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Ceremonia militar de la OTAN , Pabrade , Lituania en noviembre de 2014

Un ejército , también conocido colectivamente como fuerzas armadas , es una fuerza fuertemente armada y altamente organizada destinada principalmente a la guerra . Por lo general, está oficialmente autorizado y mantenido por un estado soberano , con sus miembros identificables por su distintivo uniforme militar . Puede consistir en una o más ramas militares , como ejército , marina , fuerza aérea , fuerza espacial , infantería de marina o guardacostas . La principal tarea de los militares suele definirse como la defensa del estado y sus intereses frente a amenazas armadas externas.

En términos generales, los términos fuerzas armadas y militares a menudo se tratan como sinónimos, aunque en el uso técnico a veces se hace una distinción en la que las fuerzas armadas de un país pueden incluir tanto a sus fuerzas militares como a otras fuerzas paramilitares . Existen diversas formas de fuerzas militares irregulares , que no pertenecen a un estado reconocido; aunque comparten muchos atributos con las fuerzas militares regulares, con menos frecuencia se les llama simplemente militares .

Países por número de soldados activos (2009)

Las fuerzas armadas de una nación pueden funcionar como una subcultura social discreta , con infraestructura dedicada como viviendas militares, escuelas, servicios públicos, logística , hospitales, servicios legales, producción de alimentos, finanzas y servicios bancarios. Más allá de la guerra, los militares pueden ser empleados en funciones adicionales sancionadas y no sancionadas dentro del estado, incluidas las amenazas a la seguridad interna, el control de la población , la promoción de una agenda política , los servicios de emergencia y la reconstrucción, la protección de los intereses económicos corporativos , las ceremonias sociales y el honor nacional. guardias. [1]

La profesión de soldado como parte de un ejército es más antigua que la propia historia registrada . [2] Algunas de las imágenes más perdurables de la antigüedad clásica retratan el poder y las hazañas de sus líderes militares . La batalla de Kadesh en 1274 a. C. fue uno de los puntos definitorios del reinado del faraón Ramsés II , y sus monumentos la conmemoran en bajorrelieve . Mil años después, el primer emperador de la China unificada , Qin Shi Huang , estaba tan decidido a impresionar a los dioses con su poderío militar que se hizo sepultar él mismo con un ejército de soldados de terracota . [3]Los romanos prestaron considerable atención a los asuntos militares, dejando a la posteridad muchos tratados y escritos sobre el tema, así como muchos arcos triunfales y columnas de la victoria profusamente tallados .

Etimología y definiciones

Representación de la formación militar del antiguo Egipto

El primer uso registrado de la palabra militar en inglés, deletreado militarie , fue en 1582. [4] Viene del latín militaris (del latín miles , que significa "soldado") a través del francés, pero es de etimología incierta, por lo que se deriva una sugerencia from * mil-it- - yendo en un cuerpo o masa. [5] [6]

Como sustantivo, el ejército generalmente se refiere generalmente a las fuerzas armadas de un país o, a veces, más específicamente, a los oficiales superiores que las mandan. [4] [7] En general, se refiere a la fisicalidad de las Fuerzas Armadas, su personal , equipamiento y el área física que ocupan.

Como adjetivo, militar originalmente se refería solo a soldados y soldados, pero pronto se amplió para aplicarse a las fuerzas terrestres en general, y cualquier cosa que tenga que ver con su profesión. [4] Los nombres de la Real Academia Militar (1741) y la Academia Militar de los Estados Unidos (1802) reflejan esto. Sin embargo, aproximadamente en la época de las guerras napoleónicas , "militar" comenzó a usarse en referencia a las fuerzas armadas en su conjunto, como " servicio militar ", " inteligencia militar " e " historia militar ". Como tal, ahora connota cualquier actividad realizada por personal de las fuerzas armadas. [4]

Historia

Un guerrero griego antiguo demuestra la eficacia de los regímenes de entrenamiento físico contemporáneos . Bronces de Riace , c. 450 a. C.

