sibilantes , etc. Las vocales vienen después de las consonantes.
Órdenes históricas
La orden del Hunminjeong'eum en 1446 fue:
- ㄱ ㄲ ㅋ ㆁ ㄷ ㄸ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅃ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅅ ㅆ ㆆ ㅎ ㆅ ㅇ ㄹ ㅿ
- ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ ㅗ ㅏ ㅜ ㅓ ㅛ ㅑ ㅠ ㅕ
En 1527, Choe Sejin reorganizó el alfabeto en Hunmongjahoe :
- ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㆁ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅈ ㅊ ㅿ ㅇ ㅎ
- ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㆍ
Ésta es la base de los órdenes alfabéticos modernos. Fue antes del desarrollo de las consonantes del tiempo coreano y las letras dobles que las representan, y antes de la fusión de las letras ㅇ (') y ㆁ (ng). Por lo tanto, cuando los gobiernos de Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur implementaron el uso completo del alfabeto coreano, ordenaron estas letras de manera diferente, con Corea del Norte colocando nuevas letras al final del alfabeto y Corea del Sur agrupando letras similares.
Orden de Corea del Norte
Las nuevas letras dobles se colocan al final de las consonantes, justo antes de la ' ㅇ , para no alterar el orden tradicional del resto del alfabeto.
- ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ ㅇ
- ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅚ ㅟ ㅢ ㅘ ㅝ ㅙ ㅞ
Todos los dígrafos y trígrafos , incluidos los antiguos diptongos ㅐ y ㅔ , se colocan después de las vocales simples, manteniendo nuevamente el orden alfabético de Choe.
El orden de las letras finales ( 받침 ) es:
- (ninguno) ㄱ ㄳ ㄴ ㄵ ㄶ ㄷ ㄹ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅁ ㅂ ㅄ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㅆ
("Ninguno" significa que no hay una letra final).
A diferencia de cuando es inicial, este ㅇ se pronuncia, como el ㅇ ng nasal , que ocurre solo como final en el lenguaje moderno. Las letras dobles se colocan hasta el final, como en el orden inicial, pero las consonantes combinadas se ordenan inmediatamente después de su primer elemento.
Orden de Corea del Sur
En el orden del sur, las letras dobles se colocan inmediatamente después de sus contrapartes individuales:
- ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ
- ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ
Las vocales monofthongales modernas vienen primero, con las formas derivadas intercaladas de acuerdo con su forma: primero se agrega i , luego se iotiza , luego se iotiza con i agregada . Los diptongos que comienzan con w se ordenan según su ortografía, como ㅗ o ㅜ más una segunda vocal, no como dígrafos separados .
El orden de las letras finales es:
- (ninguno) ㄱ ㄲ ㄳ ㄴ ㄵ ㄶ ㄷ ㄹ ㄺ ㄻ ㄼ ㄽ ㄾ ㄿ ㅀ ㅁ ㅂ ㅄ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ
Cada sílaba comienza con una consonante (o la ㅇ muda) seguida de una vocal (por ejemplo, ㄷ + ㅏ = 다 ). Algunas sílabas como " 달 " y " 닭 " tienen una consonante final o un grupo de consonantes final ( 받침 ). Entonces, 399 combinaciones son posibles para "sílabas de dos letras" y 10.773 combinaciones posibles para sílabas con más de dos "letras" (27 posibles terminaciones finales), para un total de 11.172 posibles combinaciones de "letras" del alfabeto coreano para formar sílabas.
El orden de clasificación que incluye las arcaicas letras Hangul definidas en el estándar nacional de Corea del Sur KS X 1026-1 ( traducción no oficial al inglés ) es:
- Consonantes iniciales: ᄀ, ᄁ, ᅚ, ᄂ, ᄓ, ᄔ, ᄕ, ᄖ, ᅛ, ᅜ, ᅝ, ᄃ, ᄗ, ᄄ, ᅞ, ꥠ, ꥡ, ꥢ, ꥣ, ᄅ, ꥤ, ꥥ, ᄘ, ꥦ , ꥧ, ᄙ, ꥨ, ꥩ, ꥪ, ꥫ, ꥬ, ꥭ, ꥮ, ᄚ, ᄛ, ᄆ, ꥯ, ꥰ, ᄜ, ꥱ, ᄝ, ᄇ, ᄞ, ᄟ, ᄠ, ᄈ, ᄡ, ᄢ, ᄣ , ᄤ, ᄥ, ᄦ, ꥲ, ᄧ, ᄨ, ꥳ, ᄩ, ᄪ, ꥴ, ᄫ, ᄬ, ᄉ, ᄭ, ᄮ, ᄯ, ᄰ, ᄱ, ᄲ, ᄳ, ᄊ, ꥵ, ᄴ, ᄵ, ᄶ , ᄷ, ᄸ, ᄹ, ᄺ, ᄻ, ᄼ, ᄽ, ᄾ, ᄿ, ᅀ, ᄋ, ᅁ, ᅂ, ꥶ, ᅃ, ᅄ, ᅅ, ᅆ, ᅇ, ᅈ, ᅉ, ᅊ, ᅋ, ꥷ, ᅌ , ᄌ, ᅍ, ᄍ, ꥸ, ᅎ, ᅏ, ᅐ, ᅑ, ᄎ, ᅒ, ᅓ, ᅔ, ᅕ, ᄏ, ᄐ, ꥹ, ᄑ, ᅖ, ꥺ, ᅗ, ᄒ, ꥻ, ᅘ, ᅙ, ꥼ , (relleno;
U+115F
) - Vocales mediales: (relleno;
U+1160
), ᅡ, ᅶ, ᅷ, ᆣ, ᅢ, ᅣ, ᅸ, ᅹ, ᆤ, ᅤ, ᅥ, ᅺ, ᅻ, ᅼ, ᅦ, ᅧ, ᆥ, ᅽ, ᅾ, ᅨ, ᅩ, ᅪ, ᅫ, ᆦ, ᆧ, ᅿ, ᆀ, ힰ, ᆁ, ᆂ, ힱ, ᆃ, ᅬ, ᅭ, ힲ, ힳ, ᆄ, ᆅ, ힴ, ᆆ, ᆇ, ᆈ, ᅮ, ᆉ, ᆊ, ᅯ, ᆋ, ᅰ, ힵ, ᆌ, ᆍ, ᅱ, ힶ, ᅲ, ᆎ, ힷ, ᆏ, ᆐ, ᆑ, ᆒ, ힸ, ᆓ, ᆔ, ᅳ, ힹ, ힺ, ힻ, ힼ, ᆕ, ᆖ, ᅴ, ᆗ, ᅵ, ᆘ, ᆙ, ힽ, ힾ, ힿ, ퟀ, ᆚ, ퟁ, ퟂ, ᆛ, ퟃ, ᆜ, ퟄ, ᆝ, ᆞ, ퟅ, ᆟ, ퟆ, ᆠ, ᆡ, ᆢ - Consonantes finales: (ninguna), ᆨ, ᆩ, ᇺ, ᇃ, ᇻ, ᆪ, ᇄ, ᇼ, ᇽ, ᇾ, ᆫ, ᇅ, ᇿ, ᇆ, ퟋ, ᇇ, ᇈ, ᆬ, ퟌ, ᇉ, ᆭ, ᆮ , ᇊ, ퟍ, ퟎ, ᇋ, ퟏ, ퟐ, ퟑ, ퟒ, ퟓ, ퟔ, ᆯ, ᆰ, ퟕ, ᇌ, ퟖ, ᇍ, ᇎ, ᇏ, ᇐ, ퟗ, ᆱ, ᇑ, ᇒ, ퟘ, ᆲ , ퟙ, ᇓ, ퟚ, ᇔ, ᇕ, ᆳ, ᇖ, ᇗ, ퟛ, ᇘ, ᆴ, ᆵ, ᆶ, ᇙ, ퟜ, ퟝ, ᆷ, ᇚ, ퟞ, ퟟ, ᇛ, ퟠ, ᇜ, ퟡ, ᇝ , ᇞ, ᇟ, ퟢ, ᇠ, ᇡ, ᇢ, ᆸ, ퟣ, ᇣ, ퟤ, ퟥ, ퟦ, ᆹ, ퟧ, ퟨ, ퟩ, ᇤ, ᇥ, ᇦ, ᆺ, ᇧ, ᇨ, ᇩ, ퟪ, ᇪ , ퟫ, ᆻ, ퟬ, ퟭ, ퟮ, ퟯ, ퟰ, ퟱ, ퟲ, ᇫ, ퟳ, ퟴ, ᆼ, ᇰ, ᇬ, ᇭ, ퟵ, ᇱ, ᇲ, ᇮ, ᇯ, ퟶ, ᆽ, ퟷ, ퟸ , ퟹ, ᆾ, ᆿ, ᇀ, ᇁ, ᇳ, ퟺ, ퟻ, ᇴ, ᇂ, ᇵ, ᇶ, ᇷ, ᇸ, ᇹ
Orden de clasificación de consonantes Hangul definidas en el estándar nacional de Corea del Sur KS X 1026-1
Orden de clasificación de las vocales hangul definidas en el estándar nacional de Corea del Sur KS X 1026-1
Nombres de letras
Las letras del alfabeto coreano fueron nombradas por el lingüista coreano Choe Sejin en 1527. Corea del Sur usa los nombres tradicionales de Choe, la mayoría de los cuales siguen el formato de letra + i + eu + letra . Choe describió estos nombres enumerando los caracteres Hanja con pronunciaciones similares. Sin embargo, como las sílabas 윽 euk , 읃 eut y 읏 eut no aparecían en Hanja, Choe les dio a esas letras los nombres modificados 기역 gi yeok , 디귿 di geut y 시옷 si ot , usando Hanja que no se ajustaba al patrón (para 기역) o sílabas coreanas nativas (para 디귿 y 시옷).
