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Los Rollos del Mar Muerto (también los Rollos de las Cuevas de Qumrán ) son antiguos manuscritos religiosos judíos y hebreos que se encontraron en las Cuevas de Qumrán en el desierto de Judea , cerca de Ein Feshkha en la costa norte del Mar Muerto en Cisjordania , y el último descubierto pergaminos encontrados en la Cueva del Horror en Israel . [1] [2] En un sentido más amplio, los Rollos del Mar Muerto incluyen manuscritos de sitios adicionales del Desierto de Judea, fechados desde el siglo VIII a. C. y hasta el siglo XI d. C. [3]

La mayoría de los textos usan hebreo, algunos están escritos en arameo (por ejemplo, el texto del Hijo de Dios ; en diferentes dialectos regionales, incluido el nabateo ) y algunos en griego . [4] Los descubrimientos del desierto de Judea agregan textos en latín (de Masada ) y árabe (de Khirbet al-Mird ). [5] La mayoría de los textos están escritos en pergamino , algunos en papiro y uno en cobre . [6]

El consenso académico data estos pergaminos de los últimos tres siglos a . C. y del siglo I d . C. [7] [8] Los textos tienen un gran significado histórico, religioso y lingüístico porque incluyen los segundos manuscritos más antiguos que se conocen de obras que luego se incluyeron en el canon de la Biblia hebrea , junto con manuscritos deuterocanónicos y extrabíblicos que preservan la evidencia de la diversidad del pensamiento religioso en el judaísmo tardío del Segundo Templo . Casi todos los Rollos del Mar Muerto están en poder del estado de Israel en el Santuario del Libro en los terrenos del Museo de Israel., pero Jordania y Palestina disputan la propiedad de los rollos . [9]

Se han descubierto muchos miles de fragmentos escritos en la zona del Mar Muerto. Representan los restos de manuscritos más grandes dañados por causas naturales o por interferencia humana, y la gran mayoría contiene solo pequeños fragmentos de texto. Sin embargo, ha sobrevivido una pequeña cantidad de manuscritos bien conservados, casi intactos, menos de una docena entre los de las cuevas de Qumran. [7] Los investigadores han reunido una colección de 981 manuscritos diferentes , descubiertos en 1946/47 y en 1956, de 11 cuevas. [10] Las 11 cuevas de Qumran se encuentran en las inmediaciones del asentamiento judío del período helenístico en Khirbet Qumran en el desierto oriental de Judea, en Cisjordania. [11]Las cuevas están ubicadas aproximadamente a una milla (1.6 kilómetros) al oeste de la costa noroeste del Mar Muerto, de donde derivan su nombre. El consenso académico data de los Rollos de las Cuevas de Qumrán de los últimos tres siglos a. C. y el siglo I d. C. [7] monedas de bronce que se encuentran en los mismos sitios forman una serie que comienzan con Juan Hircano (135-104 aC en la oficina) y continuando hasta el período de la primera guerra judía-romana (66-73 dC), el apoyo a la radiocarbono y paleográfica citas de los pergaminos . [12]

Los textos bíblicos más antiguos que los Rollos del Mar Muerto se han descubierto solo en dos amuletos de plata en forma de rollo que contienen porciones de la Bendición Sacerdotal del Libro de los Números , excavados en Jerusalén en Ketef Hinnom y fechados c. 600 a. C.; algunos estudiosos también incluyen el controvertido Shapira Scroll .

Los arqueólogos han asociado durante mucho tiempo los rollos con la antigua secta judía llamada los esenios , aunque algunas interpretaciones recientes han desafiado esta conexión y argumentan que sacerdotes en Jerusalén , o Zadokitas , u otros grupos judíos desconocidos escribieron los rollos. [13] [14]

Debido al mal estado de algunos de los rollos, los eruditos no han identificado todos sus textos. Los textos identificados se dividen en tres grupos generales:

  1. Aproximadamente el 40% son copias de textos de las Escrituras hebreas .
  2. Aproximadamente otro 30% son textos del Período del Segundo Templo que finalmente no fueron canonizados en la Biblia hebrea , como el Libro de Enoc , el Libro de los Jubileos , el Libro de Tobit , la Sabiduría de Eclesiástico , Salmos 152-155 , etc.
  3. El resto (aproximadamente el 30%) son manuscritos sectarios de documentos previamente desconocidos que arrojan luz sobre las reglas y creencias de un grupo particular ( secta ) o grupos dentro del gran judaísmo , como la Regla de la Comunidad , el Pergamino de Guerra , el Pesher en Habacuc y La regla de la bendición . [15] [ necesita cotización para verificar ]

Descubrimiento

Cuevas de Qumran
Cueva 4 de Qumran, donde se encontraron el noventa por ciento de los rollos

Los Rollos del Mar Muerto fueron descubiertos en una serie de doce cuevas alrededor del sitio originalmente conocido como las " Cuevas de Ein Feshkha " cerca del Mar Muerto en Cisjordania (entonces parte de Jordania ) entre 1946 y 1956 por pastores beduinos y un equipo de arqueólogos. . [16] La práctica de almacenar manuscritos sagrados gastados en vasijas de barro enterradas en la tierra o dentro de cuevas está relacionada con la antigua costumbre judía de Genizah .