A menudo se considera que la historia militar es la historia de todos los conflictos, no solo la historia de los ejércitos estatales. Se diferencia un poco de la historia de la guerra , ya que la historia militar se centra en las personas y las instituciones que hacen la guerra, mientras que la historia de la guerra se centra en la evolución de la guerra en sí misma frente a la tecnología, los gobiernos y la geografía cambiantes.

La historia militar tiene varias facetas. Una faceta principal es aprender de los logros y errores pasados, a fin de librar la guerra de manera más eficaz en el futuro. Otro es crear un sentido de tradición militar , que se utiliza para crear fuerzas militares cohesivas. Aún así, otra puede ser aprender a prevenir guerras de manera más efectiva. El conocimiento humano sobre las fuerzas armadas se basa en gran medida en la historia oral y registrada de los conflictos militares (guerra), sus ejércitos y armadas participantes y, más recientemente, las fuerzas aéreas . [8]

Organización

Un ejemplo de mando militar; un mapa del área de responsabilidad del Comando Combatiente Unificado de los Estados Unidos.

Personal y unidades

A pesar de la creciente importancia de la tecnología militar, la actividad militar depende sobre todo de las personas. Por ejemplo, en 2000 el ejército británico declaró: "El hombre sigue siendo la primera arma de guerra". [9]

Rango y rol

La organización militar se caracteriza por una estricta jerarquía de mando dividida por rango militar , con rangos normalmente agrupados (en orden descendente de autoridad) como oficiales (p. Ej., Coronel ), suboficiales (p. Ej., Sargento ) y personal de menor rango (p. Ej. Soldado privado ). Mientras los oficiales superiores toman decisiones estratégicas, el personal militar subordinado ( soldados , marineros , infantes de marina o aviadores ) las cumple. Aunque los títulos de rango varían según la rama militar y país, la jerarquía de rango es común a todas las fuerzas armadas estatales en todo el mundo.

Además de su rango, el personal ocupa uno de los muchos roles comerciales, que a menudo se agrupan de acuerdo con la naturaleza de las tareas militares del rol en las operaciones de combate : roles de combate (por ejemplo, infantería ), roles de apoyo al combate (por ejemplo, ingenieros de combate ) y servicio de combate. roles de apoyo (por ejemplo, apoyo logístico).

Reclutamiento

El personal puede ser reclutado o reclutado , según el sistema elegido por el estado. La mayoría del personal militar son hombres; la proporción minoritaria de personal femenino varía a nivel internacional (aproximadamente el 3% en la India, [10] el 10% en el Reino Unido, [11] el 13% en Suecia, [12] el 16% en los EE. UU. [13] y el 27% en Sudáfrica [14] ). Si bien dos tercios de los estados ahora reclutan o reclutan solo adultos, en 2017 50 estados todavía dependían en parte de niños menores de 18 años (generalmente de 16 o 17 años) para el personal de sus fuerzas armadas. [15]

Mientras que los reclutas que se incorporan como oficiales tienden a tener una movilidad ascendente , [16] [17] la mayoría del personal alistado tiene antecedentes infantiles de relativa privación socioeconómica . [18] [19] [20]  Por ejemplo, después de que Estados Unidos suspendiera el servicio militar obligatorio en 1973, "el ejército atrajo de manera desproporcionada a hombres afroamericanos, hombres de entornos socioeconómicos más bajos, hombres que habían estado en programas de secundaria no académicos y hombres cuyos las notas de secundaria tendían a ser bajas ". [dieciséis]Sin embargo, un estudio publicado en 2020 sobre los antecedentes socioeconómicos del personal de las Fuerzas Armadas de EE. UU. Sugiere que están en paridad o ligeramente más altos que la población civil con respecto a indicadores socioeconómicos como el ingreso de los padres, la riqueza de los padres y las capacidades cognitivas. El estudio encontró que los cambios tecnológicos, tácticos, operacionales y doctrinales han llevado a un cambio en la demanda de personal. Además, el estudio sugiere que los grupos socioeconómicos más desfavorecidos tienen menos probabilidades de cumplir con los requisitos del ejército estadounidense moderno. [21]