Originalmente, Choe dio ㅈ , ㅊ , ㅋ , ㅌ , ㅍ y ㅎ los nombres irregulares de una sílaba de ji , chi , ḳi , ṭi , p̣i y hi , porque no deben usarse como consonantes finales, como se especifica en Hunminjeong 'eum . Sin embargo, después del establecimiento de la nueva ortografía en 1933, que permitió que todas las consonantes se usaran como finales, los nombres cambiaron a las formas actuales.
Corea del Norte regularizó los nombres originales de Choe cuando hizo del alfabeto coreano su ortografía oficial.
En Corea del Norte
La siguiente tabla muestra los nombres utilizados en Corea del Norte para las consonantes en el alfabeto coreano. Las letras están dispuestas en orden alfabético de Corea del Norte y los nombres de las letras se romanizan con el sistema McCune-Reischauer , que se usa ampliamente en Corea del Norte. Las consonantes tensas se describen con la palabra 된 toen que significa "difícil".
Consonante | ㄱ | ㄴ | ㄷ | ㄹ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅅ | ㅈ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅌ | ㅍ | ㅎ | ㄲ | ㄸ | ㅃ | ㅆ | ㅇ | ㅉ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nombre | 기윽 | 니은 | 디읃 | 리을 | 미음 | 비읍 | 시읏 | 지읒 | 치읓 | 키읔 | 티읕 | 피읖 | 히읗 | 된 기윽 | 된 디읃 | 된비읍 | 된 시 읏 | 이응 | 된지 읒 |
McCR | giŭk | niŭn | diŭt | riŭl | miŭm | piŭp | siŭt | jiŭt | chiŭt | ḳiŭk | ṭiŭt | p̣iŭp | hola | toen'giŭk | toendiŭt | toenbiŭp | toensiŭt | 'iŭng | toenjiŭt |
En Corea del Norte, una forma alternativa de referirse a una consonante es la letra + ŭ ( ㅡ ), por ejemplo, gŭ ( 그 ) para la letra ㄱ y ssŭ ( 쓰 ) para la letra ㅆ .
Como en Corea del Sur, los nombres de las vocales en el alfabeto coreano son los mismos que el sonido de cada vocal.
En corea del sur
La siguiente tabla muestra los nombres utilizados en Corea del Sur para las consonantes del alfabeto coreano. Las letras están dispuestas en el orden alfabético de Corea del Sur y los nombres de las letras se romanizan en el sistema de romanización revisado , que es el sistema oficial de romanización de Corea del Sur. Las consonantes tensas se describen con la palabra 쌍 ssang que significa "doble".
Consonante | ㄱ | ㄲ | ㄴ | ㄷ | ㄸ | ㄹ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅃ | ㅅ | ㅆ | ㅇ | ㅈ | ㅉ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅌ | ㅍ | ㅎ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nombre (Hangul) | 기역 | 쌍기역 | 니은 | 디귿 | 쌍디귿 | 리을 | 미음 | 비읍 | 쌍비읍 | 시옷 | 쌍시옷 | 이응 | 지읒 | 쌍지읒 | 치읓 | 키읔 | 티읕 | 피읖 | 히읗 |
Nombre (romanizado) | gi-yeok | ssang-giyeok | ni-eun | digeut | ssang-digeut | ri-eul | mi-eum | bi-eup | ssang-bi-eup | si-ot (shi-ot) | ssang-si-ot (ssang-shi-ot) | 'i-eung | ji-eut | ssang-ji-eut | chi-eut | ḳi-euk | ṭi-eut | p̣i-eup | hola |
Orden de los trazos
Las letras del alfabeto coreano han adoptado ciertas reglas de la caligrafía china , aunque ㅇ y ㅎ usan un círculo, que no se usa en los caracteres chinos impresos.
ㄱ (giyeok 기역 )
ㄴ (nieun 니은 )
ㄷ (digerido 디귿 )
ㄹ (rieul 리을 )
ㅁ (mieum 미음 )
ㅂ (bieup 비읍 )
ㅅ (siot 시옷 )
ㅇ (ieung 이응 )
ㅈ (jieut 지읒 )
ㅊ (chieut 치읓 )
ㅋ (ḳieuk 키읔 )
ㅌ (ṭieut 티읕 )
ㅍ (p̣ieup 피읖 )
ㅎ (hieuh 히읗 )
ㅏ (a)
ㅐ (ae)
ㅓ (eo)
ㅔ (e)
ㅗ (o)
ㅜ (u)
ㅡ (ue)
For the iotized vowels, which are not shown, the short stroke is simply doubled.
Diseño de letras
Scripts typically transcribe languages at the level of morphemes (logographic scripts like Hanja), of syllables (syllabaries like kana), of segments (alphabetic scripts like the Latin script used to write English and many other languages), or, on occasion, of distinctive features. The Korean alphabet incorporates aspects of the latter three, grouping sounds into syllables, using distinct symbols for segments, and in some cases using distinct strokes to indicate distinctive features such as place of articulation (labial, coronal, velar, or glottal) and manner of articulation (plosive, nasal, sibilant, aspiration) for consonants, and iotization (a preceding i-sound), harmonic class and i-mutation for vowels.
For instance, the consonant ㅌ ṭ [tʰ] is composed of three strokes, each one meaningful: the top stroke indicates ㅌ is a plosive, like ㆆ ʔ, ㄱ g, ㄷ d, ㅈ j, which have the same stroke (the last is an affricate, a plosive–fricative sequence); the middle stroke indicates that ㅌ is aspirated, like ㅎ h, ㅋ ḳ, ㅊ ch, which also have this stroke; and the bottom stroke indicates that ㅌ is alveolar, like ㄴ n, ㄷ d, and ㄹ l. (This element is said to represent the shape of the tongue when pronouncing coronal consonants, though this is not certain.) Two obsolete consonants, ㆁ and ㅱ, have dual pronunciations, and appear to be composed of two elements corresponding to these two pronunciations: [ŋ]~silence for ㆁ and [m]~[w] for ㅱ.
With vowel letters, a short stroke connected to the main line of the letter indicates that this is one of the vowels that can be iotized; this stroke is then doubled when the vowel is iotized. The position of the stroke indicates which harmonic class the vowel belongs to, "light" (top or right) or "dark" (bottom or left). In the modern alphabet, an additional vertical stroke indicates i-mutation, deriving ㅐ [ɛ], ㅚ [ø], and ㅟ [y] from ㅏ [a], ㅗ [o], and ㅜ [u]. However, this is not part of the intentional design of the script, but rather a natural development from what were originally diphthongs ending in the vowel ㅣ [i]. Indeed, in many Korean dialects,[citation needed] including the standard dialect of Seoul, some of these may still be diphthongs. For example, in the Seoul dialect, ㅚ may alternatively be pronounced [we̞], and ㅟ [ɥi]. Note: ㅔ [e] as a morpheme is ㅓ combined with ㅣ as a vertical stroke. As a phoneme, its sound is not by i-mutation of ㅓ [ʌ].
Beside the letters, the Korean alphabet originally employed diacritic marks to indicate pitch accent. A syllable with a high pitch (거성) was marked with a dot (〮) to the left of it (when writing vertically); a syllable with a rising pitch (상성) was marked with a double dot, like a colon (〯). These are no longer used, as modern Seoul Korean has lost tonality. Vowel length has also been neutralized in Modern Korean,[49] and is no longer written.
Consonant design
The consonant letters fall into five homorganic groups, each with a basic shape, and one or more letters derived from this shape by means of additional strokes. In the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye account, the basic shapes iconically represent the articulations the tongue, palate, teeth, and throat take when making these sounds.
Simple | Aspirated | Tense | |
---|---|---|---|
velar | ㄱ | ㅋ | ㄲ |
fricatives | ㅅ | ㅆ | |
palatal | ㅈ | ㅊ | ㅉ |
coronal | ㄷ | ㅌ | ㄸ |
bilabial | ㅂ | ㅍ | ㅃ |
The Korean names for the groups are taken from Chinese phonetics:
- Velar consonants (아음, 牙音 a'eum "molar sounds")
- ㄱ g [k], ㅋ ḳ [kʰ]
- Basic shape: ㄱ is a side view of the back of the tongue raised toward the velum (soft palate). (For illustration, access the external link below.) ㅋ is derived from ㄱ with a stroke for the burst of aspiration.
- Sibilant consonants (fricative or palatal) (치음, 齒音 chieum "dental sounds"):
- ㅅ s [s], ㅈ j [tɕ], ㅊ ch [tɕʰ]
- Basic shape: ㅅ was originally shaped like a wedge ∧, without the serif on top. It represents a side view of the teeth.[citation needed] The line topping ㅈ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The stroke topping ㅊ represents an additional burst of aspiration.
- Coronal consonants (설음, 舌音 seoreum "lingual sounds"):
- ㄴ n [n], ㄷ d [t], ㅌ ṭ [tʰ], ㄹ r [ɾ, l]
- Basic shape: ㄴ is a side view of the tip of the tongue raised toward the alveolar ridge (gum ridge). The letters derived from ㄴ are pronounced with the same basic articulation. The line topping ㄷ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The middle stroke of ㅌ represents the burst of aspiration. The top of ㄹ represents a flap of the tongue.
