Ejército de los Estados Confederados

Southern army in American Civil War

Ejército de los Estados Confederados
Bandera de batalla del ejército de Virginia del Norte
Activo	1861–1865
Disuelto	26 de mayo de 1865 (1865-05-26)
País	Estados Confederados
Tipo	Ejército
Tamaño	1,082,119 en total que sirvieron [1] 464,646 pico en 1863
Parte de	Departamento de Guerra CS
Colores	Gris cadete [2]
marcha	" Dixie "
Compromisos	Guerras indias americanas Cortina perturba la guerra civil americana
Comandantes
Comandante en jefe	Jefferson Davis  ( prisionero de guerra )
General en Jefe	Robert E. Lee

El Ejército de los Estados Confederados , también llamado Ejército Confederado o simplemente Ejército del Sur , fue la fuerza terrestre militar de los Estados Confederados de América (comúnmente conocida como Confederación) durante la Guerra Civil Estadounidense (1861-1865), luchando contra los Estados Unidos. Fuerzas estatales para mantener la institución de la esclavitud en los estados del sur. ^[3] El 28 de febrero de 1861, el Congreso Confederado Provisional estableció un ejército voluntario provisional y le dio el control sobre las operaciones militares y la autoridad para reunir fuerzas estatales y voluntarios al presidente confederado recién elegido., Jefferson Davis . Davis se graduó de la Academia Militar de los Estados Unidos y coronel de un regimiento de voluntarios durante la guerra entre México y Estados Unidos . También había sido senador de los Estados Unidos por Mississippi y secretario de Guerra de los Estados Unidos durante la presidencia de Franklin Pierce . El 1 de marzo de 1861, en nombre del gobierno confederado, Davis asumió el control de la situación militar en Charleston, Carolina del Sur , donde la milicia estatal de Carolina del Sur asedió Fort Sumter en el puerto de Charleston, en poder de un pequeño ejército de EE. UU.guarnición. En marzo de 1861, el Congreso Confederado Provisional expandió las fuerzas provisionales y estableció un Ejército de los Estados Confederados más permanente.

Un recuento exacto del número total de personas que sirvieron en el Ejército Confederado no es posible debido a registros confederados incompletos y destruidos; las estimaciones del número de soldados confederados individuales están entre 750.000 y 1.000.000 de hombres. Esto no incluye un número desconocido de esclavos que fueron presionados para realizar diversas tareas para el ejército, como la construcción de fortificaciones y defensas o la conducción de carros. ^[4] Dado que estas cifras incluyen estimaciones del número total de soldados individuales que sirvieron en cualquier momento durante la guerra, no representan el tamaño del ejército en una fecha determinada. Estos números no incluyen a los hombres que sirvieron en la Armada de los Estados Confederados .

Aunque la mayoría de los soldados que lucharon en la Guerra Civil estadounidense eran voluntarios, en 1862 ambos bandos recurrieron al servicio militar obligatorio, principalmente como un medio para obligar a los hombres a registrarse y ofrecerse como voluntarios. En ausencia de registros exactos, las estimaciones del porcentaje de soldados confederados que fueron reclutas son aproximadamente el doble del 6 por ciento de los soldados estadounidenses que fueron reclutas. ^[5]

Las cifras de bajas confederadas también son incompletas y poco fiables. Las mejores estimaciones del número de muertes de soldados confederados son alrededor de 94,000 muertos o heridos de muerte en batalla, 164,000 muertes por enfermedades y entre 26,000 y 31,000 muertes en los campos de prisioneros de los Estados Unidos. Una estimación de los heridos confederados, que se considera incompleta, es 194.026. Estas cifras no incluyen a los hombres que murieron por otras causas, como accidentes, que sumarían varios miles al número de muertos. ^[6]

Los principales ejércitos confederados, el ejército del norte de Virginia bajo el mando del general Robert E. Lee y los restos del ejército de Tennessee y varias otras unidades bajo el mando del general Joseph E. Johnston , se rindieron a los Estados Unidos el 9 de abril de 1865 (oficialmente el 12 de abril). y 18 de abril de 1865 (oficialmente 26 de abril). Otras fuerzas confederadas se rindieron entre el 16 de abril de 1865 y el 28 de junio de 1865. ^[7] Al final de la guerra, más de 100.000 soldados confederados habían desertado, ^[8] y algunas estimaciones sitúan el número tan alto como un tercio de Soldados confederados. ^[9] El gobierno de la Confederación se disolvió efectivamente cuando huyó de Richmond en abril y no ejerció control sobre los ejércitos restantes.

Preludio

Cuando Abraham Lincoln asumió el cargo de presidente de los Estados Unidos el 4 de marzo de 1861, los siete estados esclavistas que se separaron habían formado los estados confederados . Se apoderaron de la propiedad federal, incluidos casi todos los fuertes del ejército estadounidense , dentro de sus fronteras. ^[10] Lincoln estaba decidido a mantener los fuertes que quedaban bajo el control de Estados Unidos cuando asumió el cargo, especialmente Fort Sumter en el puerto de Charleston, Carolina del Sur . El 28 de febrero, poco antes de que Lincoln tomara posesión como presidente, el Congreso Confederado Provisional había autorizado la organización de un gran Ejército Provisional de los Estados Confederados (PACS). ^[11]

Bajo las órdenes del presidente confederado Jefferson Davis , las tropas del CS bajo el mando del general PGT Beauregard bombardearon Fort Sumter del 12 al 13 de abril de 1861, forzando su capitulación el 14 de abril. ^{[12] [13]} Estados Unidos estaba indignado por el ataque de la Confederación. y exigió la guerra. Se unió al llamado de Lincoln el 15 de abril para que todos los estados leales enviaran tropas para recuperar los fuertes de los secesionistas, sofocar la rebelión y salvar la Unión. ^[14] Cuatro estados esclavistas más se unieron a la Confederación. Tanto los Estados Unidos como los Estados Confederados comenzaron en serio a formar grandes ejércitos, en su mayoría voluntarios, ^{[15] [16]}con los objetivos opuestos de sofocar la rebelión y preservar la Unión por un lado, o de establecer la independencia de los Estados Unidos por el otro. ^[17]

Establecimiento

Soldado Edwin Francis Jemison , cuya imagen se convirtió en uno de los retratos más famosos de los jóvenes soldados de la guerra

El Congreso Confederado dispuso un ejército confederado inspirado en el Ejército de los Estados Unidos . Consistiría en una gran fuerza provisional que existiría solo en tiempo de guerra y un pequeño ejército regular permanente. El ejército voluntario provisional fue establecido por una ley del Congreso Confederado Provisional aprobada el 28 de febrero de 1861, una semana antes de la ley que estableció la organización del ejército regular permanente, aprobada el 6 de marzo. se hizo para organizar el ejército regular confederado. ^[18]

• El Ejército Provisional de los Estados Confederados ( PACS ) comenzó a organizarse el 27 de abril. Prácticamente todos los hombres regulares, voluntarios y reclutados prefirieron ingresar a esta organización ya que los oficiales podían alcanzar un rango más alto en el Ejército Provisional que en el Ejército Regular. Si la guerra había terminado con éxito para ellos, los confederados tenían la intención de que el PACS se disolviera, dejando solo el ACSA. ^[19]
• El Ejército de los Estados Confederados de América ( ACSA ) era el ejército regular y estaba autorizado para incluir a 15.015 hombres, incluidos 744 oficiales, pero este nivel nunca se alcanzó. Los hombres que servían en el rango más alto como generales de los Estados Confederados, como Samuel Cooper y Robert E. Lee , se inscribieron en la ACSA para asegurarse de que superaran en rango a todos los oficiales de la milicia. ^[19]En última instancia, ACSA solo existía en papel. La organización de la ACSA no pasó más allá del nombramiento y confirmación de algunos funcionarios. Tres regimientos estatales se denominaron más tarde regimientos "Confederados", pero esto parece no haber tenido ningún efecto práctico en la organización de un Ejército Confederado regular y ningún efecto real en los propios regimientos.

Los miembros de todas las fuerzas militares de los Estados Confederados (el ejército, la marina y el cuerpo de marines) a menudo se denominan "confederados", y los miembros del ejército confederado se denominan "soldados confederados". Complementando al ejército confederado estaban las diversas milicias estatales de la Confederación:

• Las milicias estatales de los Estados Confederados fueron organizadas y comandadas por los gobiernos estatales, similares a las autorizadas por la Ley de Milicias de los Estados Unidos de 1792 .

Control y reclutamiento

Artículo principal: Leyes de conscripción de la Confederación de 1862 a 1864

Una caricatura de la guerra, que muestra a los confederados reclutando por la fuerza a un unionista en el ejército confederado. El unionista se opone, y los confederados amenazan con lincharlo si no cumple.