Obligaciones

Las obligaciones del empleo militar son muchas. El empleo militar a tiempo completo normalmente requiere un período mínimo de servicio de varios años; entre dos y seis años es típico de las fuerzas armadas en Australia, el Reino Unido y los EE. UU., por ejemplo, según el rol, la rama y el rango. [22] [23] [24] Algunas fuerzas armadas permiten una breve ventana de descarga , normalmente durante el entrenamiento, cuando los reclutas pueden dejar la fuerza armada por derecho. [25] Alternativamente, el empleo militar a tiempo parcial, conocido como servicio de reserva , permite que un recluta mantenga un trabajo civil mientras se entrena bajo disciplina militar los fines de semana; él o ella pueden ser llamados a desplegar en operacionespara complementar el complemento de personal a tiempo completo. Después de dejar las fuerzas armadas, los reclutas pueden seguir siendo obligados a regresar al empleo militar a tiempo completo para capacitarse o desplegarse en operaciones . [25] [24]

La ley militar introduce delitos no reconocidos por los tribunales civiles, como ausencias sin permiso (AWOL) , deserción, actos políticos, simulacro , comportamiento irrespetuoso y desobediencia (ver, por ejemplo, delitos contra la ley militar en el Reino Unido ). [26] Las penas van desde una reprimenda sumaria hasta el encarcelamiento durante varios años después de un consejo de guerra . [26] Ciertos derechos fundamentales también están restringidos o suspendidos, incluida la libertad de asociación (por ejemplo, la organización sindical) y la libertad de expresión (hablar con los medios de comunicación). [26] El personal militar de algunos países tiene derecho aobjeción de conciencia si creen que una orden es inmoral o ilegal, o si no pueden cumplirla en conciencia.

El personal puede ser enviado a bases en su país de origen o en el extranjero, según la necesidad operativa, y puede ser desplegado desde esas bases en ejercicios u operaciones en cualquier parte del mundo. En tiempos de paz, cuando el personal militar son generalmente estacionados en cuarteles u otras instalaciones militares permanentes, que en su mayoría llevan a cabo tareas administrativas, de formación y de educación actividades, mantenimiento de la tecnología , y el reclutamiento .

Capacitación

Soldados finlandeses y estadounidenses entrenan juntos en condiciones árticas en Laponia, Finlandia , como parte del Curso de operación básica en clima frío, del 6 al 16 de enero de 2015

Condiciones de formación inicial de los reclutas para las exigencias de la vida militar, incluida la preparación para herir y matar a otras personas, y para afrontar el peligro de muerte sin huir. Es un proceso intensivo física y psicológicamente que resocializa a los reclutas para la naturaleza única de las demandas militares. Por ejemplo:

  • Se suprime la individualidad (por ejemplo, afeitando la cabeza a los nuevos reclutas, distribuyendo uniformes, negando la privacidad y prohibiendo el uso de nombres de pila); [27] [28]
  • La rutina diaria está estrictamente controlada (por ejemplo, los reclutas deben hacer sus camas, lustrar botas y apilar su ropa de cierta manera, y los errores son castigados); [29] [28]
  • Los factores estresantes continuos reducen la resistencia psicológica a las demandas de sus instructores (por ejemplo, privando a los reclutas de sueño, comida o refugio, gritando insultos y dando órdenes con la intención de humillar) [30] [28] [29]
  • Los castigos frecuentes sirven para condicionar la conformidad del grupo y desanimar el desempeño deficiente; [28]
  • El instructor de ejercicios disciplinado se presenta como un modelo a seguir del soldado ideal. [31]

Inteligencia

El siguiente requisito surge como una necesidad bastante básica para que los militares identifiquen las posibles amenazas que pueden tener que enfrentar. Para ello, algunas de las fuerzas de mando y otros militares, así como a menudo personal civil, participan en la identificación de estas amenazas. Esto es a la vez una organización, un sistema y un proceso llamado colectivamente inteligencia militar (MI).