- Bilabial consonants (순음, 唇音 suneum "labial sounds"):
- ㅁ m [m], ㅂ b [p], ㅍ p̣ [pʰ]
- Basic shape: ㅁ represents the outline of the lips in contact with each other. The top of ㅂ represents the release burst of the b. The top stroke of ㅍ is for the burst of aspiration.
- Dorsal consonants (후음, 喉音 hueum "throat sounds"):
- ㅇ '/ng [ʔ, ŋ], ㅎ h [h]
- Basic shape: ㅇ is an outline of the throat. Originally ㅇ was two letters, a simple circle for silence (null consonant), and a circle topped by a vertical line, ㆁ, for the nasal ng. A now obsolete letter, ㆆ, represented a glottal stop, which is pronounced in the throat and had closure represented by the top line, like ㄱㄷㅈ. Derived from ㆆ is ㅎ, in which the extra stroke represents a burst of aspiration.
Vowel design
Vowel letters are based on three elements:
- A horizontal line representing the flat Earth, the essence of yin.
- A point for the Sun in the heavens, the essence of yang. (This becomes a short stroke when written with a brush.)
- A vertical line for the upright Human, the neutral mediator between the Heaven and Earth.
Short strokes (dots in the earliest documents) were added to these three basic elements to derive the vowel letter:
Simple vowels
- Horizontal letters: these are mid-high back vowels.
- bright ㅗ o
- dark ㅜ u
- dark ㅡ eu (ŭ)
- Vertical letters: these were once low vowels.
- bright ㅏ a
- dark ㅓ eo (ŏ)
- bright ᆞ
- neutral ㅣ i
Compound vowels
The Korean alphabet does not have a letter for w sound. Since an o or u before an a or eo became a [w] sound, and [w] occurred nowhere else, [w] could always be analyzed as a phonemic o or u, and no letter for [w] was needed. However, vowel harmony is observed: "dark" ㅜ u with "dark" ㅓ eo for ㅝ wo; "bright" ㅗ o with "bright" ㅏ a for ㅘ wa:
- ㅘ wa = ㅗ o + ㅏ a
- ㅝ wo = ㅜ u + ㅓ eo
- ㅙ wae = ㅗ o + ㅐ ae
- ㅞ we = ㅜ u + ㅔ e
The compound vowels ending in ㅣ i were originally diphthongs. However, several have since evolved into pure vowels:
- ㅐ ae = ㅏ a + ㅣ i (pronounced [ɛ])
- ㅔ e = ㅓ eo + ㅣ i (pronounced [e])
- ㅙ wae = ㅘ wa + ㅣ i
- ㅚ oe = ㅗ o + ㅣ i (formerly pronounced [ø], see Korean phonology)
- ㅞ we = ㅝ wo + ㅣ i
- ㅟ wi = ㅜ u + ㅣ i (formerly pronounced [y], see Korean phonology)
- ㅢ ui = ㅡ eu + ㅣ i
Iotized vowels
There is no letter for y. Instead, this sound is indicated by doubling the stroke attached to the baseline of the vowel letter. Of the seven basic vowels, four could be preceded by a y sound, and these four were written as a dot next to a line. (Through the influence of Chinese calligraphy, the dots soon became connected to the line: ㅓㅏㅜㅗ.) A preceding y sound, called "iotization", was indicated by doubling this dot: ㅕㅑㅠㅛ yeo, ya, yu, yo. The three vowels that could not be iotized were written with a single stroke: ㅡㆍㅣ eu, (arae a), i.
Simple | Iotized |
---|---|
ㅏ | ㅑ |
ㅓ | ㅕ |
ㅗ | ㅛ |
ㅜ | ㅠ |
ㅡ | |
ㅣ |
The simple iotized vowels are:
- ㅑ ya from ㅏ a
- ㅕ yeo from ㅓ eo
- ㅛ yo from ㅗ o
- ㅠ yu from ㅜ u
There are also two iotized diphthongs:
- ㅒ yae from ㅐ ae
- ㅖ ye from ㅔ e
The Korean language of the 15th century had vowel harmony to a greater extent than it does today. Vowels in grammatical morphemes changed according to their environment, falling into groups that "harmonized" with each other. This affected the morphology of the language, and Korean phonology described it in terms of yin and yang: If a root word had yang ('bright') vowels, then most suffixes attached to it also had to have yang vowels; conversely, if the root had yin ('dark') vowels, the suffixes had to be yin as well. There was a third harmonic group called "mediating" ('neutral' in Western terminology) that could coexist with either yin or yang vowels.
The Korean neutral vowel was ㅣ i. The yin vowels were ㅡㅜㅓ eu, u, eo; the dots are in the yin directions of 'down' and 'left'. The yang vowels were ㆍㅗㅏ ə, o, a, with the dots in the yang directions of 'up' and 'right'. The Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye states that the shapes of the non-dotted letters ㅡㆍㅣ were chosen to represent the concepts of yin, yang, and mediation: Earth, Heaven, and Human. (The letter ㆍ ə is now obsolete except in the Jeju language.)
The third parameter in designing the vowel letters was choosing ㅡ as the graphic base of ㅜ and ㅗ, and ㅣ as the graphic base of ㅓ and ㅏ. A full understanding of what these horizontal and vertical groups had in common would require knowing the exact sound values these vowels had in the 15th century.
The uncertainty is primarily with the three letters ㆍㅓㅏ. Some linguists reconstruct these as *a, *ɤ, *e, respectively; others as *ə, *e, *a. A third reconstruction is to make them all middle vowels as *ʌ, *ɤ, *a.[50] With the third reconstruction, Middle Korean vowels actually line up in a vowel harmony pattern, albeit with only one front vowel and four middle vowels:
ㅣ *i | ㅡ *ɯ | ㅜ *u |
ㅓ *ɤ | ||
ㆍ *ʌ | ㅗ *o | |
ㅏ *a |
However, the horizontal letters ㅡㅜㅗ eu, u, o do all appear to have been mid to high back vowels, [*ɯ, *u, *o], and thus to have formed a coherent group phonetically in every reconstruction.
Traditional account
The traditionally accepted account[note 4][51] on the design of the letters is that the vowels are derived from various combinations of the following three components: ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ. Here, ㆍ symbolically stands for the (sun in) heaven, ㅡ stands for the (flat) earth, and ㅣ stands for an (upright) human. The original sequence of the Korean vowels, as stated in Hunminjeongeum, listed these three vowels first, followed by various combinations. Thus, the original order of the vowels was: ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ ㅗ ㅏ ㅜ ㅓ ㅛ ㅑ ㅠ ㅕ. Note that two positive vowels (ㅗ ㅏ) including one ㆍ are followed by two negative vowels including one ㆍ, then by two positive vowels each including two of ㆍ, and then by two negative vowels each including two of ㆍ.
The same theory provides the most simple explanation of the shapes of the consonants as an approximation of the shapes of the most representative organ needed to form that sound. The original order of the consonants in Hunminjeong'eum was: ㄱ ㅋ ㆁ ㄷ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅊ ㅅ ㆆ ㅎ ㅇ ㄹ ㅿ.
- ㄱ representing the /k/ sound geometrically describes its tongue back raised.
- ㅋ representing the /kʰ/ sound is derived from ㄱ by adding another stroke.
- ㆁ representing the /ŋ/ sound may have been derived from ㅇ by addition of a stroke.
- ㄷ representing the /t/ sound is derived from ㄴ by adding a stroke.
- ㅌ representing the /tʰ/ sound is derived from ㄷ by adding another stroke.
- ㄴ representing the /n/ sound geometrically describes a tongue making contact with an upper palate.
- ㅂ representing the /p/ sound is derived from ㅁ by adding a stroke.
- ㅍ representing the /pʰ/ sound is a variant of ㅂ by adding another stroke.
- ㅁ representing the /m/ sound geometrically describes a closed mouth.
- ㅈ representing the /tɕ/ sound is derived from ㅅ by adding a stroke.
- ㅊ representing the /tɕʰ/ sound is derived from ㅈ by adding another stroke.
- ㅅ representing the /s/ sound geometrically describes the sharp teeth.[citation needed]
- ㆆ representing the /ʔ/ sound is derived from ㅇ by adding a stroke.
- ㅎ representing the /h/ sound is derived from ㆆ by adding another stroke.
- ㅇ representing the absence of a consonant geometrically describes the throat.
- ㄹ representing the /ɾ/ and /l/ sounds geometrically describes the bending tongue.
- ㅿ representing a weak ㅅ sound describes the sharp teeth, but has a different origin than ㅅ[clarification needed] and is not derived from ㅅ by addition of a stroke.