Descubrimiento inicial (1946-1947)

El descubrimiento inicial del pastor beduino Muhammed edh-Dhib, su primo Jum'a Muhammed, y Khalil Musa, tuvo lugar entre noviembre de 1946 y febrero de 1947. [17] [18] Los pastores descubrieron siete rollos (ver Rollos y fragmentos ) alojados en jarras en una cueva cerca de lo que ahora se conoce como el sitio de Qumran. John C. Trever reconstruyó la historia de los pergaminos a partir de varias entrevistas con los beduinos . El primo de Edh-Dhib notó las cuevas, pero el propio edh-Dhib fue el primero en caer en una (la cueva ahora llamada Cueva 1). Recuperó un puñado de pergaminos, que Trever identifica como el Pergamino de Isaías , el Comentario de Habacuc y la Regla de la Comunidad.y los llevó de regreso al campamento para mostrárselos a su familia. Ninguno de los rollos fue destruido en este proceso. [19] Los beduinos mantenían los rollos colgando de un poste de la tienda mientras pensaban qué hacer con ellos, sacándolos periódicamente para mostrárselos a su gente. En algún momento durante este tiempo, la Regla de la Comunidad se dividió en dos. Los beduinos primero llevaron los pergaminos a un comerciante llamado Ibrahim 'Ijha en Belén.. 'Ijha los devolvió, diciendo que no valían nada, después de ser advertido de que podrían haber sido robados de una sinagoga. Sin desanimarse, los beduinos fueron a un mercado cercano, donde un cristiano sirio se ofreció a comprarlos. Un jeque se unió a la conversación y sugirió que llevaran los pergaminos a Khalil Eskander Shahin, "Kando", un zapatero y comerciante de antigüedades a tiempo parcial. Los beduinos y los comerciantes regresaron al sitio, dejando un pergamino con Kando y vendiendo otros tres a un comerciante por 7 libras jordanas (aproximadamente $ 28, o $ 321 en dólares de 2019). [19] [20] Los pergaminos originales continuaron cambiando de manos después de que los beduinos los dejaran en posesión de un tercero hasta que se pudiera arreglar una venta. (Ver Propiedad ).

En 1947, los siete pergaminos originales llamaron la atención de John C. Trever, de las Escuelas Estadounidenses de Investigación Oriental (ASOR), quien comparó el guión de los pergaminos con el del Papiro de Nash , el manuscrito bíblico más antiguo conocido en ese momento, y encontró similitudes. entre ellos. En marzo de 1948, la guerra árabe-israelí provocó el traslado de algunos de los pergaminos a Beirut , Líbano , para su custodia. El 11 de abril de 1948, Millar Burrows , jefe de la ASOR, anunció el descubrimiento de los pergaminos en un comunicado de prensa general.

Búsqueda de las cuevas de Qumrán (1948-1949)

A principios de septiembre de 1948, el obispo metropolitano Mar Samuel llevó algunos fragmentos de pergaminos adicionales que había adquirido al profesor Ovid R. Sellers , el nuevo director de ASOR. A fines de 1948, casi dos años después de su descubrimiento, los estudiosos aún tenían que localizar la cueva original donde se habían encontrado los fragmentos. Con los disturbios en el país en ese momento, no se pudo realizar una búsqueda a gran escala de manera segura. Sellers intentó que los sirios ayudaran en la búsqueda de la cueva, pero no pudo pagar el precio. A principios de 1949, el gobierno de Jordania dio permiso a la Legión Árabe para registrar el área donde se pensaba que estaba la cueva original de Qumrán. En consecuencia, la cueva 1 fue redescubierta el 28 de enero de 1949, por belgasEl observador de las Naciones Unidas , el capitán Phillipe Lippens, y el capitán de la Legión Árabe, Akkash el-Zebn. [21]

Redescubrimiento de las cuevas de Qumrán y nuevos descubrimientos de pergaminos (1949-1951)

Una vista del Mar Muerto desde una cueva en Qumrán en la que se descubrieron algunos de los Rollos del Mar Muerto.

El redescubrimiento de lo que se conoció como "Cueva 1" en Qumran provocó la excavación inicial del sitio del 15 de febrero al 5 de marzo de 1949 por parte del Departamento de Antigüedades de Jordania dirigido por Gerald Lankester Harding y Roland de Vaux . [22] El sitio de la Cueva 1 arrojó descubrimientos de fragmentos adicionales de Rollos del Mar Muerto, lienzos, jarras y otros artefactos. [23]

Excavaciones de Qumrán y nuevos descubrimientos de cuevas (1951-1956, 2017, 2021)

En noviembre de 1951, Roland de Vaux y su equipo de la ASOR comenzaron una excavación completa de Qumran. [24] En febrero de 1952, los beduinos habían descubierto 30 fragmentos en lo que iba a ser designado Cueva 2. [25] El descubrimiento de una segunda cueva finalmente produjo 300 fragmentos de 33 manuscritos, incluidos fragmentos de Jubileos y la Sabiduría de Sirach escritos en Hebreo. [23] [24] El mes siguiente, el 14 de marzo de 1952, el equipo de ASOR descubrió una tercera cueva con fragmentos de Jubileos y el Rollo de Cobre . [25] Entre septiembre y diciembre de 1952, los equipos de ASOR descubrieron posteriormente los fragmentos y rollos de las Cuevas 4, 5 y 6. [24]

Con el valor monetario de los rollos aumentando a medida que su importancia histórica se hizo más pública, los beduinos y los arqueólogos de ASOR aceleraron su búsqueda de los rollos por separado en la misma área general de Qumran, que tenía más de 1 kilómetro de longitud. Entre 1953 y 1956, Roland de Vaux dirigió cuatro expediciones arqueológicas más en el área para descubrir pergaminos y artefactos. [23] La cueva 11 fue descubierta en 1956 y produjo los últimos fragmentos que se encontraron en las cercanías de Qumran. [26]

Las cuevas 4 a 10 están agrupadas en un área que se encuentra en una proximidad relativa de 160 yardas (aproximadamente 150 metros) de Khirbet Qumran, mientras que las cuevas 1, 2, 3 y 11 están ubicadas a 1 milla (1 a 2 kilómetros) al norte, siendo la cueva 3 el más remoto. [27] [28]