El control y la operación del ejército confederado fueron administrados por el Departamento de Guerra de los Estados Confederados , que fue establecido por el Congreso Provisional Confederado en una ley el 21 de febrero de 1861. El Congreso Confederado otorgó control sobre las operaciones militares y autoridad para reunir fuerzas estatales y voluntarios al Presidente de los Estados Confederados de América el 28 de febrero de 1861 y el 6 de marzo de 1861. El 8 de marzo el Congreso Confederado aprobó una ley que autorizaba a Davis a emitir proclamas para convocar a no más de 100.000 hombres. ^[20] El Departamento de Guerra solicitó 8.000 voluntarios el 9 de marzo, 20.000 el 8 de abril y 49.000 a partir del 16 de abril. Davis propuso un ejército de 100.000 hombres en su mensaje al Congreso el 29 de abril. ^[21]

El 8 de agosto de 1861, la Confederación convocó a 400.000 voluntarios para servir durante uno o tres años. En abril de 1862, ^[22] la Confederación aprobó la primera ley de servicio militar obligatorio en la historia de la Confederación o de la Unión, la Ley de servicio militar obligatorio , ^[23] que hizo que todos los hombres blancos capacitados entre las edades de 18 y 35 fueran responsables por un período de tres años de servicio en el Ejército Provisional. También amplió los términos de alistamiento para todos los soldados de un año a tres años. Los hombres empleados en ciertas ocupaciones consideradas más valiosas para el frente interno (como trabajadores de ferrocarriles y ríos, funcionarios civiles, operadores de telégrafos, mineros, farmacéuticos y maestros) estaban exentos del reclutamiento. ^[24]La ley fue enmendada dos veces en 1862. El 27 de septiembre, la edad máxima de reclutamiento se extendió a 45 años. ^[25] El 11 de octubre, el Congreso Confederado aprobó la llamada " Ley Veinte Negra ", ^[26] que eximía a cualquiera que poseía 20 o más esclavos, una medida que provocó un profundo resentimiento entre los reclutas que no tenían esclavos. ^[27]

El Congreso Confederado promulgó varias enmiendas más a lo largo de la guerra para abordar las pérdidas sufridas en la batalla, así como la mayor oferta de mano de obra de los Estados Unidos. En diciembre de 1863, abolió la práctica de permitir que un recluta rico contratara a un sustituto para ocupar su lugar en las filas. La sustitución también se había practicado en los Estados Unidos, lo que provocó un resentimiento similar en las clases bajas. En febrero de 1864, los límites de edad se ampliaron a entre 17 y 50 años. ^{[28] Las} impugnaciones a los actos posteriores se presentaron ante cinco tribunales supremos estatales; los cinco los mantuvieron. ^[29]

Moral y motivaciones

Un cartel de 1861 de reclutamiento confederado de Virginia, instando a los hombres a unirse a la causa confederada y luchar contra el ejército de los EE. UU., Al que se refiere como un "enemigo brutal y desesperado".

En su libro de 2010 Major Problems in the Civil War , el historiador Michael Perman dice que los historiadores tienen dos opiniones sobre por qué millones de hombres parecían tan ansiosos por luchar, sufrir y morir durante cuatro años:

Algunos historiadores enfatizan que los soldados de la Guerra Civil fueron impulsados ​​por la ideología política, manteniendo firmes creencias sobre la importancia de la libertad, la Unión o los derechos estatales, o sobre la necesidad de proteger o destruir la esclavitud. Otros señalan razones menos abiertamente políticas para luchar, como la defensa del hogar y la familia, o el honor y la hermandad que se deben preservar cuando se lucha junto a otros hombres. La mayoría de los historiadores coinciden en que, independientemente de lo que pensara cuando entró en la guerra, la experiencia del combate lo afectó profundamente y, a veces, afectó sus razones para seguir luchando.

-  Michael Perman, Principales problemas en la Guerra Civil y la Reconstrucción (2010), p. 178. ^[30]

Los soldados educados se basaron en su conocimiento de la historia estadounidense para justificar sus costos. McPherson dice:

Los soldados confederados y de la Unión interpretaron la herencia de 1776 de manera opuesta. Los confederados profesaban luchar por la libertad y la independencia de un gobierno demasiado radical; Los unionistas dijeron que lucharon para preservar la nación concebida en libertad del desmembramiento y la destrucción ... La retórica de la libertad que había impregnado las cartas de los voluntarios confederados en 1861, se hizo aún más fuerte a medida que avanzaba la guerra. ^[31]

Antes y durante la Guerra Civil, la prensa popular de Richmond, incluidos sus cinco periódicos principales, trató de inspirar un sentido de patriotismo, identidad confederada y la autoridad moral en la población del sur. ^[32]

Religión

Las iglesias del sur se enfrentaron a la escasez de capellanes del ejército enviando misioneros. Los bautistas del sur enviaron un total de 78 misioneros, comenzando en 1862. Los presbiterianos fueron aún más activos, con 112 misioneros enviados a principios de 1865. Otros misioneros fueron financiados y apoyados por los episcopales, metodistas y luteranos. Un resultado fue una ola tras otra de avivamientos religiosos en el Ejército, ^{[33] la} religión desempeñaba un papel importante en la vida de los soldados confederados. Algunos hombres con una afiliación religiosa débil se convirtieron en cristianos comprometidos y vieron su servicio militar en términos de satisfacer los deseos de Dios. La religión fortaleció la lealtad de los soldados a sus camaradas y la Confederación. ^{[34] [35] [36] [37]}El historiador militar Samuel J. Watson sostiene que la fe cristiana fue un factor importante en la motivación del combate. Según su análisis, la fe de los soldados fue consoladora por la pérdida de compañeros; era un escudo contra el miedo; ayudó a reducir el consumo de alcohol y las peleas en las filas; amplió la comunidad de amigos íntimos de los soldados y ayudó a compensar su larga separación del hogar. ^{[38] [39]}

Esclavitud y supremacismo blanco

En su libro de 1997 For Cause and Comrades , que examina las motivaciones de los soldados de la Guerra Civil estadounidense, el historiador James M. McPherson contrasta las opiniones de los soldados confederados sobre la esclavitud con las de los revolucionarios estadounidenses coloniales del siglo XVIII. ^[40] Afirmó que si bien los colonos rebeldes estadounidenses de la década de 1770 vieron una incongruencia entre poseer esclavos por un lado y proclamar estar luchando por la libertad por el otro, los soldados de la Confederación no lo hicieron, ya que la ideología confederada de supremacía blanca negó. cualquier contradicción entre los dos:

A diferencia de muchos propietarios de esclavos en la era de Thomas Jefferson, los soldados confederados de familias esclavistas no expresaron ningún sentimiento de vergüenza o inconsistencia en la lucha por su libertad mientras mantenían a otras personas en esclavitud. De hecho, la supremacía blanca y el derecho de propiedad de los esclavos estaban en el centro de la ideología por la que lucharon los soldados confederados.

-  James M. McPherson , Por causa y camaradas: por qué los hombres lucharon en la guerra civil (1997), p. 106. ^[40]

McPherson afirma que los soldados confederados no discutieron el tema de la esclavitud con tanta frecuencia como lo hicieron los soldados de los Estados Unidos, porque la mayoría de los soldados confederados aceptaron fácilmente como un hecho obvio que estaban luchando para perpetuar la esclavitud y, por lo tanto, no sintieron la necesidad de debatirlo:

[O] nicamente el 20 por ciento de la muestra de 429 soldados del sur expresó explícitamente sus condenas a favor de la esclavitud en sus cartas o diarios. Como era de esperar, un porcentaje mucho mayor de soldados de familias esclavistas que de familias no esclavistas expresaron ese propósito: 33 por ciento, en comparación con 12 por ciento. Irónicamente, la proporción de soldados de la Unión que escribieron sobre la cuestión de la esclavitud fue mayor, como lo mostrará el próximo capítulo. Hay una explicación fácil para esta aparente paradoja. La emancipación fue un tema destacado para los soldados de la Unión porque fue controvertido. La esclavitud fue menos importante para la mayoría de los soldados confederados porque no fue controvertida. Dieron por sentada la esclavitud como uno de los "derechos" e instituciones del Sur por los que lucharon, y no se sintieron obligados a discutirlo.

-  James M. McPherson, Por causa y camaradas: por qué los hombres lucharon en la guerra civil (1997), págs. 109-110. ^[41]

Continuando, McPherson también declaró que de los cientos de cartas de soldados confederados que había examinado, ninguna de ellas contenía ningún sentimiento contra la esclavitud:

Aunque solo el 20 por ciento de los soldados reconoció propósitos explícitos de esclavitud en sus cartas y diarios, ninguno disintió en absoluto de ese punto de vista.

-  James M. McPherson, Por causa y camaradas: por qué los hombres lucharon en la guerra civil (1997), p. 110, énfasis en el original. ^[41]

McPherson admite algunos defectos en su muestra de cartas. Los soldados de familias esclavistas estaban sobrerrepresentados en un 100%:

Los agricultores no esclavistas están subrepresentados en la muestra confederada. De hecho, mientras que alrededor de un tercio de todos los soldados confederados pertenecían a familias esclavistas, un poco más de dos tercios de la muestra cuyo estado esclavista se conoce lo hizo.