Ledyard's theory of consonant design
Although the Hunminjeong'eum Haerye explains the design of the consonantal letters in terms of articulatory phonetics, as a purely innovative creation, several theories suggest which external sources may have inspired or influenced King Sejong's creation. Professor Gari Ledyard of Columbia University studied possible connections between Hangul and the Mongol 'Phags-pa script of the Yuan dynasty. He believed that the role of 'Phags-pa script in the creation of the Korean alphabet was quite limited:
It should be clear to any reader that in the total picture, that ['Phags-pa script's] role was quite limited ... Nothing would disturb me more, after this study is published, than to discover in a work on the history of writing a statement like the following: "According to recent investigations, the Korean alphabet was derived from the Mongol's phags-pa script."[52] An affine theory states that the consonants are derived from the shape of the speaker's lips and tongue during the pronunciation of the consonants (initially, at least), but this would appear somewhat to strain credulity.[53]
Ledyard posits that five of the Korean letters have shapes inspired by 'Phags-pa; a sixth basic letter, the null initial ㅇ, was invented by Sejong. The rest of the letters were derived internally from these six, essentially as described in the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. However, the five borrowed consonants were not the graphically simplest letters considered basic by the Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye, but instead the consonants basic to Chinese phonology: ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ, and ㄹ.[citation needed]
The Hunmin Jeong-eum states that King Sejong adapted the 古篆 (gojeon, "Gǔ Seal Script") in creating the Korean alphabet. The 古篆 has never been identified. The primary meaning of 古 gǔ is "old" ("Old Seal Script"), frustrating philologists because the Korean alphabet bears no functional similarity to Chinese 篆字 zhuànzì seal scripts. However, Ledyard believes 古 gǔ may be a pun on 蒙古 Měnggǔ "Mongol", and that 古篆 is an abbreviation of 蒙古篆字 "Mongol Seal Script", that is, the formal variant of the 'Phags-pa alphabet written to look like the Chinese seal script. There were 'Phags-pa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, including some in the seal-script form, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well. If this was the case, Sejong's evasion on the Mongol connection can be understood in light of Korea's relationship with Ming China after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and of the literati's contempt for the Mongols as "barbarians".[citation needed]
According to Ledyard, the five borrowed letters were graphically simplified, which allowed for consonant clusters and left room to add a stroke to derive the aspirate plosives, ㅋㅌㅍㅊ. But in contrast to the traditional account, the non-plosives (ㆁ ㄴ ㅁ ㅅ) were derived by removing the top of the basic letters. He points out that while it is easy to derive ㅁ from ㅂ by removing the top, it is not clear how to derive ㅂ from ㅁ in the traditional account, since the shape of ㅂ is not analogous to those of the other plosives.[citation needed]
The explanation of the letter ng also differs from the traditional account. Many Chinese words began with ng, but by King Sejong's day, initial ng was either silent or pronounced [ŋ] in China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean. Also, the expected shape of ng (the short vertical line left by removing the top stroke of ㄱ) would have looked almost identical to the vowel ㅣ [i]. Sejong's solution solved both problems: The vertical stroke left from ㄱ was added to the null symbol ㅇ to create ㆁ (a circle with a vertical line on top), iconically capturing both the pronunciation [ŋ] in the middle or end of a word, and the usual silence at the beginning. (The graphic distinction between null ㅇ and ng ㆁ was eventually lost.)
Another letter composed of two elements to represent two regional pronunciations was ㅱ, which transcribed the Chinese initial 微. This represented either m or w in various Chinese dialects, and was composed of ㅁ [m] plus ㅇ (from 'Phags-pa [w]). In 'Phags-pa, a loop under a letter represented w after vowels, and Ledyard hypothesized that this became the loop at the bottom of ㅱ. In 'Phags-pa the Chinese initial 微 is also transcribed as a compound with w, but in its case the w is placed under an h. Actually, the Chinese consonant series 微非敷 w, v, f is transcribed in 'Phags-pa by the addition of a w under three graphic variants of the letter for h, and the Korean alphabet parallels this convention by adding the w loop to the labial series ㅁㅂㅍ m, b, p, producing now-obsolete ㅱㅸㆄ w, v, f. (Phonetic values in Korean are uncertain, as these consonants were only used to transcribe Chinese.)
As a final piece of evidence, Ledyard notes that most of the borrowed Korean letters were simple geometric shapes, at least originally, but that ㄷ d [t] always had a small lip protruding from the upper left corner, just as the 'Phags-pa ꡊ d [t] did. This lip can be traced back to the Tibetan letter ད d.[citation needed]
Letras obsoletas
Numerous obsolete Korean letters and sequences are no longer used in Korean. Some of these letters were only ever used to represent the sounds of Chinese rime tables. Some of the Korean sounds represented by these obsolete letters still exist in some dialects.
13 obsolete consonants (IPA) | Soft consonants | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ᄛ | ㅱ | ㅸ | ᄼ | ᄾ | ㅿ | ㆁ | ㅇ | ᅎ | ᅐ | ᅔ | ᅕ | ㆄ | ㆆ | ||
/l/, /ɾ/, /rʷ/ | /ɱ/, /mʷ/ | /β/, /bʷ/ | /θ/ | /ɕ/ | South Korean: /z/ North Korean: /ɭ/ | initial position: /j/ final position: /ŋ/ | initial position only: /∅/ | /ts/ | /tɕ/ | /tsʰ/ | /tɕʰ/ | /ɸ/, /fʰ/, /pʷ/ | /ʔ/, /j/ | ||
Middle Chinese | lh | hm | v | th | x, sch, sz | South Korean: z/ z'/ zz North Korean: rr/ rd/ tt | initial position: ye/ ’eu final position: ng | initial position only: ō/ ou | z | j | c | q | fh/ ff | South Korean: '/ à North Korean: heu/ h'/ eu | |
Identified Chinese Character (Hanzi) | 微(미) /ɱ/ | 非(비) /f/ | 心(심) /s/ | 審(심) /ɕ/ | South Korean: 子 /z/ North Korean: 穰 /ɭ/ | final position: 業 /ŋ/ | initial position: 欲 /∅/ | 精(정) /ts/ | 照(조) /tɕ/ | 淸(청) /tsʰ/ | 穿(천) /tɕʰ/ | 敷(부) /fʰ/ | 挹(읍) /ʔ/ | ||
Toneme | falling | mid to falling | mid to falling | mid | mid to falling | dipping/ mid | mid | mid to falling | mid (aspirated) | high (aspirated) | mid to falling (aspirated) | high/ mid | |||
Position | Initial | ᄛᅠ | ᄝᅠ | ᄫᅠ | |||||||||||
Final | ᅟᅠퟝ | ᅟᅠᇢ | ᅟᅠᇦ | ||||||||||||
Remark | lenis Voiceless dental affricate/ Voiced dental affricate | lenis Voiceless retroflex affricate/ Voiced retroflex affricate | aspirated /ts/ | aspirated /tɕ/ | glottal stop | ||||||||||
Equivalents | Standard Chinese Pinyin: 子 z [tsɨ]; English: z in "zoo" or "zebra"; strong "zz" in English "zip" | identical to the initial position of ng in Cantonese | German pf | "읗" = "euh" in pronunciation |
10 obsolete double consonants (IPA) | Hard consonants | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ㅥ | ᄙ | ㅹ | ᄽ | ᄿ | ᅇ | ᇮ | ᅏ | ᅑ | ㆅ | |
/ɳ/ | /l̥/ | /pʰ/, /bʱ/ | /z/ | /ʑ/ | /ŋ̊ʷ/ or /ɣ/ | /ŋ̊/ | /dz/ | /dʑ/ | /ɦ/ or /ç/, /ɣ̈ʲ/, /ɣ̈/ | |
Middle Chinese | hn/ nn | hl/ ll | bh, bhh | sh | zh | hngw/ gh or gr | hng | dz, ds | dzh | hh or xh |
Identified Chinese Character (Hanzi) | 娘(낭) /ɳ/ | 郞(랑) /ɫ/ | 邪(사) /z/ | 禪(선) /ʑ/ | 從(종) /dz/ | 牀(상) /dʑ/ | 洪(홍) /ɦ/ | |||