En febrero de 2017, los arqueólogos de la Universidad Hebrea anunciaron el descubrimiento de una nueva cueva número 12. [29] Se encontró un pergamino en blanco en un frasco; sin embargo, los frascos de pergaminos rotos y vacíos y los picos sugieren que la cueva fue saqueada en la década de 1950. [30]

En marzo de 2021, los arqueólogos israelíes anunciaron el descubrimiento de docenas de fragmentos con texto bíblico, escritos en griego de los libros de Zacarías y Nahum . Se cree que este grupo particular de hallazgos se escondió en una cueva entre 132 y 136 EC durante la revuelta de Bar Kokhba . [31] Sin embargo, también se descubrió una canasta de 10.500 años de antigüedad hecha de cañas tejidas en las cuevas de Muraba'at en la Reserva Nahal Darga. Otros descubrimientos fueron los restos de un niño envuelto en tela que data de hace unos 6.000 años y un alijo de monedas de los días de la revuelta de Bar Kojba. [32]

Rollos y fragmentos

El rollo de Isaías (1QIsa a ) contiene casi todo el Libro de Isaías .

Los 972 manuscritos encontrados en Qumrán se encontraron principalmente en dos formatos separados: como pergaminos y como fragmentos de pergaminos y textos anteriores. En la cuarta cueva, los fragmentos se rompieron en hasta 15.000 pedazos. Estos pequeños fragmentos crearon un problema para los estudiosos. GL Harding, director del Departamento de Antigüedades de Jordania , comenzó a trabajar en unir los fragmentos, pero no lo terminó antes de su muerte en 1979. [33]

Cueva 1

Los siete rollos originales de la Cueva 1 en Qumrán son el Gran Rollo de Isaías (1QIsa a ), una segunda copia de Isaías ( 1QIsa b ), el Rollo de la Regla de la Comunidad (1QS), el Pesher Habacuc (1QpHab), el Rollo de Guerra (1QM) , los Himnos de Acción de Gracias (1QH) y el Génesis Apocryphon (1QapGen). [34]

Cueva 2

Cueva 3

Cuevas 4a y 4b

El rollo de documentos de Damasco , 4Q271D f , que se encuentra en la cueva 4
4Q7, un fragmento del libro de Génesis encontrado en la Cueva 4

La cueva 4 fue descubierta en agosto de 1952 y excavada el 22 y 29 de septiembre de 1952 por Gerald Lankester Harding , Roland de Vaux y Józef Milik . [25] [129] La cueva 4 son en realidad dos cuevas cortadas a mano (4a y 4b), pero como los fragmentos se mezclaron, están etiquetados como 4Q. La cueva 4 es la más famosa de las cuevas de Qumran tanto por su visibilidad desde la meseta de Qumran como por su productividad. Es visible desde la meseta al sur del asentamiento de Qumrán. Es, con mucho, la más productiva de todas las cuevas de Qumrán, ya que produce el noventa por ciento de los Rollos del Mar Muerto y fragmentos de rollos (aproximadamente 15.000 fragmentos de 500 textos diferentes), incluidas 9-10 copias de Jubileos, junto con 21 tefilín y 7mezuzot .

Cueva 5

La cueva 5 fue descubierta junto a la cueva 6 en 1952, poco después del descubrimiento de la cueva 4. La cueva 5 produjo aproximadamente 25 manuscritos. [25]

Cueva 6

La cueva 6 fue descubierta junto a la cueva 5 en 1952, poco después del descubrimiento de la cueva 4. La cueva 6 contenía fragmentos de unos 31 manuscritos. [25]

Lista de grupos de fragmentos recogidos de la cueva 6 de Wadi Qumran: [376] [377]

Cueva 7

Fragmentos de Rollo del Mar Muerto 7Q4, 7Q5 y 7Q8 de la Cueva 7 en Qumran, escritos en papiro.

La cueva 7 produjo menos de 20 fragmentos de documentos griegos, incluido el 7Q2 (la " Carta de Jeremías " = Baruc 6), el 7Q5 (que se convirtió en objeto de mucha especulación en décadas posteriores) y una copia griega de un rollo de Enoc. [409] [410] [411] La cueva 7 también produjo varios tiestos y jarras con inscripciones. [412]

Listas de grupos de fragmentos recogidos de la cueva 7 de Wadi Qumran: [376] [377]

Cueva 8

La cueva 8, junto con las cuevas 7 y 9, fue una de las únicas cuevas a las que se puede acceder pasando por el asentamiento de Qumrán. Tallada en el extremo sur de la meseta de Qumran, la cueva 8 fue excavada por arqueólogos en 1957.

La cueva 8 produjo cinco fragmentos: Génesis (8QGen), Salmos (8QPs), un fragmento de tefilín (8QPhyl), una mezuzá (8QMez) y un himno (8QHymn). [419] La cueva 8 también produjo varios estuches de tefilín, una caja de objetos de cuero, toneladas de lámparas, frascos y la suela de un zapato de cuero. [412]

Lista de grupos de fragmentos recogidos de la cueva 8 de Wadi Qumran: [376] [377]

Cueva 9

La cueva 9, junto con las cuevas 7 y 8, fue una de las únicas cuevas a las que se puede acceder pasando por el asentamiento de Qumran. Tallada en el extremo sur de la meseta de Qumran, la cueva 9 fue excavada por arqueólogos en 1957. Solo se encontró un fragmento en la cueva 9.

Cueva 10

En la Cueva 10, los arqueólogos encontraron dos ostraca con escritura en ellos, junto con un símbolo desconocido en una losa de piedra gris.

Cueva 11

Una vista de parte del Rollo del Templo que se encontró en la Cueva 11 de Qumrán.