-  James M. McPherson, Por causa y camaradas: por qué los hombres lucharon en la guerra civil (1997), p. ix.^[42]

En algunos casos, los hombres confederados se sintieron motivados a unirse al ejército en respuesta a las acciones de Estados Unidos con respecto a su oposición a la esclavitud. ^[43] Después de que el presidente estadounidense Abraham Lincoln emitiera la Proclamación de Emancipación , algunos soldados confederados acogieron con agrado la medida, ya que creían que fortalecería el sentimiento a favor de la esclavitud en la Confederación y, por lo tanto, conduciría a un mayor alistamiento de hombres blancos en el ejército confederado. ^[43]

Un soldado confederado de Texas dio sus razones para luchar por la Confederación, afirmando que "estamos luchando por nuestra propiedad", ^[44] contrastando esto con las motivaciones de los soldados de la Unión, quienes, afirmó, estaban luchando por el "endeble y abstracto idea de que un negro es igual a un angloamericano ". ^[44] Un artillero de Louisian dijo: "No quiero ver el día en que un negro sea puesto en pie de igualdad con una persona blanca. Hay demasiados negros libres ... ahora para mí, y mucho menos tener cuatro millones". ^[45] Un soldado de Carolina del Norte declaró: "[Un] hombre blanco es mejor que un negro". ^[45]

En 1894, el virginiano y ex soldado confederado John S. Mosby , reflexionando sobre su papel en la guerra, declaró en una carta a un amigo que "siempre he entendido que fuimos a la guerra por lo que peleamos con el Norte sobre. Nunca he oído hablar de otra causa que no sea la esclavitud ". ^{[46] [47]}

Deserción

Más información: Desertion § American Civil War

En muchos puntos durante la guerra, y especialmente cerca del final, los ejércitos confederados estaban muy mal alimentados. En casa, sus familias estaban empeorando y enfrentaban el hambre y las depredaciones de bandas errantes de merodeadores. Muchos soldados se fueron a sus casas temporalmente (" Ausentes sin licencia oficial ") y regresaron en silencio cuando sus problemas familiares se habían resuelto. En septiembre de 1864, sin embargo, el presidente Davis admitió públicamente que dos tercios de los soldados estaban ausentes, "la mayoría de ellos sin permiso". El problema se intensificó rápidamente después de eso, y regresaron cada vez menos hombres. ^[48]Los soldados que luchaban en defensa de sus hogares se dieron cuenta de que tenían que desertar para cumplir con ese deber. El historiador Mark Weitz sostiene que el recuento oficial de 103.400 desertores es demasiado bajo. Concluye que la mayoría de las deserciones se produjeron porque el soldado sintió que le debía un deber más alto a su propia familia que a la Confederación. ^[49]

Las políticas confederadas con respecto a la deserción fueron en general severas. Por ejemplo, el 19 de agosto de 1862, el general Stonewall Jackson aprobó la sentencia de ejecución en consejo de guerra de tres soldados por deserción, rechazando las peticiones de clemencia del comandante del regimiento de los soldados. El objetivo de Jackson era mantener la disciplina en un ejército de voluntarios cuyas casas estaban bajo amenaza de ocupación enemiga. ^{[50] [51]}

Los historiadores de la Guerra Civil han enfatizado cómo los soldados de familias pobres desertaron porque se los necesitaba con urgencia en casa. Las presiones locales aumentaron a medida que las fuerzas de la Unión ocuparon cada vez más territorio confederado, poniendo a más y más familias en riesgo de sufrir dificultades. ^[52] Un oficial confederado en ese momento señaló: "Los desertores pertenecen casi en su totalidad a la clase más pobre de no esclavistas cuyo trabajo es indispensable para el sustento diario de sus familias" y que "Cuando el padre, esposo o hijo es forzados a participar en el servicio, el sufrimiento en casa con ellos es inevitable. No está en la naturaleza de estos hombres permanecer callados en las filas en tales circunstancias ". ^[53]

Algunos soldados también desertaron por motivos ideológicos. ^[54] Una amenaza creciente para la solidaridad de la Confederación era la insatisfacción en los distritos montañosos de los Apalaches causada por el sindicalismo persistente y la desconfianza en el poder ejercido por la clase esclavista. Muchos de sus soldados desertaron, regresaron a casa y formaron una fuerza militar que luchó contra las unidades regulares del ejército que intentaban castigarlos. ^{[55] [56]} Carolina del Norte perdió casi una cuarta parte de sus soldados (24,122) por deserción. Esta fue la tasa más alta de deserción de cualquier estado confederado. ^{[57] [58]}

El joven Mark Twain abandonó el ejército mucho antes de convertirse en un escritor y conferencista famoso, pero a menudo comentaba el episodio de manera cómica. El autor Neil Schmitz ha examinado la profunda inquietud que sentía Twain por perder su honor, su miedo a enfrentarse a la muerte como soldado y su rechazo a una identidad sureña como autor profesional. ^[59]

Organización

CSA M1857 Pieza de artillería de Napoleón

Debido a la destrucción de cualquier depósito central de registros en Richmond en 1865 y al mantenimiento de registros comparativamente deficiente de la época, no puede haber un número definitivo que represente la fuerza del Ejército de los Estados Confederados. Las estimaciones oscilan entre 500.000 y 2.000.000 de hombres que estuvieron involucrados en cualquier momento durante la guerra. Los informes del Departamento de Guerra a partir de finales de 1861 indicaron 326,768 hombres ese año, 449,439 en 1862, 464,646 en 1863, 400,787 en 1864, y los "últimos informes" mostraron 358,692. Las estimaciones de alistamientos durante la guerra oscilan entre 1.227.890 y 1.406.180. ^[60]

Se emitieron las siguientes convocatorias para hombres:

• 6 de marzo de 1861: 100.000 voluntarios y milicia
• 23 de enero de 1862: 400.000 voluntarios y milicias
• 16 de abril de 1862, Primera Ley de Conscripción : hombres blancos reclutados de entre 18 y 35 años durante la duración de las hostilidades ^[61]
• 27 de septiembre de 1862, la Segunda Ley de Conscripción: amplió el rango de edad de 18 a 45 años, ^[62] con implementación a partir del 15 de julio de 1863
• 17 de febrero de 1864, Tercera Ley de Conscripción: de 17 a 50 años ^[63]
• El 13 de marzo de 1865 autorizó hasta 300.000 soldados afroamericanos, pero nunca se implementó por completo. ^[64]

El CSA fue inicialmente un ejército defensivo (estratégicamente), y muchos soldados estaban resentidos cuando Lee dirigió al Ejército del Norte de Virginia en una invasión del Norte en la Campaña Antietam .

Comando

Más información: Oficiales generales del Ejército de los Estados Confederados

General Robert E. Lee , el general más famoso de la Confederación

El ejército no tuvo un comandante militar general formal, o un general en jefe, hasta finales de la guerra. El presidente confederado , Jefferson Davis , él mismo un ex oficial del ejército estadounidense y secretario de guerra estadounidense , ^[65] sirvió como comandante en jefe y proporcionó la dirección estratégica para las fuerzas terrestres y navales confederadas. Los siguientes hombres tenían distintos grados de control:

• Robert E. Lee fue "encargado de la conducción de operaciones militares en los ejércitos de la Confederación" del 13 de marzo al 31 de mayo de 1862. Se le conoció como el asesor militar de Davis, pero ejerció un amplio control sobre los aspectos estratégicos y logísticos de la Army, un rol similar en naturaleza al actual Jefe de Estado Mayor del Ejército de los Estados Unidos . El 1 de junio, asumió el mando del Ejército de Virginia del Norte , considerado el más importante de todos los ejércitos de campaña confederados. ^[66]
• De manera similar, Braxton Bragg fue "acusado de la realización de operaciones militares en los ejércitos de la Confederación" desde el 24 de febrero de 1864 (después de que fue relevado del mando de campo después de la Batalla de Chattanooga ) hasta el 31 de enero de 1865. Este papel fue un asesor militar posición bajo Davis. ^[67]
• Lee fue designado formalmente general en jefe por una ley del Congreso (23 de enero de 1865) y sirvió en esta capacidad del 31 de enero al 9 de abril de 1865. ^[68]

La falta de control centralizado fue una debilidad estratégica para la Confederación, y solo hay unos pocos ejemplos de sus ejércitos que actúan en concierto en múltiples teatros para lograr un objetivo común. Un caso ocurrió a finales de 1862 con la invasión de Maryland por Lee , coincidiendo con otras dos acciones: la invasión de Kentucky por Bragg y el avance de Earl Van Dorn contra Corinth, Mississippi . Sin embargo, las tres iniciativas no tuvieron éxito. Gobernador de Georgia, Joseph E. BrownFue un caso extremo de un defensor de los derechos de los estados del sur que afirmó el control sobre los soldados confederados: desafió las políticas de guerra del gobierno confederado y se resistió al reclutamiento militar. Creyendo que las tropas locales deberían usarse solo para la defensa de Georgia, ^[69] Brown trató de evitar que el coronel Francis Bartow llevara a las tropas de Georgia fuera del estado a la Primera Batalla de Bull Run. ^[70]

Muchos de los líderes militares de alto rango de la Confederación (incluidos Robert E. Lee, Albert Sidney Johnston , James Longstreet ) e incluso el presidente Jefferson Davis, eran antiguos oficiales del Ejército de los EE. UU. Y, en menor número, oficiales de la Marina de los EE. UU. Que se habían opuesto, desaprobado o no estaban al menos entusiasmados con la secesión, pero renunciaron a sus comisiones estadounidenses al enterarse de que sus estados habían abandonado la Unión. Sentían que no tenían más remedio que ayudar a defender sus hogares. El presidente Abraham Lincoln se exasperó al oír hablar de hombres que profesaban amar a su país pero estaban dispuestos a luchar contra él.

Organización de personal

Al igual que en el Ejército de Estados Unidos , los soldados del Ejército Confederado estaban organizados por especialidad militar. Las armas de combate incluían infantería, caballería y artillería.