Remark | aspirated | aspirated | unaspirated fortis Voiceless dental affricate | unaspirated fortis Voiceless retroflex affricate | guttural |
- 66 obsolete clusters of two consonants: ᇃ, ᄓ /ng/ ("ngh"; like English "think"), ㅦ /nd/ (like English "Monday"), ᄖ, ㅧ /ns/ ("ns" in English "pens", "Pennsylvania"), ㅨ, ᇉ /tʰ/ (similar to ㅌ; "nt" in the language Esperanto), ᄗ /dg/ (similar to ㄲ; equivalent to the word "밖" in Korean), ᇋ /dr/ (like English in "drive"), ᄘ /ɭ/ (similar to French "Belle"), ㅪ, ㅬ /lz/ (similar to English "lisp" but without the vowel), ᇘ, ㅭ /tɬ/ ("ll" or "tl", similar to Nahuatl "tl"), ᇚ /ṃ/ ("mh" or "mg", "mm" in English "hammer", Middle Korean: pronounced as "목 mog" with the ㄱ in the word almost silent), ᇛ, ㅮ, ㅯ (similar to ㅂ in Korean "없다"), ㅰ, ᇠ, ᇡ, ㅲ, ᄟ, ㅳ bd (assimilated later into ㄸ), ᇣ, ㅶ bj (assimilated later into ㅉ), ᄨ /bj/ (similar to "비추" in Korean verb "비추다" bit-chu-da but without the vowel), ㅷ, ᄪ, ᇥ /ph/ ("pha" similar to Korean word 돌입하지 dol ip-haji), ㅺ sk (assimilated later into ㄲ; English: "pick"), ㅻ sn (assimilated later into "nn" in English annal), ㅼ sd (initial position; assimilated later into ㄸ), ᄰ, ᄱ sm (assimilated later into "nm"), ㅽ sb (initial position; similar sound to ㅃ), ᄵ, ㅾ assimilated later into ㅉ), ᄷ, ᄸ, ᄹ /θ/, ᄺ/ɸ/, ᄻ, ᅁ, ᅂ /ð/, ᅃ, ᅄ /v/, ᅅ (assimilated later into ㅿ; English "z"), ᅆ, ᅈ, ᅉ, ᅊ, ᅋ, ᇬ, ᇭ, ㆂ, ㆃ, ᇯ, ᅍ, ᅒ, ᅓ, ᅖ, ᇵ, ᇶ, ᇷ, ᇸ
- 17 obsolete clusters of three consonants: ᇄ, ㅩ /rgs/ (similar to "rx" in English name "Marx"), ᇏ, ᇑ /lmg/ (similar to English "Pullman"), ᇒ, ㅫ, ᇔ, ᇕ, ᇖ, ᇞ, ㅴ, ㅵ, ᄤ, ᄥ, ᄦ, ᄳ, ᄴ
1 obsolete vowel (IPA) | Extremely soft vowel |
---|---|
ㆍ | |
/ʌ/ (also commonly found in the Jeju language: /ɒ/, closely similar to vowel:ㅓeo) | |
Letter name | 아래아 (arae-a) |
Remarks | formerly the base vowel ㅡ eu in the early development of hangeul when it was considered vowelless, later development into different base vowels for clarification; acts also as a marker that the consonant is pronounced on its own, e.g. s-va-ha → ᄉᆞᄫᅡ 하 |
Toneme | low |
- 44 obsolete diphthongs and vowel sequences: ᆜ (/j/ or /jɯ/ or /jɤ/, "yeu" or "ehyu"); closest similarity to ㅢ, when follow by ㄱ on initial position, pronunciation does not produce any difference: ᄀᆜ /gj/),ᆝ (/jɒ/; closest similarity to ㅛ,ㅑ, ㅠ, ㅕ, when follow by ㄱ on initial position, pronunciation does not produce any difference: ᄀᆝ /gj/), ᆢ(/j/; closest similarity to ㅢ, see former example inᆝ (/j/), ᅷ (/au̯/; Icelandic Á, "aw/ ow" in English "allow"), ᅸ (/jau̯/; "yao or -iao"; Chinese diphthong "iao"), ᅹ, ᅺ, ᅻ, ᅼ, ᅽ /ōu/ (紬 ㅊᅽ, "ch-ieou"; like Chinese: chōu), ᅾ, ᅿ, ᆀ, ᆁ, ᆂ (/w/, "wo" or "wh", "hw"), ᆃ /ow/ ("ow" in English "window"), ㆇ, ㆈ, ᆆ, ᆇ, ㆉ (/jø/; "yue"), ᆉ /wʌ/ or /oɐ/ (pronounced like "u'a", in English "suave"), ᆊ, ᆋ, ᆌ, ᆍ ("wu" in English "would"), ᆎ /juə/ or /yua/ (like Chinese: 元 yuán), ᆏ /ū/ (like Chinese: 軍 jūn), ᆐ, ㆊ /ué/ jujə (ɥe; like Chinese: 瘸 qué), ㆋ jujəj (ɥej; "iyye"), ᆓ, ㆌ /jü/ or /juj/ (/jy/ or ɥi; "yu.i"; like German: "Jürgen"), ᆕ, ᆖ (the same as ᆜ in pronunciation, since there is no distinction due to it extreme similarity in pronunciation), ᆗ ɰju ("ehyu" or "eyyu"; like English "news"), ᆘ, ᆙ /ià/ (like Chinese: 墊 diàn), ᆚ, ᆛ, ᆟ, ᆠ (/ʔu/), ㆎ (ʌj; "oi" or "oy", similar to English "toy")
In the original Korean alphabet system, double letters were used to represent Chinese voiced (濁音) consonants, which survive in the Shanghainese slack consonants and were not used for Korean words. It was only later that a similar convention was used to represent the modern "tense" (faucalized) consonants of Korean.
The sibilant ("dental") consonants were modified to represent the two series of Chinese sibilants, alveolar and retroflex, a "round" vs. "sharp" distinction (analogous to s vs sh) which was never made in Korean, and was even being lost from southern Chinese. The alveolar letters had longer left stems, while retroflexes had longer right stems:
5 Place of Articulation (오음, 五音) in Chinese Rime Table | Tenuis 전청 (全淸) | Aspirate 차청 (次淸) | Voiced 전탁 (全濁) | Sonorant 차탁 (次濁) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sibilants 치음 (齒音) | 치두음 (齒頭音) "tooth-head" | ᅎ 精(정) /ts/ | ᅔ 淸(청) /tsʰ/ | ᅏ 從(종) /dz/ | |
ᄼ 心(심) /s/ | ᄽ 邪(사) /z/ | ||||
정치음 (正齒音) "true front-tooth" | ᅐ 照(조) /tɕ/ | ᅕ 穿(천) /tɕʰ/ | ᅑ 牀(상) /dʑ/ | ||
ᄾ 審(심) /ɕ/ | ᄿ 禪(선) /ʑ/ | ||||
Coronals 설음 (舌音) | 설상음 (舌上音) "tongue up" | ᅐ 知(지) /ʈ/ | ᅕ 徹(철) /ʈʰ/ | ᅑ 澄(징) /ɖ/||ㄴ |
Most common
- ㆍ ə (in Modern Korean called arae-a 아래아 "lower a"): Presumably pronounced [ʌ], similar to modern ㅓ (eo). It is written as a dot, positioned beneath the consonant. The arae-a is not entirely obsolete, as it can be found in various brand names, and in the Jeju language, where it is pronounced [ɒ]. The ə formed a medial of its own, or was found in the diphthong ㆎ əy, written with the dot under the consonant and ㅣ (i) to its right, in the same fashion as ㅚ or ㅢ.
- ㅿ z (bansiot 반시옷 "half s", banchieum 반치음): An unusual sound, perhaps IPA [ʝ̃] (a nasalized palatal fricative). Modern Korean words previously spelled with ㅿ substitute ㅅ or ㅇ.
- ㆆ ʔ (yeorinhieut 여린히읗 "light hieut" or doenieung 된이응 "strong ieung"): A glottal stop, "lighter than ㅎ and harsher than ㅇ".
- ㆁ ŋ (yedieung 옛이응) “old ieung” : The original letter for [ŋ]; now conflated with ㅇ ieung. (With some computer fonts such as Arial Unicode MS, yesieung is shown as a flattened version of ieung, but the correct form is with a long peak, longer than what one would see on a serif version of ieung.)
- ㅸ β (gabyeounbieup 가벼운비읍, sungyeongeumbieup 순경음비읍): IPA [f]. This letter appears to be a digraph of bieup and ieung, but it may be more complicated than that. There were three other, less-common letters for sounds in this section of the Chinese rime tables, ㅱ w ([w] or [m]), a theoretical ㆄ f, and ㅹ ff [v̤]; the bottom element appears to be only coincidentally similar to ieung. Whatever its exact shape, it operates somewhat like a following h in the Latin alphabet (one may think of these letters as bh, mh, ph, and pph respectively). Koreans do not distinguish these sounds now, if they ever did, conflating the fricatives with the corresponding plosives.
Cartas restauradas
To make the Korean alphabet a better morphophonological fit to the Korean language, North Korea introduced six new letters, which were published in the New Orthography for the Korean Language and used officially from 1948 to 1954.
Two obsolete letters were restored: ⟨ㅿ⟩ (리읃), which was used to indicate an alternation in pronunciation between initial /l/ and final /d/; and ⟨ㆆ⟩ (히으), which was only pronounced between vowels. Two modifications of the letter ㄹ were introduced, one for a ㄹ, which is silent finally, and one for a ㄹ, which doubled between vowels. A hybrid ㅂ-ㅜ letter was introduced for words that alternated between those two sounds (that is, a /b/, which became /w/ before a vowel). Finally, a vowel ⟨1⟩ was introduced for variable iotation.
Unicode
Hangul Jamo (U+1100
–U+11FF
) and Hangul Compatibility Jamo (U+3130
–U+318F
) blocks were added to the Unicode Standard in June 1993 with the release of version 1.1. A separate Hangul Syllables block (not shown below due to its length) contains pre-composed syllable block characters, which were first added at the same time, although they were relocated to their present locations in July 1996 with the release of version 2.0.[54]
Hangul Jamo Extended-A (U+A960
–U+A97F
) and Hangul Jamo Extended-B (U+D7B0
–U+D7FF
) blocks were added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009 with the release of version 5.2.