La cueva 11 fue descubierta en 1956 y produjo 21 textos, algunos de los cuales eran bastante largos. El Rollo del Templo, llamado así porque más de la mitad pertenece a la construcción del Templo de Jerusalén , se encontró en la Cueva 11 y es, con mucho, el rollo más largo. Ahora tiene 26,7 pies (8,15 m) de largo. Su longitud original puede haber sido de más de 28 pies (8,75 m). El Rollo del Templo fue considerado por Yigael Yadin como "La Torá según los esenios". Por otro lado, Hartmut Stegemann, contemporáneo y amigo de Yadin, creía que el pergamino no debía considerarse como tal, sino que era un documento sin un significado excepcional. Stegemann señala que no se menciona ni se cita en ningún escrito esenio conocido. [421]

También en la Cueva 11, se encontró un fragmento escatológico sobre la figura bíblica Melquisedec ( 11Q13 ). La cueva 11 también produjo una copia de los Jubileos y un texto proto-masotérico del rollo de la Torá (solo un fragmento del Libro de Levítico que sobrevive), conocido como el rollo del Levítico Paleo-Hebreo .

Según el ex editor en jefe del equipo editorial del DSS, John Strugnell , hay al menos cuatro pergaminos de propiedad privada de la Cueva 11, que aún no se han puesto a disposición de los académicos. Entre ellos se encuentra un manuscrito arameo completo del Libro de Enoc. [422]

Lista de grupos de fragmentos recolectados de la cueva 11 de Wadi Qumran:

Cueva 12

La cueva 12 fue descubierta en febrero de 2017 en los acantilados al oeste de Qumrán, cerca de la costa noroeste del Mar Muerto. [29] El examen arqueológico encontró picos y frascos de pergaminos rotos y vacíos, lo que indica que la cueva había sido descubierta y saqueada en la década de 1950. Uno de los investigadores principales del proyecto conjunto de la Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén y la Universidad Liberty de Virginia, el Dr. Oren Gutfeld, declaró: "Aunque al final del día no se encontró ningún pergamino, y en su lugar 'solo' encontramos un trozo de pergamino enrollado en una jarra que estaba siendo procesada para escribir, los hallazgos indican más allá de toda duda que la cueva contenía pergaminos que fueron robados ". [30]

Fragmentos de procedencia desconocida

Algunos fragmentos de rollos no tienen una procedencia arqueológica significativa ni registros que revelen en qué área designada de la cueva de Qumrán se encontraron. Se cree que provienen de las cuevas de Wadi Qumran, pero es muy probable que provengan de otros sitios arqueológicos en el área del desierto de Judea. [426] Por lo tanto, estos fragmentos se han designado a la serie temporal "X".

Galería

  • Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, completo, Testimonia, de la cueva 4 de Qumran, el Museo de Jordania en Amman

  • Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la cueva 1 de Qumrán, completo, el Museo de Jordania en Amman

  • El pergamino de guerra , que se encuentra en la cueva 1 de Qumran.

  • Una porción de la segunda copia descubierta del rollo de Isaías , 1QIsa b .

  • Parte del rollo 28a del mar Muerto de la cueva 1 de Qumrán. Museo de Jordania, Ammán

  • Rollo del Mar Muerto, Pesher Isaiah, de la cueva de Qumrán 4. Museo de Jordania, Ammán

  • Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, Testimonia, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán. Museo de Jordania, Ammán

  • Rollo 109 del Mar Muerto, Qohelet o Eclesiastés, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán. Museo de Jordania, Ammán

  • Rollos del Mar Muerto en el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Tiras del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto en el Museo de Jordania, de la cueva de Qumran 3, siglo I d.C.

  • Tira 11 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumrán 3, Museo de Jordania

  • Tira 15 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumrán 3, Museo de Jordania

  • Tira 13 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumrán 3, Museo de Jordania

  • Tiras 1 y 2 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumran 3, Museo de Jordania

  • Rollo 109 del Mar Muerto, Qohelet o Eclesiastés, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Rollo 109 del Mar Muerto, Qohelet o Eclesiastés, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán, en el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Rollo del Mar Muerto, Pesher Isaiah, de Qumran Cave 4, el Museo de Jordania en Amman

  • Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, Testimonia, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Detalle, Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, Testimonia, de la Cueva 4 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la cueva 1 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Parte del Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la Cueva 1 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Parte del Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la Cueva 1 de Qumrán, en el Museo de Jordania en Ammán

  • Fragmento de Rollo del Mar Muerto 5 / 6HEV PS encontrado en la Cueva de las Letras en Nahal Hever

Origen

Ha habido mucho debate sobre el origen de los Rollos del Mar Muerto. La teoría dominante sigue siendo que los pergaminos fueron producidos por los esenios , una secta de judíos que vivían en la cercana Qumrán, pero esta teoría ha sido cuestionada por varios estudiosos modernos. [427]

Teoría de Qumran-Esenia

La opinión entre los eruditos, sostenida casi universalmente hasta la década de 1990, es la hipótesis "Qumran-Essene" propuesta originalmente por Roland Guérin de Vaux [428] y Józef Tadeusz Milik, [429] aunque independientemente tanto Eliezer Sukenik como Butrus Sowmy del Monasterio de San Marcos. relacionó los pergaminos con los esenios mucho antes de cualquier excavación en Qumrán. [430] La teoría de Qumran-Essene sostiene que los pergaminos fueron escritos por los esenios, o por otro grupo sectario judío, que residía en Khirbet Qumran . Ellos compusieron los pergaminos y finalmente los escondieron en las cuevas cercanas durante la Revuelta Judía.en algún momento entre 66 y 68 d.C. El sitio de Qumran fue destruido y los rollos nunca se recuperaron. Se utilizan varios argumentos para apoyar esta teoría.