Aunque un escuadrón o un pelotón podían comprender menos soldados, la unidad de maniobra de infantería más pequeña del Ejército era una compañía de 100 soldados. Diez compañías se organizaron en un regimiento de infantería, que teóricamente tenía 1.000 hombres. En realidad, a medida que las enfermedades, las deserciones y las bajas cobraron su precio y la práctica común de enviar reemplazos para formar nuevos regimientos se afianzó, la fuerza de la mayoría de los regimientos se redujo considerablemente. A mediados de la guerra, la mayoría de los regimientos tenían un promedio de 300 a 400 hombres, con unidades confederadas un poco más pequeñas en promedio que sus contrapartes estadounidenses. Por ejemplo, en la crucial Batalla de Chancellorsville , la fuerza promedio del regimiento de infantería del Ejército de EE. UU. Fue de 433 hombres, frente a 409 para los regimientos de infantería confederados. ^[71]

Tamaños aproximados de unidades para las unidades de combate CSA durante la guerra: ^[72]

• Cuerpo - 24,000 a 28,000
• División - 6,000 a 14,000
• Brigada - 800 a 1700
• Regimiento - 350 a 400
• Empresa - 35 a 40

Los regimientos, que eran las unidades básicas de la organización del ejército a través de las cuales se suministraban y desplegaban soldados, fueron formados por estados individuales. Generalmente fueron referidos por número y estado, por ejemplo, 1st Texas , 12th Virginia . En la medida en que la palabra " batallón " se usó para describir una unidad militar, se refería a un grupo de trabajo de varias compañías de un regimiento o una unidad del tamaño de casi un regimiento. A lo largo de la guerra, la Confederación levantó el equivalente a 1.010 regimientos en todas las ramas, incluidas las milicias, frente a 2.050 regimientos del Ejército de los EE. UU. ^[73]

Por lo general, cuatro regimientos formaban una brigada , aunque a medida que el número de hombres en muchos regimientos se redujo considerablemente, especialmente más tarde en la guerra, a menudo se asignaron más de cuatro a una brigada. Ocasionalmente, los regimientos se transferían entre brigadas. Normalmente, de dos a cuatro brigadas formaban una división . Normalmente, de dos a cuatro divisiones formaban un cuerpo . Normalmente, de dos a cuatro cuerpos formaban un ejército. De vez en cuando, un solo cuerpo puede operar de forma independiente como si fuera un pequeño ejército. El Ejército de los Estados Confederados constaba de varios ejércitos de campaña, llamados así por su área principal de operaciones. El ejército de campaña confederado más grande fue el Ejército del Norte de Virginia , cuya rendición en Appomattox Courthouse.en 1865 marcó el final de las principales operaciones de combate en la Guerra Civil de Estados Unidos.

Las compañías estaban al mando de capitanes y tenían dos o más lugartenientes. Los regimientos fueron comandados por coroneles. Los tenientes coroneles eran los segundos al mando. Al menos un mayor era el siguiente al mando. Las brigadas estaban comandadas por generales de brigada, aunque las bajas u otros desgastes a veces significaban que las brigadas estarían al mando de coroneles superiores o incluso un oficial de grado inferior. Salvo el mismo tipo de circunstancias que pudieran dejar a un oficial de grado inferior al mando temporal, las divisiones estaban al mando de los generales principales y los cuerpos estaban al mando de los tenientes generales. Algunos comandantes de cuerpo nunca fueron confirmados como tenientes generales y ejercieron el mando del cuerpo durante diversos períodos como generales de división. Los ejércitos de más de un cuerpo fueron comandados por generales (completos).

• Cabo de la división de Artillería del Ejército Confederado

• Confederate mortar crew at Warrington, Florida in 1861, across from Fort Pickens

• Confederate artillery at Charleston Harbor, 1863

• Lt Col. E. V. Nash, 4th Georgia Infantry Doles-Cook Brigade, who was killed in 1864

Ranks and insignia

Further information: Ranks and insignia of the Confederate States

Officer rank structure of the Confederate Army
General	Colonel	Lieutenant colonel	Major	Captain	First lieutenant	Second lieutenant

• General (CSA)
• Colonel (Infantry shown)
• Lieutenant-colonel (Headquarters shown)
• Major (Medical Corps shown)
• Captain (Marine Corps shown)
• 1st Lieutenant (Artillery shown)
• 2nd Lieutenant (Cavalry shown)

An 1895 illustration showing the uniforms of the Confederate Army contrasted with those of the U.S. Army

There were four grades of general officer (general, lieutenant general, major general, and brigadier general), but all wore the same insignia regardless of grade. This was a decision made early in the conflict. The Confederate Congress initially made the rank of brigadier general the highest rank. As the war progressed, the other general-officer ranks were quickly added, but no insignia for them was created. (Robert E. Lee was a notable exception to this. He chose to wear the rank insignia of a colonel.) Only seven men achieved the rank of (full) general;^[74] the highest-ranking (earliest date of rank) was Samuel Cooper, Adjutant General and Inspector General of the Confederate States Army.

Officers' uniforms bore a braided design on the sleeves and kepi, the number of adjacent strips (and therefore the width of the lines of the design) denoting rank. The color of the piping and kepi denoted the military branch. The braid was sometimes left off by officers since it made them conspicuous targets. The kepi was rarely used, the common slouch hat being preferred for its practicality in the Southern climate.

Enlisted rank structure
Sergeant Major	Quartermaster Sergeant	Ordnance Sergeant	First Sergeant
Sergeant	Corporal	Musician	Private
		no insignia	no insignia

Branch colors were used for the color of chevrons—blue for infantry, yellow for cavalry, and red for artillery. This could differ with some units, however, depending on available resources or the unit commander's desire. Cavalry regiments from Texas, for example, often used red insignia and at least one Texas infantry regiment used black.

The CSA differed from many contemporaneous armies in that all officers under the rank of brigadier general were elected by the soldiers under their command. The Confederate Congress authorized the awarding of medals for courage and good conduct on October 13, 1862, but wartime difficulties prevented the procurement of the needed medals. To avoid postponing recognition for their valor, those nominated for the awards had their names placed on a Roll of Honor, which would be read at the first dress parade after its receipt and be published in at least one newspaper in each state.

Armies and prominent leaders

The C.S. Army was composed of independent armies and military departments that were constituted, renamed, and disbanded as needs arose, particularly in reaction to offensives launched by the United States. These major units were generally named after states or geographic regions (in comparison to the U.S. Army's custom of naming armies after rivers). Armies were usually commanded by full generals (there were seven in the C.S. Army) or lieutenant generals. Some of the more important armies and their commanders were:

A painting of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fighting the U.S. Army at Spotsylvania in 1864

• Army of Central Kentucky – Simon B. Buckner, Albert Sidney Johnston
• Army of East Tennessee – Edmund Kirby Smith (later renamed Army of Kentucky)
• Army of Eastern Kentucky – Humphrey Marshall
• Army of the Kanawha – Henry A. Wise, John B. Floyd, Robert E. Lee
• Army of Kentucky – Edmund Kirby Smith (eventually commander of all forces West of the Mississippi)
• Army of Louisiana – Braxton Bragg. Paul O. Hébert
• Army of Mississippi
  • March 1862 – November 1862: P. G. T. Beauregard, Albert Sidney Johnston, Braxton Bragg, William J. Hardee, Leonidas Polk, (also known as the Army of the Mississippi; redesignated Army of Tennessee on November 20, 1862)
  • December 1862 – July 1863: John C. Pemberton, Earl Van Dorn, (1863) William W. Loring (also known as Army of Vicksburg)
  • July 1863 – June 1864: William J. Hardee, Leonidas Polk, William W. Loring (also known as the Army of the Mississippi; redesignated III Corps, Army of Tennessee in May 1864, but continued to use its old name)
• Army of Middle Tennessee – John C. Breckinridge
• Army of Missouri – Sterling Price
• Army of Mobile – Jones M. Withers, Braxton Bragg, John B. Villepigue, Samuel Jones, William L. Powell, John H. Forney
• Army of New Mexico – Henry H. Sibley
• Army of Northern Virginia – Joseph E. Johnston, Gustavus W. Smith, Robert E. Lee
  • First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
  • Second Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
  • Third Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
  • Fourth Corps, Army of Northern Virginia, often styled "Anderson's Corps"
  • Cavalry Corps, Army of Northern Virginia
• Army of the New River – Henry Heth
• Army of the Northwest – Robert S. Garnett, Henry R. Jackson, William W. Loring, Edward Johnson
• Army of the Peninsula – John B. Magruder, Daniel H. Hill
• Army of Pensacola – Adley H. Gladden, Braxton Bragg, Samuel Jones
• Army of the Potomac – P. G. T. Beauregard, Joseph E. Johnston
• Army of the Shenandoah – Joseph E. Johnston
• Army of Tennessee – Braxton Bragg, Samuel Gibbs French, William J. Hardee, Daniel H. Hill, John Bell Hood, Joseph E. Johnston, Richard Taylor
  • First Corps, Army of Tennessee
  • Second Corps, Army of Tennessee
  • Third Corps, Army of Tennessee
  • Forrest's Cavalry Corps – Nathan Bedford Forrest
• Army of the Trans-Mississippi – Thomas C. Hindman, Theophilus Holmes, Edmund Kirby Smith (also known as the Army of the Southwest)
• Army of the Valley (also known as Second Corps, Army of Northern Virginia) – Jubal Early
• Army of the West – Earl van Dorn, John P. McCown, Dabney H. Maury, Sterling Price
• Army of West Tennessee – Earl Van Dorn
• Army of Western Louisiana – Richard Taylor, John G. Walker

Some other prominent Confederate generals who led significant units operating sometimes independently in the CSA included Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, James Longstreet, J. E. B. Stuart, Gideon Pillow, A. P. Hill, John B. Gordon.