Hangul Jamo[1] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+110x | ᄀ | ᄁ | ᄂ | ᄃ | ᄄ | ᄅ | ᄆ | ᄇ | ᄈ | ᄉ | ᄊ | ᄋ | ᄌ | ᄍ | ᄎ | ᄏ |
U+111x | ᄐ | ᄑ | ᄒ | ᄓ | ᄔ | ᄕ | ᄖ | ᄗ | ᄘ | ᄙ | ᄚ | ᄛ | ᄜ | ᄝ | ᄞ | ᄟ |
U+112x | ᄠ | ᄡ | ᄢ | ᄣ | ᄤ | ᄥ | ᄦ | ᄧ | ᄨ | ᄩ | ᄪ | ᄫ | ᄬ | ᄭ | ᄮ | ᄯ |
U+113x | ᄰ | ᄱ | ᄲ | ᄳ | ᄴ | ᄵ | ᄶ | ᄷ | ᄸ | ᄹ | ᄺ | ᄻ | ᄼ | ᄽ | ᄾ | ᄿ |
U+114x | ᅀ | ᅁ | ᅂ | ᅃ | ᅄ | ᅅ | ᅆ | ᅇ | ᅈ | ᅉ | ᅊ | ᅋ | ᅌ | ᅍ | ᅎ | ᅏ |
U+115x | ᅐ | ᅑ | ᅒ | ᅓ | ᅔ | ᅕ | ᅖ | ᅗ | ᅘ | ᅙ | ᅚ | ᅛ | ᅜ | ᅝ | ᅞ | HC F |
U+116x | HJ F | ᅡ | ᅢ | ᅣ | ᅤ | ᅥ | ᅦ | ᅧ | ᅨ | ᅩ | ᅪ | ᅫ | ᅬ | ᅭ | ᅮ | ᅯ |
U+117x | ᅰ | ᅱ | ᅲ | ᅳ | ᅴ | ᅵ | ᅶ | ᅷ | ᅸ | ᅹ | ᅺ | ᅻ | ᅼ | ᅽ | ᅾ | ᅿ |
U+118x | ᆀ | ᆁ | ᆂ | ᆃ | ᆄ | ᆅ | ᆆ | ᆇ | ᆈ | ᆉ | ᆊ | ᆋ | ᆌ | ᆍ | ᆎ | ᆏ |
U+119x | ᆐ | ᆑ | ᆒ | ᆓ | ᆔ | ᆕ | ᆖ | ᆗ | ᆘ | ᆙ | ᆚ | ᆛ | ᆜ | ᆝ | ᆞ | ᆟ |
U+11Ax | ᆠ | ᆡ | ᆢ | ᆣ | ᆤ | ᆥ | ᆦ | ᆧ | ᆨ | ᆩ | ᆪ | ᆫ | ᆬ | ᆭ | ᆮ | ᆯ |
U+11Bx | ᆰ | ᆱ | ᆲ | ᆳ | ᆴ | ᆵ | ᆶ | ᆷ | ᆸ | ᆹ | ᆺ | ᆻ | ᆼ | ᆽ | ᆾ | ᆿ |
U+11Cx | ᇀ | ᇁ | ᇂ | ᇃ | ᇄ | ᇅ | ᇆ | ᇇ | ᇈ | ᇉ | ᇊ | ᇋ | ᇌ | ᇍ | ᇎ | ᇏ |
U+11Dx | ᇐ | ᇑ | ᇒ | ᇓ | ᇔ | ᇕ | ᇖ | ᇗ | ᇘ | ᇙ | ᇚ | ᇛ | ᇜ | ᇝ | ᇞ | ᇟ |
U+11Ex | ᇠ | ᇡ | ᇢ | ᇣ | ᇤ | ᇥ | ᇦ | ᇧ | ᇨ | ᇩ | ᇪ | ᇫ | ᇬ | ᇭ | ᇮ | ᇯ |
U+11Fx | ᇰ | ᇱ | ᇲ | ᇳ | ᇴ | ᇵ | ᇶ | ᇷ | ᇸ | ᇹ | ᇺ | ᇻ | ᇼ | ᇽ | ᇾ | ᇿ |
Notes
|
Hangul Jamo Extended-A[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+A96x | ꥠ | ꥡ | ꥢ | ꥣ | ꥤ | ꥥ | ꥦ | ꥧ | ꥨ | ꥩ | ꥪ | ꥫ | ꥬ | ꥭ | ꥮ | ꥯ |
U+A97x | ꥰ | ꥱ | ꥲ | ꥳ | ꥴ | ꥵ | ꥶ | ꥷ | ꥸ | ꥹ | ꥺ | ꥻ | ꥼ | |||
Notes
|
Hangul Jamo Extended-B[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+D7Bx | ힰ | ힱ | ힲ | ힳ | ힴ | ힵ | ힶ | ힷ | ힸ | ힹ | ힺ | ힻ | ힼ | ힽ | ힾ | ힿ |
U+D7Cx | ퟀ | ퟁ | ퟂ | ퟃ | ퟄ | ퟅ | ퟆ | ퟋ | ퟌ | ퟍ | ퟎ | ퟏ | ||||
U+D7Dx | ퟐ | ퟑ | ퟒ | ퟓ | ퟔ | ퟕ | ퟖ | ퟗ | ퟘ | ퟙ | ퟚ | ퟛ | ퟜ | ퟝ | ퟞ | ퟟ |
U+D7Ex | ퟠ | ퟡ | ퟢ | ퟣ | ퟤ | ퟥ | ퟦ | ퟧ | ퟨ | ퟩ | ퟪ | ퟫ | ퟬ | ퟭ | ퟮ | ퟯ |
U+D7Fx | ퟰ | ퟱ | ퟲ | ퟳ | ퟴ | ퟵ | ퟶ | ퟷ | ퟸ | ퟹ | ퟺ | ퟻ | ||||
Notes
|
Hangul Compatibility Jamo[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+313x | ㄱ | ㄲ | ㄳ | ㄴ | ㄵ | ㄶ | ㄷ | ㄸ | ㄹ | ㄺ | ㄻ | ㄼ | ㄽ | ㄾ | ㄿ | |
U+314x | ㅀ | ㅁ | ㅂ | ㅃ | ㅄ | ㅅ | ㅆ | ㅇ | ㅈ | ㅉ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅌ | ㅍ | ㅎ | ㅏ |
U+315x | ㅐ | ㅑ | ㅒ | ㅓ | ㅔ | ㅕ | ㅖ | ㅗ | ㅘ | ㅙ | ㅚ | ㅛ | ㅜ | ㅝ | ㅞ | ㅟ |
U+316x | ㅠ | ㅡ | ㅢ | ㅣ | HF | ㅥ | ㅦ | ㅧ | ㅨ | ㅩ | ㅪ | ㅫ | ㅬ | ㅭ | ㅮ | ㅯ |
U+317x | ㅰ | ㅱ | ㅲ | ㅳ | ㅴ | ㅵ | ㅶ | ㅷ | ㅸ | ㅹ | ㅺ | ㅻ | ㅼ | ㅽ | ㅾ | ㅿ |
U+318x | ㆀ | ㆁ | ㆂ | ㆃ | ㆄ | ㆅ | ㆆ | ㆇ | ㆈ | ㆉ | ㆊ | ㆋ | ㆌ | ㆍ | ㆎ | |
Notes
|
Parenthesised (U+3200
–U+321E
) and circled (U+3260
–U+327E
) Hangul compatibility characters are in the Enclosed CJK Letters and Months block:
Hangul subset of Enclosed CJK Letters and Months[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+320x | ㈀ | ㈁ | ㈂ | ㈃ | ㈄ | ㈅ | ㈆ | ㈇ | ㈈ | ㈉ | ㈊ | ㈋ | ㈌ | ㈍ | ㈎ | ㈏ |
U+321x | ㈐ | ㈑ | ㈒ | ㈓ | ㈔ | ㈕ | ㈖ | ㈗ | ㈘ | ㈙ | ㈚ | ㈛ | ㈜ | ㈝ | ㈞ | |
... | (U+3220–U+325F omitted) | |||||||||||||||
U+326x | ㉠ | ㉡ | ㉢ | ㉣ | ㉤ | ㉥ | ㉦ | ㉧ | ㉨ | ㉩ | ㉪ | ㉫ | ㉬ | ㉭ | ㉮ | ㉯ |
U+327x | ㉰ | ㉱ | ㉲ | ㉳ | ㉴ | ㉵ | ㉶ | ㉷ | ㉸ | ㉹ | ㉺ | ㉻ | ㉼ | ㉽ | ㉾ | |
... | (U+3280–U+32FF omitted) | |||||||||||||||
Notes
|
Half-width Hangul compatibility characters (U+FFA0
–U+FFDC
) are in the Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms block:
Hangul subset of Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
... | (U+FF00–U+FF9F omitted) | |||||||||||||||
U+FFAx | HW HF | ᄀ | ᄁ | ᆪ | ᄂ | ᆬ | ᆭ | ᄃ | ᄄ | ᄅ | ᆰ | ᆱ | ᆲ | ᆳ | ᆴ | ᆵ |
U+FFBx | ᄚ | ᄆ | ᄇ | ᄈ | ᄡ | ᄉ | ᄊ | ᄋ | ᄌ | ᄍ | ᄎ | ᄏ | ᄐ | ᄑ | ᄒ | |
U+FFCx | ᅡ | ᅢ | ᅣ | ᅤ | ᅥ | ᅦ | ᅧ | ᅨ | ᅩ | ᅪ | ᅫ | ᅬ | ||||
U+FFDx | ᅭ | ᅮ | ᅯ | ᅰ | ᅱ | ᅲ | ᅳ | ᅴ | ᅵ | |||||||
... | (U+FFE0–U+FFEF omitted) | |||||||||||||||
Notes
|
The Korean alphabet in other Unicode blocks:
- Tone marks for Middle Korean[55][56][57] are in the CJK Symbols and Punctuation block: 〮 (
U+302E
), 〯 (U+302F
) - 11,172 precomposed syllables in the Korean alphabet make up the Hangul Syllables block (
U+AC00
–U+D7A3
)
Bloques morfo-silábicos
Except for a few grammatical morphemes prior to the twentieth century, no letter stands alone to represent elements of the Korean language. Instead, letters are grouped into syllabic or morphemic blocks of at least two and often three: a consonant or a doubled consonant called the initial (초성, 初聲 choseong syllable onset), a vowel or diphthong called the medial (중성, 中聲 jungseong syllable nucleus), and, optionally, a consonant or consonant cluster at the end of the syllable, called the final (종성, 終聲 jongseong syllable coda). When a syllable has no actual initial consonant, the null initial ㅇ ieung is used as a placeholder. (In the modern Korean alphabet, placeholders are not used for the final position.) Thus, a block contains a minimum of two letters, an initial and a medial. Although the Korean alphabet had historically been organized into syllables, in the modern orthography it is first organized into morphemes, and only secondarily into syllables within those morphemes, with the exception that single-consonant morphemes may not be written alone.