  • Existen sorprendentes similitudes entre la descripción de una ceremonia de iniciación de nuevos miembros en la Regla de la Comunidad y las descripciones de la ceremonia de iniciación esenia mencionada en las obras de Flavius Josephus , un historiador judío-romano del período del Segundo Templo.
  • Josefo menciona que los esenios comparten la propiedad entre los miembros de la comunidad, al igual que la Regla de la comunidad.
  • Durante la excavación de Khirbet Qumran, se encontraron dos tinteros y elementos enlucidos que se cree que eran tablas, lo que ofrece evidencia de que se hizo algún tipo de escritura allí. Se descubrieron más tinteros cerca. De Vaux llamó a esta área el " scriptorium " basado en este descubrimiento.
  • Se descubrieron varios baños rituales judíos (hebreo: miqvah = מקוה) en Qumrán, lo que ofrece evidencia de una presencia judía observadora en el sitio.
  • Plinio el Viejo (un geógrafo que escribió después de la caída de Jerusalén en 70 EC) describe a un grupo de esenios que vivían en una comunidad desértica en la costa noroeste del Mar Muerto cerca de la ciudad en ruinas de ' Ein Gedi .

Teoría sectaria de Qumrán

Las teorías de Qumran-Sectarian son variaciones de la teoría de Qumran-Essene. El principal punto de partida de la teoría de Qumran-Esenia es la vacilación en vincular los Rollos del Mar Muerto específicamente con los Esenios. La mayoría de los defensores de la teoría sectaria de Qumrán entienden que un grupo de judíos que viven en o cerca de Qumrán son responsables de los Rollos del Mar Muerto, pero no necesariamente concluyen que los sectarios son esenios.

Una variación específica de la teoría sectaria de Qumrán que ha ganado mucha popularidad reciente es el trabajo de Lawrence H. Schiffman , quien propone que la comunidad estaba dirigida por un grupo de sacerdotes sadokitas ( saduceos ). [431] El documento más importante en apoyo de este punto de vista es el " Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah " (4QMMT), que cita leyes de pureza (como la transferencia de impurezas) idénticas a las atribuidas en los escritos rabínicos a los saduceos. 4QMMT también reproduce un calendario de festivales que sigue los principios saduceos para la datación de ciertos días festivos.

Teoría del origen cristiano

El jesuita español José O'Callaghan Martínez argumentó en la década de 1960 que un fragmento (7Q5) conserva una parte del texto del Evangelio del Nuevo Testamento de Marcos 6: 52–53. [432] Esta teoría fue examinada en el año 2000 mediante el análisis paleográfico del fragmento particular. Sin embargo, esto enfrentó cierta controversia, y la teoría de O'Callaghan sigue siendo un área de gran controversia. Análisis posteriores en 2004 y 2018 han dado crédito a la afirmación original de O'Callaghan.

Robert Eisenman ha adelantado la teoría de que algunos rollos describen la comunidad cristiana primitiva . Eisenman también argumentó que las carreras de Santiago el Justo y Pablo el Apóstol corresponden a eventos registrados en algunos de estos documentos. [433]

Teoría del origen de Jerusalén

Algunos eruditos han argumentado que los rollos fueron producto de judíos que vivían en Jerusalén, quienes escondieron los rollos en las cuevas cerca de Qumrán mientras huían de los romanos durante la destrucción de Jerusalén en el 70 EC. [434] Karl Heinrich Rengstorf propuso por primera vez que los Rollos del Mar Muerto se originaron en la biblioteca del Templo Judío de Jerusalén . [435] Más tarde, Norman Golb sugirió que los rollos eran el producto de múltiples bibliotecas en Jerusalén, y no necesariamente la biblioteca del Templo de Jerusalén. [436] [437]Los defensores de la teoría del origen de Jerusalén señalan la diversidad de pensamiento y escritura entre los pergaminos como evidencia contra el origen de Qumran de los pergaminos. Varios arqueólogos también han aceptado un origen de los pergaminos distintos a Qumran, incluidos Yizhar Hirschfeld [438] y más recientemente Yizhak Magen y Yuval Peleg, [439] quienes entienden que los restos de Qumran son los de un fuerte hasmoneo que fue reutilizado durante períodos posteriores.

Características físicas

Los fragmentos 1 y 2 de '7Q6' de la Cueva 7 están escritos en papiro.

Datación por radiocarbono

El pergamino de varios Rollos del Mar Muerto ha sido fechado con carbono . La prueba inicial realizada en 1950 fue en un trozo de ropa de una de las cuevas. Esta prueba dio una datación indicativa de 33 EC más o menos 200 años, eliminando las primeras hipótesis que relacionan los rollos con el período medieval. [440] Desde entonces, se han realizado dos grandes series de pruebas en los propios pergaminos. Los resultados fueron resumidos por VanderKam y Flint, quienes dijeron que las pruebas dan "fuertes razones para pensar que la mayoría de los manuscritos de Qumran pertenecen a los dos últimos siglos a. C. y al siglo I d. C." [20] : 32

Datación paleográfica

El análisis de las formas de las letras, o paleografía , fue aplicado a los textos de los Rollos del Mar Muerto por una variedad de estudiosos en el campo. Los principales análisis lingüísticos de Cross y Avigad datan de fragmentos del 225 a. C. al 50 d. C. [441] Estas fechas se determinaron examinando el tamaño, la variabilidad y el estilo del texto. [442] Los mismos fragmentos se analizaron más tarde utilizando la datación por radiocarbono y se fecharon en un rango estimado de 385 a. C. a 82 d. C. con una tasa de precisión del 68%. [441]