Supply and logistics

A group of Confederate soldiers-possibly an artillery unit captured at Island No. 10 and taken at POW Camp Douglas (Chicago); photograph possibly by D. F. Brandon^[75]

Main article: Confederate States of America § Transportation systems

The supply situation for most Confederate armies was dismal, even when they were victorious on the battlefield. The central government was short of money so each state government had to supply its regiments. The lack of central authority and the ineffective railroads, combined with the frequent unwillingness or inability of Southern state governments to provide adequate funding, were key factors in the Confederate army's demise. The Confederacy early on lost control of most of its major river and ocean ports to capture or blockade. The road system was poor, and it relied more and more on a heavily overburdened railroad system. U.S. forces destroyed track, engines, cars, bridges and telegraph lines as often as possible, knowing that new equipment was unavailable to the Confederacy.^[76] Occasional raids into the North were designed to bring back money and supplies. In 1864, the Confederates burned down Chambersburg, a Pennsylvania city they had raided twice in the years before, due to its failure to pay an extortion demand.^[77]

As a result of severe supply problems, as well as the lack of textile factories in the Confederacy and the successful U.S. naval blockade of Southern ports, the typical Confederate soldier was rarely able to wear the standard regulation uniform, particularly as the war progressed. While on the march or in parade formation, Confederate armies often displayed a wide array of dress, ranging from faded, patched-together regulation uniforms; rough, homespun uniforms colored with homemade dyes such as butternut (a yellow-brown color), and even soldiers in a hodgepodge of civilian clothing. After a successful battle, it was not unusual for victorious Confederate troops to procure U.S. Army uniform parts from captured supplies and dead U.S. soldiers; this would occasionally cause confusion in later battles and skirmishes.^[78]

Individual states were expected to supply their soldiers, which led to a lack of uniformity. Some states (such as North Carolina) were able to better supply their soldiers, while other states (such as Texas) were unable for various reasons to adequately supply their troops as the war continued.

Furthermore, each state often had its uniform regulations and insignia, which meant that the "standard" Confederate uniform often featured a variety of differences based on the state the soldier came from. For example, uniforms for North Carolina regiments often featured a colored strip of cloth on their shoulders to designate what part of the service the soldier was in. Confederate soldiers also frequently suffered from inadequate supplies of shoes, tents, and other gear, and would be forced to innovate and make do with whatever they could scrounge from the local countryside. While Confederate officers were generally better-supplied and were normally able to wear a regulation officer's uniform, they often chose to share other hardships – such as the lack of adequate food – with their troops.

Confederate troops marching south on N Market Street, Frederick, Maryland, during the Civil War

Confederate soldiers were also faced with inadequate food rations, especially as the war progressed. There was plenty of meat in the Confederacy. The unsolvable problem was shipping it to the armies, especially when Lee's army in Virginia was at the end of a long, tenuous supply line. The United States victory at Vicksburg in 1863 shut off supplies from Texas and the west.^[79]

By 1863 Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee often spent as much time and effort searching for food for their men as they did in planning strategy and tactics. Individual commanders often had to "beg, borrow or steal" food and ammunition from whatever sources were available, including captured U.S. depots and encampments, and private citizens regardless of their loyalties. Lee's campaign against Gettysburg and southern Pennsylvania (a rich agricultural region) was driven in part by his desperate need of supplies, especially food.^[80]

General Sherman's total warfare reduced the ability of the South to produce food and ship it to the armies or its cities. Coupled with the U.S. blockade of all ports the devastation of plantations, farms and railroads meant the Confederacy increasingly lost the capacity to feed its soldiers and civilians.

Native Americans and the Confederate army

Main article: Native Americans in the American Civil War

Native Americans served in both the United States and Confederate military during the American Civil War.^[81][82] They fought knowing they might jeopardize their freedom, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War.^[81][83] During the Civil War 28,693 Native Americans served in the U.S. and Confederate armies, participating in battles such as Pea Ridge, Second Manassas, Antietam, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and in Federal assaults on Petersburg.^[81][82] Many Native American tribes, such as the Creek, the Cherokee, and the Choctaw, were slaveholders themselves, and thus, found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy.^[84]

At the beginning of the war, Albert Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native Americans. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one such treaty was the Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws conducted in July 1861. The treaty covered sixty-four terms covering many subjects like Choctaw and Chickasaw nation sovereignty, Confederate States of America citizenship possibilities, and an entitled delegate in the House of Representatives of the Confederate States of America. The Cherokee, Choctaw, Seminole, Catawba, and Creek tribes were the only tribes to fight on the Confederate side. The Confederacy wanted to recruit Indians east of the Mississippi River in 1862, so they opened up a recruiting camp in Mobile, Alabama "at the foot of Stone Street".^[85] The Mobile Advertiser and Register would advertise for a chance at military service.

A Chance for Active Service. The Secretary of War has authorized me to enlist all the Indians east of the Mississippi River into the service of the Confederate States, as Scouts. In addition to the Indians, I will receive all white male citizens, who are good marksmen. To each member, Fifty Dollars Bounty, clothes, arms, camp equipage &c: furnished. The weapons shall be Enfield Rifles. For further information address me at Mobile, Ala. (Signed) S. G. Spann, Comm'ing Choctaw Forces.

— Jacqueline Anderson Matte, They Say the Wind Is Red^[85]

Cherokee

Main article: Cherokee in the American Civil War

A Cherokee Confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903

Stand Watie, along with a few Cherokee, sided with the Confederate army, in which he was made colonel and commanded a battalion of Cherokee.^[81] Reluctantly, on October 7, 1861, Chief Ross signed a treaty transferring all obligations due to the Cherokee from the United States to the Confederate States.^[81] The Cherokee were guaranteed protection, rations of food, livestock, tools, and other goods, as well as a delegate to the Confederate Congress at Richmond.^[81]

In exchange, the Cherokee would furnish ten companies of mounted men, and allow the construction of military posts and roads within the Cherokee Nation. However, no Indian regiment was to be called on to fight outside Indian Territory.^[81] As a result of the Treaty, the 2nd Cherokee Mounted Rifles, led by Col. John Drew, was formed. Following the Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7–8, 1862, Drew's Mounted Rifles defected to the United States forces in Kansas, where they joined the Indian Home Guard. In the summer of 1862, U.S. troops captured Chief Ross, who was paroled and spent the remainder of the war in Washington and Philadelphia proclaiming Cherokee loyalty to the United States Army.^[81]

William Holland Thomas, the only white chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, recruited hundreds of Cherokees for the Confederate army, particularly for Thomas' Legion. The Legion, raised in September 1862, fought until the end of the War.

Choctaw

Jackson McCurtain, Lieutenant Colonel of the First Choctaw Battalion in Oklahoma, CSA

Choctaw Confederate battalions were formed in Indian Territory and later in Mississippi in support of the southern cause. The Choctaws, who were expecting support from the Confederates, got little. Webb Garrison, a Civil War historian, describes their response: when Confederate Brigadier General Albert Pike authorized the raising of regiments during the fall of 1860, Seminoles, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Cherokees responded with considerable enthusiasm. Their zeal for the Confederate cause, however, began to evaporate when they found that neither arms nor pay had been arranged for them. A disgusted officer later acknowledged that "with the exception of a partial supply for the Choctaw regiment, no tents, clothing, or camp, and garrison equipage was furnished to any of them."^[86]

African Americans and the Confederate Army

1862 illustration showing Confederates escorting kidnapped African American civilians south into slavery. A similar instance occurred in Pennsylvania when the Army of Northern Virginia invaded it in 1863 to fight the U.S. at Gettysburg.^{[87][88][89][90]}

An 1862 illustration of a Confederate officer forcing slaves at gunpoint to fire a cannon at U.S. soldiers in battle. A similar instance occurred at the first Battle of Bull Run, where slaves were forced by the Confederates to load and fire a cannon at U.S. forces.^[91][92]

An 1864 cartoon lampooning the Confederacy's deliberating on the use of black soldiers, showing them defecting en masse towards U.S. lines if such proposals were adopted.