The sets of initial and final consonants are not the same. For instance, ㅇ ng only occurs in final position, while the doubled letters that can occur in final position are limited to ㅆ ss and ㄲ kk.
Not including obsolete letters, 11,172 blocks are possible in the Korean alphabet.[58]
Letter placement within a block
The placement or "stacking" of letters in the block follows set patterns based on the shape of the medial.
Consonant and vowel sequences such as ㅄ bs, ㅝ wo, or obsolete ㅵ bsd, ㆋ üye are written left to right.
Vowels (medials) are written under the initial consonant, to the right, or wrap around the initial from bottom to right, depending on their shape: If the vowel has a horizontal axis like ㅡ eu, then it is written under the initial; if it has a vertical axis like ㅣ i, then it is written to the right of the initial; and if it combines both orientations, like ㅢ ui, then it wraps around the initial from the bottom to the right:
|
|
|
A final consonant, if present, is always written at the bottom, under the vowel. This is called 받침 batchim "supporting floor":
|
|
|
A complex final is written left to right:
|
|
|
Blocks are always written in phonetic order, initial-medial-final. Therefore:
- Syllables with a horizontal medial are written downward: 읍 eup;
- Syllables with a vertical medial and simple final are written clockwise: 쌍 ssang;
- Syllables with a wrapping medial switch direction (down-right-down): 된 doen;
- Syllables with a complex final are written left to right at the bottom: 밟 balp.
Block shape
Normally the resulting block is written within a square of the same size and shape as a Hanja (Chinese character) by compressing or stretching the letters to fill the bounds of the block, so someone not familiar with the scripts may mistake the Korean alphabet for Hanja or Chinese.
However, some recent fonts (for example Eun,[59] HY깊은샘물M, UnJamo) move towards the European practice of letters whose relative size is fixed, and use whitespace to fill letter positions not used in a particular block, and away from the East Asian tradition of square block characters (方块字). They break one or more of the traditional rules:
- Do not stretch initial consonant vertically, but leave white space below if no lower vowel and/or no final consonant.
- Do not stretch right-hand vowel vertically, but leave white space below if no final consonant. (Often the right-hand vowel extends farther down than the left-hand consonant, like a descender in European typography).
- Do not stretch final consonant horizontally, but leave white space to its left.
- Do not stretch or pad each block to a fixed width, but allow kerning (variable width) where syllable blocks with no right-hand vowel and no double final consonant can be narrower than blocks that do have a right-hand vowel or double final consonant.
These fonts have been used as design accents on signs or headings, rather than for typesetting large volumes of body text.
Linear Korean
There was a minor and unsuccessful movement in the early twentieth century to abolish syllabic blocks and write the letters individually and in a row, in the fashion of writing Latin alphabet as in English and other European languages, instead of the standard convention of 모아쓰기 (moa-sseugi 'assembled writing'). For example, ㅎㅏㄴㄱㅡㄹ would be written for 한글 (Hangeul).[60] It is called 풀어쓰기 (pureo-sseugi 'unassembled writing').
Avant-garde typographer Ahn Sangsu made a font for the "Hangul Dada" exposition that exploded the syllable blocks; but while it strings out the letters horizontally, it retains the distinctive vertical position each letter would normally have within a block, unlike the older linear writing proposals.[61]
Ortografía
Until the 20th century, no official orthography of the Korean alphabet had been established. Due to liaison, heavy consonant assimilation, dialectal variants and other reasons, a Korean word can potentially be spelled in multiple ways. Sejong seemed to prefer morphophonemic spelling (representing the underlying root forms) rather than a phonemic one (representing the actual sounds). However, early in its history the Korean alphabet was dominated by phonemic spelling. Over the centuries the orthography became partially morphophonemic, first in nouns and later in verbs. The modern Korean alphabet is as morphophonemic as is practical. The difference between phonetic Romanization, phonemic orthography and morphophonemic orthography can be illustrated with the phrase motaneun sarami:
- Phonetic transcription and translation:
motaneun sarami
[mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.ɾa.mi]
a person who cannot do it - Phonemic transcription:
모타는사라미
/mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.la.mi/ - Morphophonemic transcription:
못하는사람이
|mot-ha-nɯn-sa.lam-i| - Morpheme-by-morpheme gloss:
못–하–는 사람=이 mot-ha-neun saram=i cannot-do-[attributive] person=[subject]
After the Gabo Reform in 1894, the Joseon Dynasty and later the Korean Empire started to write all official documents in the Korean alphabet. Under the government's management, proper usage of the Korean alphabet and Hanja, including orthography, was discussed, until the Korean Empire was annexed by Japan in 1910.
The Government-General of Korea popularised a writing style that mixed Hanja and the Korean alphabet, and was used in the later Joseon dynasty. The government revised the spelling rules in 1912, 1921 and 1930, to be relatively phonemic.[citation needed]
The Hangul Society, founded by Ju Si-gyeong, announced a proposal for a new, strongly morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in both North and South Korea. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for orthography of the Korean alphabet is called Hangeul Matchumbeop, whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education.
Mixed scripts
Since the Late Joseon dynasty period, various Hanja-Hangul mixed systems were used. In these systems, Hanja were used for lexical roots, and the Korean alphabet for grammatical words and inflections, much as kanji and kana are used in Japanese. Hanja have been almost entirely phased out of daily use in North Korea, and in South Korea they are mostly restricted to parenthetical glosses for proper names and for disambiguating homonyms.
Indo-Arabic numerals are mixed in with the Korean alphabet, e.g. 2007년 3월 22일 (22 March 2007).
Latin script and occasionally other scripts may be sprinkled within Korean texts for illustrative purposes, or for unassimilated loanwords. Very occasionally non-Hangul letters may be mixed into Korean syllabic blocks, as Gㅏ Ga at right.
Legibilidad
Because of syllable clustering, words are shorter on the page than their linear counterparts would be, and the boundaries between syllables are easily visible (which may aid reading, if segmenting words into syllables is more natural for the reader than dividing them into phonemes).[62] Because the component parts of the syllable are relatively simple phonemic characters, the number of strokes per character on average is lower than in Chinese characters. Unlike syllabaries, such as Japanese kana, or Chinese logographs, none of which encode the constituent phonemes within a syllable, the graphic complexity of Korean syllabic blocks varies in direct proportion with the phonemic complexity of the syllable.[63] Like Japanese kana or Chinese characters, and unlike linear alphabets such as those derived from Latin, Korean orthography allows the reader to "utilize both the horizontal and vertical visual fields".[64] Since Korean syllables are represented both as collections of phonemes and as unique-looking graphs, they may allow for both visual and aural retrieval of words from the lexicon. Similar syllabic blocks, when written in small size, can be hard to distinguish from, and therefore sometimes confused with, each other. Examples include 홋/훗/흣 (hot/hut/heut), 퀼/퀄 (kwil/kwol), 홍/흥 (hong/heung), and 핥/핣/핢 (halt/halp/halm).
Estilo
The Korean alphabet may be written either vertically or horizontally. The traditional direction is from top to bottom, right to left. Horizontal writing in the style of the Latin script was promoted by Ju Si-gyeong, and has become overwhelmingly prevalent.
In Hunmin Jeongeum, the Korean alphabet was printed in sans-serif angular lines of even thickness. This style is found in books published before about 1900, and can be found in stone carvings (on statues, for example).
Over the centuries, an ink-brush style of calligraphy developed, employing the same style of lines and angles as traditional Korean calligraphy. This brush style is called gungche (궁체, 宮體), which means "Palace Style" because the style was mostly developed and used by the maidservants (gungnyeo, 궁녀, 宮女) of the court in Joseon dynasty.
Modern styles that are more suited for printed media were developed in the 20th century. In 1993, new names for both Myeongjo (明朝) and Gothic styles were introduced when Ministry of Culture initiated an effort to standardize typographic terms, and the names Batang (바탕, meaning "background") and Dotum (돋움, meaning "stand out") replaced Myeongjo and Gothic respectively. These names are also used in Microsoft Windows.
A sans-serif style with lines of equal width is popular with pencil and pen writing and is often the default typeface of Web browsers. A minor advantage of this style is that it makes it easier to distinguish -eung from -ung even in small or untidy print, as the jongseong ieung (ㅇ) of such fonts usually lacks a serif that could be mistaken for the short vertical line of the letter ㅜ (u).
Ver también
- Hangul consonant and vowel tables
- Hangul orthography
- Hangul Scientific Supremacy
- Korean braille
- Korean language and computers
- Korean manual alphabet
- Korean mixed script
- Korean phonology
- Korean spelling alphabet
- Myongjo
- Romanization of Korean
- McCune–Reischauer
- Revised Romanization of Korean
- Yale romanization of Korean
- Cyrillization of Korean (Kontsevich System)
Notas
- ^ /ˈhɑːnɡuːl/ HAHN-gool;[1] from Korean 한글, Korean pronunciation: [ha(ː)n.ɡɯl].
Hangul may also be written as Hangeul following South Korea's standard Romanization. - ^ or not written
- ^ In Revised Romanization, ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ are typically romanized simply as k, t, p, without a bottom dot.