Tinta y pergamino

Los rollos se analizaron usando un ciclotrón en la Universidad de California, Davis , donde se encontró que toda la tinta negra era negro de carbón . [443] Se descubrió que la tinta roja de los rollos estaba hecha con cinabrio (HgS, sulfuro de mercurio). [444] Solo hay cuatro usos de esta tinta roja en toda la colección de fragmentos de Rollos del Mar Muerto. [444] Las tintas negras que se encuentran en los rollos están hechas principalmente de hollín de carbón de lámparas de aceite de oliva . [445] A menudo se agregaba miel, aceite, vinagre y agua a la mezcla para diluir la tinta y obtener una consistencia adecuada para escribir. [445] Agallasa veces se agregaban a la tinta para hacerla más resistente. [445] Para aplicar la tinta a los pergaminos, sus escritores utilizaron bolígrafos de caña . [446]

Los rollos del Mar Muerto se escribieron en pergamino hecho de piel de animal procesada conocida como vitela (aproximadamente 85,5 a 90,5% de los rollos), papiro (estimado en 8,0 a 13,0% de los rollos) y láminas de bronce compuestas de aproximadamente 99,0% de cobre. y 1,0% de estaño (aproximadamente 1,5% de los rollos). [446] [447] Para los pergaminos escritos en pieles de animales, los estudiosos de la Autoridad de Antigüedades de Israel, mediante el uso de pruebas de ADN para fines de ensamblaje, creen que puede haber una jerarquía en la importancia religiosa de los textos según el tipo de animal. se utilizó para crear la piel. Rollos escritos en cabra yLos estudiosos consideran que las pieles de becerro son de naturaleza más significativa, mientras que las escritas en gacelas o íbices se consideran de naturaleza menos significativa desde el punto de vista religioso. [448]

Además, las pruebas realizadas por el Instituto Nacional de Física Nuclear en Sicilia , Italia , han sugerido que el origen del pergamino de fragmentos selectos del Rollo del Mar Muerto proviene del área de Qumran, mediante el uso de rayos X y pruebas de emisión de rayos X inducida por partículas . del agua utilizada para hacer el pergamino que se comparó con el agua del área alrededor del sitio de Qumrán. [449]

Preservación

Dos de los frascos de cerámica que contenían algunos de los Rollos del Mar Muerto encontrados en Qumrán.
Dos frascos de Rollos del Mar Muerto en el Museo de Jordania, Ammán

The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea.[450] In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation.[451] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[452] During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents.[452] The Government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls.[453] However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequately studied".[453]

In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum (commonly called the Rockefeller Museum)[454] in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[20]:63–65 The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards.[20] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 war waged by Israel, Britain and France against Egypt, the scrolls collection of the Palestine Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[455] Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 led to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault.[455] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[453] Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[20][452]

Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[452] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus or bronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[456] In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were among the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[20] Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[20] In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[452]

In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature-controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[452] The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[452]

Nine tiny phylactery slips were rediscovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) in 2014, after they had been stored unopened for six decades following their excavation in 1952. The IAA is preparing to unroll the phylacteries or tefillin once a safe procedure has been decided upon.[457][458]

Photography and assembly

Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization.

First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948)

The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (1916–2006), a Biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[20]:68 He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[20]:26[459][460] Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over the years, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings.

Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (1952–1967)

A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The Museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem,[461] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five-stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, using infrared photography. Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography, Najib and the team at the Museum produced over 1,750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments.[20]:68[462][463][464] The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin, using large format film, which caused the text to stand out, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[20]:68 These are the earliest photographs of the museum's collection, which was the most complete in the world at the time, and they recorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage, so they are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls.[465]

Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012)

A previously unreadable fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls photographed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory using digital infrared technology. Translated into English it reads: "He wrote the words of Noah."

Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[466] In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed.[467] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[467] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result, image distortion is significantly diminished.[466] This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[466] The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts.[468]

On 18 December 2012[469] the first output of this project was launched together with Google on the dedicated site Deadseascrolls.org.il.[470] The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology.[471]

Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2020)

Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used.[448] In a paper published in 2020 in the journal Cell, researchers from Tel Aviv University have shown that ancient DNA extracted from the ancient scrolls can be used to sort different scroll fragments not only based on the animal species but also based on variations in the nuclear genome of individual fragments. This effort enabled the researchers to match different fragments to each other based on their genetics and separate fragments which were falsely connected in the past.[472][473]

Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016)

In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[474] The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-II back in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[475] With photos taken at 1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a second exposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[474] The digital photography project was estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars.[475]

Scholarly examination

Eleazar Sukenik examining one of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1951.

After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the "Scrollery".[476]

The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean.

Publication

Physical publication and controversy

Scholars assembling Dead Sea Scrolls fragments at the Rockefeller Museum (formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum).

Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their translations into English soon followed.

Controversy

Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Norman Golb, publishers and writers such as Hershel Shanks, and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts, so that they become available to researchers. This controversy only ended in 1991, when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the "Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", after an intervention of the Israeli government and the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA).[485] In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation, and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year.

Physical description

The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was limited to the editorial committee.[citation needed]

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (1955–2009)

Emanuel Tov, who was Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project and, as a result, responsible for the publication of 32 volumes of the Discoveries in the Judaean Desert series. He also worked to publish a six-volume printed edition with a majority of the non-Biblical Dead Sea Scrolls and make the same volumes available electronically on CD in a collection titled "The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader".

The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series by Oxford University Press published between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judaean Desert.[486] In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them.[487] The initial publication, assembled by Dominique Barthélemy and Józef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955.[486] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch–Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov's team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009.

A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[488] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the library's complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[489]

A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[490] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement for publishing, without authorization or attribution, his decipherment of one of the scrolls, MMT. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993.[491] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies.[492] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars.[493][494][495][496][497]

The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008)

In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), and The Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[498][499] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah scroll.[498]

Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets including facsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 (now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Amman, Jordan) Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009. The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment. The complete facsimile set (three scrolls including the Isaiah scroll and the three Jordanian fragments) can be purchased for $60,000.[498]

The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrân. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France (2010)[500] and Verbum Domini at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012).[501]

Digital publication

Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011)

The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.[502] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader, on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks.