"Marlboro", an African-American body servant to a white Confederate soldier

Main article: Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War § Confederacy

With so many white males conscripted into the army and roughly 40% of its population unfree, the work required to maintain a functioning society in the Confederacy ended up largely on the backs of slaves.^[93] Even Georgian governor Joseph E. Brown noted that "the country and the army are mainly dependent upon slave labor for support."^[94] African American slave labor was used in a wide variety of logistical support roles for the Confederacy, from infrastructure and mining, to teamster and medical roles such as hospital attendants and nurses.^[95][96]

Using slaves as soldiers

The Confederacy did not allow African Americans to join the army, neither free Negroes nor slaves. The idea of arming the Confederacy's slaves for use as soldiers was speculated on from the onset of the war, but such proposals were not seriously considered by Jefferson Davis or others in the Confederate administration until late in the war when severe manpower shortages were faced.^[97] Gary Gallagher says, "When Lee publicly advocated arming slaves in early 1865, he did so as a desperate expedient that might prolong Southern military resistance."^[98] After acrimonious debate the Confederate Congress agreed in March 1865. The war was nearly over by then and very few slaves ended up being enlisted before the Confederate armies all surrendered.^[22]

Opposition from Confederates

As early as November 1864, some Confederates knew that the chance of securing victory against the U.S. was slim.^[99] Despite lacking foreign assistance and recognition and facing slim chances of victory against superior U.S. assets, Confederate newspapers such as the Georgian Atlanta Southern Confederacy continued to maintain their position and oppose the idea of armed black men in the Confederate army, even late in the war as January 1865.^[100] They stated that it was incongruous with the Confederacy's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery. The Georgian newspaper opined that using black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children, saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor, they should not be used as armed soldiers, opining that:

Such an act on our part would be a stigma on the imperishable pages of history, of which all future generations of Southrons would be ashamed. These are some of the additional considerations which have suggested themselves to us. Let us put the negro to work, but not to fight.

— Atlanta Southern Confederacy, (January 20, 1865), Macon, Georgia.^[100]

Prominent Confederates such as R. M. T. Hunter and Georgian Democrat Howell Cobb opposed arming slaves, saying that it was "suicidal" and would run contrary to the Confederacy's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army.^{[101][102][103][104]}

The overwhelming support most Confederates had for maintaining black slavery was the primary cause of their strong opposition to using African Americans as armed soldiers. Maintaining the institution of slavery was the primary goal of the Confederacy's existence, and thus, using their slaves as soldiers was incongruous with that goal. According to historian Paul D. Escott:

[F]or a great many of the most powerful southerners the idea of arming and freeing the slaves was repugnant because the protection of slavery had been and still remained the central core of Confederate purpose ... Slavery was the basis of the planter class's wealth, power, and position in society. The South's leading men had built their world upon slavery and the idea of voluntarily destroying that world, even in the ultimate crisis, was almost unthinkable to them. Such feelings moved Senator R. M. T. Hunter to deliver a long speech against the bill to arm the slaves.^[105]

Though most Confederates were opposed to the idea of using black soldiers, a small number suggested the idea. An acrimonious and controversial debate was raised by a letter from Patrick Cleburne^[106] urging the Confederacy to raise black soldiers by offering emancipation; Jefferson Davis refused to consider the proposal and issued instructions forbidding the matter from being discussed.^[107] It would not be until Robert E. Lee wrote the Confederate Congress urging them that the idea would take serious traction.^[108]

On March 13, 1865,^[22] the Confederate Congress passed General Order 14^[109][110] by a single vote in the Confederate senate,^[22][111] and Jefferson Davis signed the order into law. The order was issued March 23, but as it was late in the war, only a few African American companies were raised in the Richmond area before the town was captured by the U.S. Army and placed back under U.S. control.^[112]According to historian James M. McPherson in 1994, "no black soldiers fought in the Confederate army, unless they were passing as white.^[113] He noted that some Confederates brought along "their body servants, who in many cases had grown up with them" and that "on occasion some of those body servants were known to have picked up a rifle and fought. But there was no official recruitment of black soldiers in the Confederate army until the very end of the war..." He continued, "But Appomattox came only a few weeks later, and none of these men were ever put in uniform to fight."^[22]

Treatment of black civilians

In some cases, the Confederates forced their African American slaves to fire upon U.S. soldiers at gunpoint,^[91][92] such as at the first Battle of Bull Run. According to John Parker, a slave who was forced by the Confederates to fight Union soldiers, "Our masters tried all they could to make us fight ... They promised to give us our freedom and money besides, but none of us believed them; we only fought because we had to." Parker stated that had he been given an opportunity, he would have turned against his Confederate captors, and "could do it with pleasure".^[91][92] According to abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet in 1862, he had met a slave who "had unwillingly fought on the side of Rebellion", but the slave had since defected to "the side of Union and universal liberty".^[92]

During the Siege of Yorktown (1862), The United States Army's elite sniper unit, the 1st United States Sharpshooters, was devastatingly effective at shooting Confederate artillerymen defending the city. In response, some Confederate artillery crews started forcing slaves to load the cannons. "They forced their negroes to load their cannon," reported a U.S. officer. "They shot them if they would not load the cannon, and we shot them if they did."^[114]

In other cases, under explicit orders from their commanders, Confederate armies would often forcibly kidnap free African American civilians during their incursions into Union territory, sending them south into Confederate territory and thus enslaving them, as was the case with the Army of Northern Virginia when it invaded Pennsylvania in 1863.^[115][116]

Treatment of black prisoners of war

The usage of black men as soldiers by the Union, combined with Abraham Lincoln's issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation, profoundly angered the Confederacy,^[117] with the Confederates calling it uncivilized.^[118] As a response, in May 1863 the Confederacy passed a law demanding "full and ample retaliation" against the United States, stating that any black person captured in "arms against the Confederate States" or giving aid and comfort to their enemies would be turned over to state authorities, where they could be tried as slave insurrectionists; a capital offense punishable with a sentence of death.^[119][120] However, Confederate authorities feared retaliation, and consequently no black prisoner was ever put on trial and executed.^[121]

James McPherson states that "Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications."^[122][123]African American soldiers who served in the United States Colored Troops were often singled out by the Confederates and suffered extra violence when captured by them.^[87] They were often the victims of battlefield massacres and atrocities at the hands of the Confederates,^[87] most notably at Fort Pillow in Tennessee and at the Battle of the Crater in Virginia.^[124][125]

Prisoner exchanges with the United States

The Confederate law declaring black U.S. soldiers to be insurrectionist slaves, combined with the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers, became a stumbling block for prisoner exchanges between the United States and the Confederacy, as the U.S. government in the Lieber Code officially objected to the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of prisoners of war on basis of color.^[126][127] The Republican Party's platform of the 1864 presidential election reflected this view, as it too condemned the Confederacy's discriminatory mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers.^[128] According to the authors of Liberty, Equality, Power, "Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused."^[126]

Statistics and size

Julian Scott's 1873 painting, Surrender of a Confederate Soldier

Incomplete and destroyed records make an accurate count of the number of men who served in the Confederate army impossible. Historians provide estimates of the actual number of individual Confederate soldiers between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men.^[129]

The exact number is unknown. Since these figures include estimates of the total number of individual soldiers who served in each army at any time during the war, they do not represent the size of the armies at any given date. Confederate casualty figures are as incomplete and unreliable as the figures on the number of Confederate soldiers. The best estimates of the number of deaths of Confederate soldiers appear to be about 94,000 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 164,000 deaths from disease and between 26,000 and 31,000 deaths in Union prison camps. In contrast, about 25,000 Union soldiers died as a result of accidents, drowning, murder, killed after capture, suicide, execution for various crimes, execution by the Confederates (64), sunstroke, other and not stated. Confederate casualties for all these reasons are unavailable. Since some Confederate soldiers would have died for these reasons, more total deaths and total casualties for the Confederacy must have occurred. One estimate of the Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026; another is 226,000. At the end of the war 174,223 men of the Confederate forces surrendered to the Union Army.^[130][131]

Compared to the Union Army at the time, the Confederate army was not very ethnically diverse. Ninety-one percent of Confederate soldiers were native-born white men and only 9% were foreign-born white men, Irishmen being the largest group with others including Germans, French, Mexicans, and British. A small number of Asian men were forcibly inducted into the Confederate army against their will when they arrived in Louisiana from overseas.^[132][133]

See also

• Confederate States Navy
• Blockade runners of the American Civil War
• General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States
• Confederate Government Civil War units
• Confederate Regular Army officers, list of
• Confederate States Marine Corps
• Military of the Confederate States of America
• Uniforms of the Confederate States Armed Forces
• Uniforms of the Confederate military
• Bibliography of the American Civil War
• Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln
• Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
• Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States