- ^ The explanation of the origin of the shapes of the letters is provided within a section of Hunminjeongeum itself, 훈민정음 해례본 제자해 (Hunminjeongeum Haeryebon Jajahae or Hunminjeongeum, Chapter: Paraphrases and Examples, Section: Making of Letters), which states: 牙音ㄱ 象舌根閉喉之形. (아음(어금니 소리) ㄱ은 혀뿌리가 목구멍을 막는 모양을 본뜨고), 舌音ㄴ 象舌附上腭之形 ( 설음(혓 소리) ㄴ은 혀(끝)가 윗 잇몸에 붙는 모양을 본뜨고), 脣音ㅁ 象口形. ( 순음(입술소리) ㅁ은 입모양을 본뜨고), 齒音ㅅ 象齒形. ( 치음(잇 소리) ㅅ은 이빨 모양을 본뜨고) 象齒形. 喉音ㅇ. 象喉形 (목구멍 소리ㅇ은 목구멍의 꼴을 본뜬 것이다). ㅋ比ㄱ. 聲出稍 . 故加 . ㄴ而ㄷ. ㄷ而ㅌ. ㅁ而ㅂ. ㅂ而ㅍ. ㅅ而ㅈ. ㅈ而ㅊ. ㅇ而ㅡ. ㅡ而ㅎ. 其因聲加 之義皆同. 而唯 爲異 (ㅋ은ㄱ에 견주어 소리 남이 조금 세므로 획을 더한 것이고, ㄴ에서 ㄷ으로, ㄷ에서 ㅌ으로 함과, ㅁ에서 ㅂ으로 ㅂ에서 ㅍ으로 함과, ㅅ에서 ㅈ으로 ㅈ에서 ㅊ으로 함과, ㅇ에서 ㅡ으로 ㅡ에서 ㅎ으로 함도, 그 소리를 따라 획을 더한 뜻이 같다 . 오직 ㅇ자는 다르다.) 半舌音ㄹ. 半齒音. 亦象舌齒之形而異其體. (반혓소리ㄹ과, 반잇소리 '세모자'는 또한 혀와 이의 꼴을 본뜨되, 그 본을 달리하여 획을 더하는 뜻이 없다.) ...
Referencias
Citations
- ^ "Hangul". Dictionary by Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
- ^ "알고 싶은 한글". 국립국어원. National Institute of Korean Language. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
- ^ a b Kim-Renaud 1997, p. 15
- ^ Sampson, Geoffrey (1990). Writing Systems. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4.
- ^ a b Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? a logography?". Processing of Visible Language. pp. 67–82. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-1068-6_5. ISBN 978-1-4684-1070-9.
- ^ a b "How was Hangul invented?". The Economist. 8 October 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
- ^ Cock, Joe (28 June 2016). "A linguist explains why Korean is the best written language". Business Insider. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
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- ^ Kim, Taemin (2019). 한글-Teaching Sounds. Lulu, Inc. ISBN 978-0-3597-0444-6.
- ^ a b "Hunminjeongeum Manuscript". Korean Cultural Heritage Administration. 2006. Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
- ^ "Individual Letters of Hangeul and its Principles". National Institute of Korean Language. 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
- ^ Pae, Hye K. (1 January 2011). "Is Korean a syllabic alphabet or an alphabetic syllabary". Writing Systems Research. 3 (2): 103–115. doi:10.1093/wsr/wsr002. ISSN 1758-6801. S2CID 144290565.
- ^ Dong Zhongsi (董忠司), 「台灣閩南語槪論」講授資料彙編, Taiwan Languages and Literature Society
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- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 12 August 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link), p. 52
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- ^ Kim-Renaud 1997, p. 2
- ^ a b c "Different Names for Hangeul". National Institute of Korean Language. 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
- ^ Hannas, Wm C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780824818920. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
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They later devised three different systems for writing Korean with Chinese characters: Hyangchal, Gukyeol and Idu. These systems were similar to those developed later in Japan and were probably used as models by the Japanese.
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(help) - ^ "Korea Now". Korea Herald. 29. 1 July 2000. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
- ^ a b c "The Background of the invention of Hangeul". National Institute of Korean Language. The National Academy of the Korean Language. 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
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- ^ "Want to know about Hangeul?". National Institute of Korean Language. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
- ^ Hunmin Jeongeum Haerye, postface of Jeong Inji, p. 27a, translation from Gari K. Ledyard, The Korean Language Reform of 1446, p. 258
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- ^ a b "4. The providing process of Hangeul". The National Academy of the Korean Language. January 2004. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
- ^ "Jeongeumcheong, synonymous with Eonmuncheong (정음청 正音廳, 동의어: 언문청)" (in Korean). Nate / Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
- ^ "Korea Britannica article" (in Korean). Enc.daum.net. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
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- ^ Klaproth, pp. 1-168., p. 1, at Google Books
- ^ Silva, David J. (2008). "Missionary Contributions toward the Revaluation of Han'geul in Late 19th Century Korea". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2008 (192): 57–74. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.527.8160. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2008.035. S2CID 43569773.
- ^ "Korean History". Korea.assembly.go.kr. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ Park, Jung Hwan. 한글, 고종황제 드높이고 주시경 지켜내다 [Hangul, raise the status of Emperor Gojong and protect Ju Si-geong]. news1 (in Korean). Retrieved 29 September 2019.
- ^ "Hangul 한글". The modern and contemporary history of Hangul (한글의 근·현대사) (in Korean). Daum / Britannica. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
1937년 7월 중일전쟁을 도발한 일본은 한민족 말살정책을 노골적으로 드러내, 1938년 4월에는 조선어과 폐지와 조선어 금지 및 일본어 상용을 강요했다.
- ^ "Under the Media". Lcweb2.loc.gov. 22 March 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ "Linguistics Scholar Seeks to Globalize Korean Alphabet". Korea Times. 15 October 2008.
- ^ "Hangeul didn't become Cia Cia's official writing". Korea Times. 6 October 2010.
- ^ Indonesian tribe to use Korean alphabet Archived August 12, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Si-soo, Park (6 August 2009). "Indonesian Tribe Picks Hangeul as Writing System". Korea Times.
- ^ Kurt Achin (29 January 2010). "Indonesian Tribe Learns to Write with Korean Alphabet". Voice of America.
- ^ "Gov't to correct textbook on Cia Cia". Korea Times. 18 October 2012.
- ^ a b c d e Kim-Renaud, Young-Key. (2009). Korean : an essential grammar. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-38513-8. OCLC 245598979.
- ^ a b Shin, Jiyoung (15 June 2015). "Vowels and Consonants". In Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.). The Handbook of Korean Linguistics: Brown/The Handbook of Korean Linguistics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/9781118371008. ISBN 978-1-118-37100-8.
- ^ "국립국어원(The National Institute of the Korean Language)". ko: 국립국어원, (The National Institute of the Korean Language). 28 March 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2021. Check
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value (help) - ^ Kim-Renaud, Young-Key (2012). Tranter, Nicolas (ed.). The Languages of Japan and Korea. Oxon, UK: Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 9780415462877.
- ^ The Japanese/Korean Vowel Correspondences by Bjarke Frellesvig and John Whitman. Section 3 deals with Middle Korean vowels.
- ^ Korean orthography rules Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine[unreliable source?]
- ^ The Korean language reform of 1446: the origin, background, and Early History of the Korean Alphabet, Gari Keith Ledyard. University of California, 1966, p. 367–368.
- ^ Peter T. Daniels and William Bright, The World's Writing Systems (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 219-220
- ^ Yergeau, F. (1998). "3. Versions of the standards". UTF-8, a transformation format of ISO 10646. doi:10.17487/rfc2279. RFC 2279.
- ^ Ho-Min Sohn (29 March 2001). The Korean Language. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-0-521-36943-5.
- ^ Iksop Lee; S. Robert Ramsey (2000). The Korean Language. SUNY Press. pp. 315–. ISBN 978-0-7914-4832-8.
- ^ Ki-Moon Lee; S. Robert Ramsey (3 March 2011). A History of the Korean Language. Cambridge University Press. pp. 168–. ISBN 978-1-139-49448-9.
- ^ Park, ChangHo (2009). Lee, Chungmin; Simpson, Greg B; Kim, Youngjin; Li, Ping (eds.). "Visual processing of Hangul, the Korean script". The Handbook of East Asian Psycholinguistics. III: 379–389. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511596865.030. ISBN 9780511596865 – via Google Books.
- ^ Welch, Craig. "Korean Unicode Fonts". www.wazu.jp.
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- ^ Taylor 1980, p. 70 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFTaylor1980 (help)
Sources
- Chang, Suk-jin (1996). "Scripts and Sounds". Korean. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-55619-728-4. (Volume 4 of the London Oriental and African Language Library).
- Hannas, William C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0.
- Kim-Renaud, Young-Key, ed. (1997). The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure. University of Hawai`i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1723-7.
- Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, Samuel Robert (2000). The Korean Language. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-9130-0.
- "Hangeul Matchumbeop". The Ministry of Education of South Korea. 1988.
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- Silva, David J. (2002). "Western attitudes toward the Korean language: An Overview of Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Mission Literature" (PDF). Korean Studies. 26 (2): 270–286. doi:10.1353/ks.2004.0013. hdl:10106/11257. S2CID 55677193.
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- Taylor, Insup (1980). "The Korean writing system: An alphabet? A syllabary? A logography?". In Kolers, P.A.; Wrolstad, M. E.; Bouma, Herman (eds.). Processing of Visual Language. 2. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 978-0306405761. OCLC 7099393.
enlaces externos
- Korean alphabet and pronunciation by Omniglot
- Online Hangul tutorial at Langintro.com
- Hangul table with Audio Slideshow
- Technical information on Hangul and Unicode
- Hangul Sound Keyboard at Kmaru.com
- Learn Hangul at Korean Wiki Project