The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005)

The text of almost all of the non-Biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005.[503] The 2400 page, 6 volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov.[504] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic and liturgical works.[503]

Israel Antiquities Authority and Google digitization project (2010–2016)

High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites.

On 19 October 2010, it was announced[505] that Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge,[506] on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. The project is scheduled for completion within five years.

On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online.[507][508] It gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online: the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll.

Biblical significance

Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew-language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE, such as the Aleppo Codex.[509] Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century. The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years, to the 2nd century BCE.[510] This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand. The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand-year period, rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works.

According to The Dead Sea Scrolls by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows,

Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, there are only seventeen letters in question. Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. Four more letters are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining three letters comprise the word "light," which is added in verse 11, and does not affect the meaning greatly.[511]

It is important to note that differences were found among fragments of texts. According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology:

While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A.D. 100.[512]

Biblical books found

There are 225 Biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235.[513][514] The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Sirach, Baruch 6 (also known as the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah), and Psalm 151.[513] The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because, as a Jew, her marriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran,[515] or because the book has the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar.[20]:180 Listed below are the most represented books, along with the deuterocanonicals, of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the number of translatable Dead Sea texts that represent a copy of scripture from each Biblical book:[516][517]

Non-biblical books

The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the Biblical books, but a different consensus has emerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed by them.[521] Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period, when some of the Biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form.[521]

Museum exhibitions and displays

Visitors examining Dead Sea Scrolls displayed at the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem.
Strip of the Copper Scroll from Qumran Cave 3 written in the Hebrew Mishnaic dialect, on display at the Jordan Museum, Amman

Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-Day War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage.

The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection was moved to Jerusalem's Shrine of the Book (a part of the Israel Museum) after the building's completion in April 1965.[522] The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other famous fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[523][524]

Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 was stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. In 2013 parts of this collection have been put on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman, to which they were moved from the Jordan Archaeological Museum.[525] Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[526]

Ownership

Past ownership

Advertisement in The Wall Street Journal dated 1 June 1954 for four of the "Dead Sea Scrolls."

Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the now famous Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), the Community Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book of Habakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar, archaeologists at Hebrew University, soon found themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah scroll (1QIsab).

Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls eventually went up for sale in an advertisement on 1 June 1954, The Wall Street Journal.[527] On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000 (approximately $2,400,000 in 2019 dollars[528]), and brought to Jerusalem.[529]Since 2002, forgeries of alleged Dead Sea Scrolls have appeared on black markets.[530]

Current ownership

Israel claims ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection currently housed in the Shrine of the Book on the grounds of the Israel Museum. This ownership is contested by both Jordan and by the Palestinian Authority.[531]

A list of known ownership of Dead Sea Scroll fragments:

Note:

  • In 2020 Museum of the Bible (also known as Green Collection – Green Family) reported that all 16 of the museum's Dead Sea Scroll fragments acquired between 2009 and 2014[538][540] are modern forgeries.[541][542]

Ownership disputes

The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Israel, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli–Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition.

Copyright disputes

There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous; the documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law.

In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[551] In an appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak, the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favor.[552] The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorship and originality.

The court's ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of, in the words of U.S. copyright law professor David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer has shown how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[551]

See also

  • Ancient Hebrew writings
  • Cairo Geniza
  • Jordan Lead Codices
  • Nag Hammadi library
  • Oxyrhynchus Papyri
  • Teacher of Righteousness
  • The Book of Mysteries

Notes

  1. ^ 10 Scrolls containing fragments of all 12 of the "Minor Prophets" were found in Cave 4, although no fragment contains portions of more than three prophets.[518]
  2. ^ There are four Aramaic fragmentary texts of Tobit, and one Hebrew text.[519]

References

Citations

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  316. ^ 4Q197 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  317. ^ 4Q198 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
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Sources