References

1. "Civil War Facts". American Battlefield Trust. August 16, 2011.
2. C.S. War Dept., p. 402.
3. On February 8, 1861, delegates from the first seven Deep South slave states which had already declared their secession from the Union of the United States of America met at Montgomery, the state capital of Alabama, adopted the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States.
4. Records of the number of individuals who served in the United States Army are more extensive and reliable, but still are not entirely accurate. Estimates of the number of individual Union soldiers range between 1,550,000 and 2,400,000, with a number between 2,000,000 and 2,200,000 most likely. Union Army records show slightly more than 2,677,000 enlistments but this number apparently includes many re-enlistments. These numbers do not include sailors who served in United States Navy or United States Marine Corps. These figures represent the total number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war, not the size of the army at any given date.
5. Albert Burton Moore, Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924).
6. In comparison, the best estimates of the number of deaths of United States soldiers are 110,100 killed or mortally wounded in battle, 224,580 deaths from disease, and 30,192 deaths in Confederate prison camps, although some historians also dispute these figures. The best conjecture for United States Army wounded is 275,175.
7. Confederate forces at Mobile, Alabama, and Columbus, Georgia, also had already surrendered on April 14, 1865, and April 16, 1865, respectively. U.S. and Confederate units fought a battle at Columbus, Georgia, before the surrender on April 16, 1865, and a small final battle at Palmito Ranch, Texas, on May 12, 1865. In areas more distant from the main theaters of operations, Confederate forces in Alabama and Mississippi under Lieutenant General Richard Taylor, in Arkansas under Brigadier General M. Jeff Thompson, in Louisiana and Texas under General E. Kirby Smith and in Indian Territory under Brigadier General Stand Watie surrendered on May 4, 1865, May 12, 1865, May 26, 1865 (officially June 2, 1865), and June 28, 1865, respectively.
8. Eric Foner (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. p. 15. ISBN 9780062035868.
9. Hamner, Christopher. "Deserters in the Civil War | Teachinghistory.org". teachinghistory.org. Retrieved August 3, 2018.
10. James M. McPherson (June 2004). The Most Fearful Ordeal: Original Coverage of the Civil War by Writers and Reporters of The New York Times. St. Martin's Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-312-33123-8.
11. Spencer C. Tucker (September 30, 2013). American Civil War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [6 volumes]: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-85109-682-4.
12. Russell Frank Weigley (2000). A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861-1865. Indiana University Press. pp. 21–23. ISBN 0-253-33738-0.
13. T. Harry Williams (November 6, 2015). P. G. T. Beauregard: Napoleon In Gray. Golden Springs Publishing. pp. 62–64. ISBN 978-1-78289-373-8.
14. Weigley 2000, p. 24
15. Peter Karsten (2006). Encyclopedia of War and American Society. SAGE. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-7619-3097-6.
16. Mark Grimsley; Steven E. Woodworth (2006). Shiloh: A Battlefield Guide. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 0-8032-7100-X.
17. McPherson 1997, pp. 104–105
18. Bruce S. Allardice (2008). Confederate Colonels: A Biographical Register. University of Missouri Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-8262-6648-4.
19. Eicher, pp. 70, 66.
20. United States. War Dept (1900). Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. p. 134.
21. John George Nicolay; John Hay (1890). Abraham Lincoln: A History. The Century Co. p. 264.
22. McPherson, James M.; Lamb, Brian (May 22, 1994). "James McPherson: What They Fought For, 1861–1865". Booknotes. National Cable Satellite Corporation. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved March 9, 2016.
23. Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. United States of America: Harper & Row. p. 15. ISBN 0-06-093716-5. Retrieved March 2, 2016. [T]he Confederacy enacted the first conscription laws in American history ...
24. Civil War Conscription Laws: November 15, 2012 by Margaret Wood.
25. Faust, Patricia L. ed Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War: New York, 1986
26. Loewen, James W. (2007). Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: The New Press. pp. 224–226. ISBN 978-1-56584-100-0. OCLC 29877812. Retrieved January 19, 2016.
27. Bell Irvin Wiley (January 1, 2008). The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy. LSU Press. p. 505. ISBN 978-0-8071-5604-9.
28. ""Civil "War Conscription Laws": November 15, 2012 by Margaret Wood."".
29. Mississippi Law Journal (2000). "'Necessity Knows No Law': Vested Rights and Styles of Reasoning in the Confederate Conscription Cases" (PDF). Mississippi Law Journal. Mississippi..
30. Perman, Michael; Taylor, Amy Murrell (2010). Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction. Cengage. p. 178. ISBN 978-0618875207. Retrieved March 9, 2016.
31. James McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (1998) pp 104–5.
32. Edward L. Ayers; Gary W. Gallagher; Andrew J. Torget (2006). Edward L. Ayers (ed.). Crucible of the Civil War: Virginia from Secession to Commemoration. University of Virginia Press. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0-8139-2552-3.
33. W. Harrison Daniel, "Southern Protestantism and Army Missions in the Confederacy." Mississippi Quarterly 17.4 (1964): 179+.
34. Dollar, Kent T. (2005). Soldiers of the Cross: Soldier-Christians and the Impact of the War on their Faith. Mercer University Press.
35. Woodworth, Steven E. (2001). While God is Marching On.
36. Wilson, Charles Reagan (1980). Baptized in Blood.
37. Kurt O. Berends (November 5, 1998). ""Wholesome Reading Purifies and Elevates the Man": The Religious Military Press in the Confederacy". In Randall M. Miller; Harry S. Stout; Charles Reagan Wilson (eds.). Religion and the American Civil War. Oxford University Press. pp. 141–142. ISBN 978-0-19-802834-5.
38. Samuel J. Watson, "Religion and combat motivation in the Confederate armies." Journal of Military History 58#1 (1994): 29+.
39. Sheehan-Dean, Aaron (2009). Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia.
40. McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 106. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. OCLC 34912692. Confederate soldiers from slaveholding families expressed no feelings of embarrassment or inconsistency in fighting for their liberty while holding other people in slavery. Indeed, white supremacy and the right of property in slaves were at the core of the ideology for which Confederate soldiers fought.
41. McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 109–110. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. Retrieved April 1, 2016. It would be wrong, however, to assume that Confederate soldiers were constantly preoccupied with this matter. Only 20 percent of the sample of 429 Southern soldiers explicitly voiced proslavery convictions in their letters or diaries. As one might expect, a much higher percentage of soldiers from slaveholding families than from non-slaveholding families expressed such a purpose: 33 percent, compared with 12 percent. Ironically, the proportion of Union soldiers who wrote about the slavery question was greater, as the next chapter will show. There is a ready explanation for this apparent paradox. Emancipation was a salient issue for Union soldiers because it was controversial. Slavery was less salient for most Confederate soldiers because it was not controversial. They took slavery for granted as one of the Southern 'rights' and institutions for which they fought, and did not feel compelled to discuss it. Although only 20 percent of the soldiers avowed explicit proslavery purposes in their letters and diaries, none at all dissented from that view.
42. James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (1997), p. ix. "In both the Union and Confederate samples, foreign-born soldiers are substantially underrepresented. In the Union sample, only 9 percent of the men were born abroad compared with 24 percent of all Union soldiers. Unskilled and even skilled laborers are underrepresented in both samples. Nonslaveholding farmers are underrepresented in the Confederate sample. Indeed, while about one-third of all Confederate soldiers belonged to slaveholding families, slightly more than two-thirds of the sample whose slaveholding status is known did so ... Officers are overrepresented in both samples. While some 10 percent of Civil War soldiers served as officers for at least half of their time in the army, 47 percent of the Confederate sample and 35 percent of the Union sample did so. Both samples are also skewed toward those who volunteered in 1861–62 and therefore contain disproportionately few draftees ..."
43. McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 107. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. OCLC 34912692. Retrieved April 1, 2016. The Proclamation is worth three hundred thousand soldiers to our Government at least ... It shows exactly what this war was brought about for and the intention of its damnable authors.
44. McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 117. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. OCLC 34912692. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
45. McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 109. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. Retrieved April 1, 2016.
46. Coski, John M. (2005). The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem. United States of America: First Harvard University Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-674-01722-6. Retrieved July 1, 2015.
47. Lozada, Carlos (June 19, 2015). "How people convince themselves that the Confederate flag represents freedom, not slavery: Historian John M. Coski examines the fights over the symbol's meaning in 'The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem.'". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C.: Graham Holdings Company. Retrieved July 1, 2015.
48. David Williams (2011). Rich Man's War: Class, Caste, and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley. University of Georgia Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780820340791.
49. Mark A. Weitz, A higher duty: desertion among Georgia troops during the Civil War (U of Nebraska Press, 2005).
50. K. M. L. "Stonewall's Rush to Judgment," Civil War Times (2010) 49#2 pp 51+.
51. Ella Lonn, Desertion during the Civil War (1928).
52. Bearman, Peter S. (1991). "Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the U.S. Civil War". Social Forces. 70 (2): 321–342. doi:10.2307/2580242. JSTOR 2580242.
53. Foner, Eric (March 1989). "The South's Inner Civil War: The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence, the more bitterly divided it became. To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country, you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who didn't want secession". American Heritage. Vol. 40 no. 2. p. 3. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013.
54. Doyle, Patrick J. (2013). "Understanding the Desertion of South Carolinian Soldiers during the Final Years of the Confederacy". Historical Journal. 56 (3): 657–679. doi:10.1017/s0018246x13000046.
55. Dotson, Rand (2000). ""The Grave and Scandalous Evil Infected to Your People": The Erosion of Confederate Loyalty in Floyd County, Virginia". The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 108 (4): 393–434. JSTOR 4249872.
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85. Matte, Jacqueline (2002). "Refugees- Six Towns Choctaw, 1830–1890". They Say the Wind is Red. New South Books. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-58838-079-1.
86. Garrison, Webb (1995). "Padday Some Day". More Civil War Curiosities. Rutledge Hill Press. ISBN 978-1-55853-366-0.
87. Loewen, James W. (2007). Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: The New Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-56584-100-0. White Southerners founded the Confederacy on the ideology of white supremacy. Confederate soldiers on their way to Antietam and Gettysburg, their two main forays into U.S. states, put this ideology into practice: they seized scores of free black people in Maryland and Pennsylvania and sold them south into slavery. Confederates maltreated black U.S. troops when they captured them.
88. Symonds, Craig L. (2001). American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 49–54. ISBN 0-06-019474-X.
89. Loewen, James W. (1999). Lies Across America: What American Historic Sites Get Wrong. New York City, New York: Touchstone, Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 350. ISBN 0-684-87067-3. Retrieved March 5, 2016. Lee's troops seized scores of free black people in Maryland and Pennsylvania and sent them south into slavery. This was in keeping with Confederate national policy, which virtually re-enslaved free people of color into work gangs on earthworks throughout the south.
90. Simpson, Brooks D. (July 5, 2015). "The Soldiers' Flag?". Crossroads. WordPress. [T]he Army of Northern Virginia was under orders to capture and send south supposed escaped slaves during that army's invasion of Pennsylvania in 1863.
91. Masur, Kate (July 27, 2011). "Slavery and Freedom at Bull Run". The New York Times. New York. Retrieved March 5, 2016.
92. Hall, Andy (February 20, 2015). "Memory: Frederick Douglass' Black Confederate". Dead Confederates: A Civil War Blog. WordPress. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved March 9, 2016.
93. Bruce Levine (November 1, 2005). Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War. Oxford University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-803367-7.
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103. Chisholm, Hugh (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11 ed.). Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on March 8, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
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110. Arnold, James R.; Wiener, Roberta; Weitz, Seth A. (2011). "Congress, Confederate". American Civil War: The Essential Reference Guide. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-59884-905-9. Retrieved March 11, 2016.
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114. "Killers in Green Coats". HistoryNet. July 20, 2016.
115. David G. Smith, "Race and Retaliation: The Capture of African Americans During the Gettysburg Campaign." in Peter Wallenstein and Bertram Wyatt-Brown, ed., Virginia's Civil War (2004) pp: 122–37. online
116. Ted Alexander, "'A Regular Slave Hunt': The Army of Northern Virginia and Black Civilians in the Gettysburg Campaign," North & South 4 (September 2001): 82–89
117. Grant, Ulysses (August 23, 1863). "Letter to Abraham Lincoln". Cairo, Illinois. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2014. I have given the subject of arming the Negro my hearty support. This, with the emancipation of the Negro, is the heaviest blow yet given the Confederacy. The South rave a great deal about it and profess to be very angry.
118. Hall, Andy (April 15, 2014). "Understanding Fort Pillow: 'Full and Ample Retaliation'". Dead Confederates: A Civil War Blog. WordPress. Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
119. Williams, George W., History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880: Negros as Slaves, as Soldiers, and as Citizens, vol. II, New York: G.P. Putnam Son's, 1883, pp. 351–352.
120. Congress of the Confederate States of America (May 1, 1863). "No. 5". Joint Resolution on the Subject of Retaliation. Virginia. Retrieved March 6, 2016.^{[dead link]}
121. Karcher, Carolyn L. (April 19, 1994). The First Woman in the Republic: A Cultural Biography of Lydia Maria Child. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822321637 – via Google Books.
122. Murrin, John; McPherson, James M.; Johnson, Paul; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2009). Liberty, Liberty, Equality, Power. Cengage Learning. p. 433. ISBN 978-0495565987.
123. Cornish, Dudley Taylor (1965). The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 173–180.
124. Robertson, James I., Jr.; Pegram, William. "The Boy Artillerist": Letters of Colonel William Pegram, C.S.A.
125. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 98, no. 2 (The Trumpet Unblown: The Old Dominion in the Civil War), (1990), pp. 242–43.
126. Murrin, John; McPherson, James M.; Johnson, Paul; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2009). Liberty, Equality, Power: Enhanced Concise Fourth Edition. Belmont, California: Cengage Learning. p. 433. ISBN 978-0495565987. Confederate troops sometimes murdered black soldiers and their officers as they tried to surrender. In most cases, though, Confederate officers returned captured black soldiers to slavery or put them to hard labor on southern fortifications ... Expressing outrage at this treatment, in 1863 the Lincoln administration suspended the exchange of prisoners until the Confederacy agree to treat white and black prisoners alike. The Confederacy refused.
127. Townsend, E.D. (April 24, 1863). "SECTION III.–Deserters—Prisoners of war–Hostages–Booty on the battle-field". INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD. Washington. Archived from the original on April 7, 2001. Retrieved April 7, 2001. 58. The law of nations knows of no distinction of color, and if an enemy of the United States should enslave and sell any captured persons of their army, it would be a case for the severest retaliation, if not redressed upon complaint.
128. Republican Party of the United States (June 7, 1864). "Republican Party Platform of 1864". Archived from the original on April 21, 2015. [T]he Government owes to all men employed in its armies, without regard to distinction of color, the full protection of the laws of war—and that any violation of these laws, or of the usages of civilized nations in time of war, by the Rebels now in arms, should be made the subject of prompt and full redress.
129. Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. OCLC 68283123. p. 705
130. "Fact Sheet: America's Wars". United States Department of Veterans Affairs. November 2008. Archived from the original on July 30, 2009.
131. Long, 1971, p. 711
132. Davis, Burke (1960). Civil War: Strange and Fascinating Facts. Random House.
133. Inglish, Patty (July 8, 2015). "Chinese Soldiers Who Fought in the American Civil War for the Union and the Confederacy". HubPages. Interestingly, some Chinese were 'Shanghaied' into the Confederate Army in New Orleans when they disembarked ships coming into port. They thought they were being invited to games and fun; and, they were not alone—other ethnic groups were mustered into the Confederate forces this way ... This seems to have been usual for the 14th Louisiana Infantry, tricking Chinese and Filipino men into service. Because many of the Filipino men had Hispanic surnames, many are lost to history as having been Asian servicemen. Many of them had lived in Mexico.