Books
  • Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English, San Francisco: Harper, 2002. ISBN 0-06-060064-0, (contains the biblical portion of the scrolls)
  • Abegg, Jr. Martin, James E. Bowley, Edward M. Cook, Emanuel Tov. The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance, Vol 1. "The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance, Volume 1". Brill.nl. 2007. Archived from the original on 5 November 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2010. Brill Publishing 2003. ISBN 90-04-12521-3.
  • Allegro, John Marco, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth (ISBN 0-7153-7680-2), Westbridge Books, UK, 1979.
  • Berg, Simon. Insights into the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Beginner's Guide, BookSurge Publishing, 2009.
  • Boccaccini, Gabriele. Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
  • Burrows, Millar (1955). The Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-5176-2535-0.
  • Burrows, Millar (1958). More Light on the Dead Sea Scrolls; New Scrolls and New Interpretations, with Translations of Important Recent Discoveries. New York: Viking.
  • Charlesworth, James H. "The Theologies of the Dead Sea Scrolls." pp. xv–xxi in The Faith of Qumran: Theology of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by H. Ringgren. New York: Crossroad, 1995.
  • Chernoivanenko, Vitaly. "The Jerusalem Theory of the Dead Sea Scrolls Authorship: Origins, Evolution, and Discussions," in Ukrainian Orientalistics: Special Issue on Jewish Studies, Кyiv: NaUKMA Omeljan Pritsak Center for Oriental Studies, 2011: 9–29.
  • Collins, John J., Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, New York: Routledge, 1997.
  • Collins, John J., and Craig A. Evans. Christian Beginnings and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006.
  • Cook, Edward M. (1994). Solving the Mysteries of the Dead Sea Scrolls: New Light on the Bible, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
  • Cross, Frank Moore (1995). The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed., Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-2807-1
  • Davies, A. Powell (1956). The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Signet.
  • Davies, Philip R., George J. Brooke, and Phillip R. Callaway (2002). The Complete World of the Dead Sea Scrolls, London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05111-9
  • de Vaux, Roland, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Schweich Lectures of the British Academy, 1959). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973.
  • Dimant, Devorah, and Uriel Rappaport (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, Leiden and Jerusalem: E.J. Brill, Magnes Press, Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1992.
  • Eisenman, Robert H., The Dead Sea Scrolls and the First Christians, Shaftesbury: Element, 1996.
  • Eisenman, Robert H., and Michael O. Wise. The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered: The First Complete Translation and Interpretation of 50 Key Documents Withheld for Over 35 Years, Shaftesbury: Element, 1992.
  • Eisenman, Robert H. and James Robinson, A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 2 vol., Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991.
  • Fitzmyer, Joseph A., Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Paulist Press 1992, ISBN 0-8091-3348-2
  • Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
  • Galor, Katharina, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jürgen Zangenberg. Qumran: The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates: Proceedings of a Conference held at Brown University, 17–19 November 2002, Edited by Florentino García Martínez, Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
  • García-Martinez, Florentino, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, (Translated from Spanish into English by Wilfred G. E. Watson) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994).
  • García Martínez Florentino, Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, Editors, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition, Brill, 1999
  • Gaster, Theodor H., The Dead Sea Scriptures, Peter Smith Pub Inc., 1976. ISBN 0-8446-6702-1
  • Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran, New York: Scribner, 1995.
  • Golb, Norman, On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine, University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 5 June 2009.
  • Heline, Theodore, Dead Sea Scrolls, New Age Bible & Philosophy Center, 1957, Reprint edition 1987, ISBN 0-933963-16-5
  • Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2004.
  • Israeli, Raphael, [2] Piracy in Qumran: The Battle over the Scrolls of the Pre-Christ Era], Transaction Publishers: 2008 ISBN 978-1-4128-0703-6
  • Khabbaz, C., "Les manuscrits de la mer Morte et le secret de leurs auteurs", Beirut, 2006. (Ce livre identifie les auteurs des fameux manuscrits de la mer Morte et dévoile leur secret).
  • Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, The Qumran Excavations 1993–2004: Preliminary Report, JSP 6 (Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007) Download Archived 28 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  • Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, "Back to Qumran: Ten years of Excavations and Research, 1993–2004," in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57), Brill, 2006 (pp. 55–116).
  • Magness, Jodi, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002.
  • Maier, Johann, The Temple Scroll, [German edition was 1978], (Sheffield:JSOT Press [Supplement 34], 1985).
  • Milik, Józef Tadeusz, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judea, London: SCM, 1959.
  • Muro, E. A., "The Greek Fragments of Enoch from Qumran Cave 7 (7Q4, 7Q8, &7Q12 = 7QEn gr = Enoch 103:3–4, 7–8)." Revue de Qumran 18, no. 70 (1997): 307, 12, pl. 1.
  • O'Callaghan-Martínez, Josep, Cartas Cristianas Griegas del Siglo V, Barcelona: E. Balmes, 1963.
  • Qimron, Elisha, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies, 1986. (This is a serious discussion of the Hebrew language of the scrolls.)
  • Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumran und die Bibliothek vom Toten Meer, Translated by J. R. Wilkie. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1960.
  • Roitman, Adolfo, ed. A Day at Qumran: The Dead Sea Sect and Its Scrolls. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum, 1998.
  • Sanders, James A., ed. Dead Sea scrolls: The Psalms scroll of Qumrân Cave 11 (11QPsa), (1965) Oxford, Clarendon Press.
  • Schiffman, Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995, ISBN 0-385-48121-7, (Schiffman has suggested two plausible theories of origin and identity – a Sadducean splinter group, or perhaps an Essene group with Sadducean roots.) Excerpts of this book can be read at COJS: Dead Sea Scrolls.
  • Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  • Shanks, Hershel, The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vintage Press 1999, ISBN 0-679-78089-0 (recommended introduction to their discovery and history of their scholarship)
  • Stegemann, Hartmut. "The Qumran Essenes: Local Members of the Main Jewish Union in Late Second Temple Times." pp. 83–166 in The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18–21 March 1991, Edited by J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Mountainer. Vol. 11 of Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah. Leiden: Brill, 1992.
  • Thiede, Carsten Peter, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity, Palgrave 2000, ISBN 0-312-29361-5
  • Thiering, Barbara, Jesus the Man, New York: Atria, 2006.
  • Thiering, Barbara, Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ISBN 0-06-067782-1), New York: Harper Collins, 1992
  • VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.
  • Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4 (good translation, but complete only in the sense that he includes translations of complete texts, but neglects fragmentary scrolls and more especially does not include biblical texts.) (7th ed. 2011 ISBN 978-0-14-119731-9)
  • Wise, Michael O., Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, (1996), Harper San Francisco paperback 1999, ISBN 0-06-069201-4, (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls, including fragments)
  • Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect, New York: Random House, 1985.
Other sources
  • Dead Sea Scrolls Study Vol 1: 1Q1 – 4Q273, Vol. 2: 4Q274 – 11Q31, (compact disc), Logos Research Systems, Inc., (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls with Hebrew and Aramaic transcriptions in parallel with English translations)
  • Comprehensive Cross Reference interactive module for Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, Philo, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament Apocrypha, New Testament Apocrypha, Plato, Pythagoras, Dhammapada, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Tacitus, Talmud, New and Old Testaments, Apostolic and Early Church Fathers Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

  • Harrison, R.K., The Dead Sea Scrolls: an Introduction, in series, The Cloister Library, New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961.

External links

  • Bible Places: Qumran Caves
  • Chabad.org: What are the Dead Sea Scrolls?
  • The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
  • Israel Museum, Jerusalem: Shrine of the Book – Dead Sea Scrolls
  • My Jewish Learning: Dead Sea Scrolls