Further reading

• Adams, George Worthington (1940). "Confederate Medicine". Journal of Southern History. 6#2 (2): 151–166. doi:10.2307/2191203. JSTOR 2191203.
• Allardice, Bruce (1997). "West Points of the Confederacy: Southern Military Schools and the Confederate Army". Civil War History. 43#4.
• Bledsoe, Andrew S. Citizen-Officers: The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8071-6070-1.
• Crawford, Martin (1991). "Confederate Volunteering and Enlistment in Ashe County, North Carolina, 1861–1862". Civil War History. 37 (1): 29–50. doi:10.1353/cwh.1991.0031.
• Crute Jr, Joseph H. (1987). Units of the Confederate States Army (2nd ed.). Gaithersburg: Olde Soldier Books. ISBN 0-942211-53-7.
• Daniel, Larry J. (2003). Soldiering in the Army of Tennessee: A Portrait of Life in a Confederate Army.
• Eicher, David J. (2001). Civil War High Commands. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1.
• Freemon, Frank R. (1987). "Administration of the Medical Department of the Confederate States Army, 1861 to 1865". Southern Medical Journal. 80 (5): 630–637. doi:10.1097/00007611-198705000-00019. PMID 3554537.
• Faust, Drew (1987). Christian Soldiers: The Meaning of Revivalism in the Confederate Army.
• Haughton, Andrew (2000). Training, Tactics and Leadership in the Confederate Army of Tennessee: Seeds of Failure.
• Jones, Adam Matthew. "'The land of my birth and the home of my heart': Enlistment Motivations for Confederate Soldiers in Montgomery County, Virginia, 1861–1862.'" (MA thesis Virginia Tech, 2014). online bibliography, pp 123–30.
• Levine, Bruce (2005). Confederate Emancipation: Southern Plans to Free and Arm Slaves during the Civil War.
• Logue, Larry M. (1993). "Who Joined the Confederate Army? Soldiers, Civilians, and Communities in Mississippi". Journal of Social History. 26#3 (3): 611–623. doi:10.1353/jsh/26.3.611. JSTOR 3788629.
• Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. "Justice Has Something to Do with It: Class Relations and the Confederate Army." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 113 (2005):

340–377.

• Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia (2007). online
• Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders (LSU Press, 1959).
• Weinert, Richard P., Jr. (1991). The Confederate Regular Army. White Mane Publishing. ISBN 978-0-942597-27-1.
• Weitz, Mark A. (2005). More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army. U of Nebraska Press.
• Wiley, Bell Irvin. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (1943).
• Watson, Samuel J (1994). "Religion and combat motivation in the Confederate armies". Journal of Military History. 58 (1): 29–55. doi:10.2307/2944178. JSTOR 2944178.
• Wright, Marcus J. (1983). General Officers of the Confederate Army. J. M. Carroll & Co. ISBN 978-0-8488-0009-3.

Historiography

• Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. "The Blue and Gray in Black and White: Assessing the Scholarship on Civil War Soldiers," in 'Aaron Sheehan-Dean, ed., 'The View from the Ground: Experiences of Civil War Soldiers (University Press of Kentucky, 2007) pp 9–30.

Primary sources

• Confederate States. War Dept. Regulations for the Army of the Confederate States. Richmond: J.W. Randolph. 1863.
• Robson, John S. (2007). How A One-Legged Rebel Lives: Reminiscences of the Civil War; The Story of the Campaigns of Stonewall Jackson. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84685-665-5.
• U.S. War Department (1880–1901), The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U.S. Government Printing Office

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Confederate States Army.

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Confederate States of America

• Confederate soldiers
• A Manual of Military Surgery (1863). The manual used by doctors in the CSA.
• U.S. Civil War Era Uniforms and Accouterments
• collections/strong/Duke University Libraries Digital Collections – William Emerson Strong Photograph Album 200 cartes-de-visite depicting officers in the Confederate army and navy, officials in the Confederate government, famous Confederate wives, and other notable figures of the Confederacy. Also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew Brady.
• Confederate and State Regulations at confederateuniforms.org
• 1st Confederate Battalion, Forney's Regiment (Living History Organization)
• Black soldiers in the U.S. Civil War
• Confederate Enlistment Oaths and Discharges of the Army of the State of Georgia