The difficulty in using military intelligence concepts and military intelligence methods is in the nature of the secrecy of the information they seek, and the clandestine nature that intelligence operatives work in obtaining what may be plans for a conflict escalation, initiation of combat, or an invasion.

An important part of the military intelligence role is the military analysis performed to assess military capability of potential future aggressors, and provide combat modelling that helps to understand factors on which comparison of forces can be made. This helps to quantify and qualify such statements as: "China and India maintain the largest armed forces in the World" or that "the U.S. Military is considered to be the world's strongest".[32]

Guerrilla structure

Although some groups engaged in combat, such as militants or resistance movements, refer to themselves using military terminology, notably 'Army' or 'Front', none have had the structure of a national military to justify the reference, and usually have had to rely on support of outside national militaries. They also use these terms to conceal from the MI their true capabilities, and to impress potential ideological recruits.

Having military intelligence representatives participate in the execution of the national defence policy is important, because it becomes the first respondent and commentator on the policy expected strategic goal, compared to the realities of identified threats. When the intelligence reporting is compared to the policy, it becomes possible for the national leadership to consider allocating resources over and above the officers and their subordinates military pay, and the expense of maintaining military facilities and military support services for them.

Economics

Map of military expenditures as a percentage of GDP by country, 2017.[33][needs update]
A pie chart showing global military expenditures by country for 2018, in US$ billions, according to SIPRI
Military expenditure of 2014 in USD

Defense economics is the financial and monetary efforts made to resource and sustain militaries, and to finance military operations, including war.

The process of allocating resources is conducted by determining a military budget, which is administered by a military finance organization within the military. Military procurement is then authorized to purchase or contract provision of goods and services to the military, whether in peacetime at a permanent base, or in a combat zone from local population.

Capability development

Capability development, which is often referred to as the military 'strength', is arguably one of the most complex activities known to humanity; because it requires determining: strategic, operational, and tactical capability requirements to counter the identified threats; strategic, operational, and tactical doctrines by which the acquired capabilities will be used; identifying concepts, methods, and systems involved in executing the doctrines; creating design specifications for the manufacturers who would produce these in adequate quantity and quality for their use in combat; purchase the concepts, methods, and systems; create a forces structure that would use the concepts, methods, and systems most effectively and efficiently; integrate these concepts, methods, and systems into the force structure by providing military education, training, and practice that preferably resembles combat environment of intended use; create military logistics systems to allow continued and uninterrupted performance of military organizations under combat conditions, including provision of health services to the personnel, and maintenance for the equipment; the services to assist recovery of wounded personnel, and repair of damaged equipment; and finally, post-conflict demobilization, and disposal of war stocks surplus to peacetime requirements.

Development of military doctrine is perhaps the more important of all capability development activities, because it determines how military forces were, and are used in conflicts, the concepts and methods used by the command to employ appropriately military skilled, armed and equipped personnel in achievement of the tangible goals and objectives of the war, campaign, battle, engagement, action or a duel.[34] The line between strategy and tactics is not easily blurred, although deciding which is being discussed had sometimes been a matter of personal judgement by some commentators, and military historians. The use of forces at the level of organization between strategic and tactical is called operational mobility.

Science

Because most of the concepts and methods used by the military, and many of its systems are not found in commercial branches, much of the material is researched, designed, developed, and offered for inclusion in arsenals by military science organizations within the overall structure of the military. Military scientists are therefore found to interact with all Arms and Services of the armed forces, and at all levels of the military hierarchy of command.

Although concerned with research into military psychology, particularly combat stress and how it affect troop morale, often the bulk of military science activities is directed at military intelligence technology, military communications, and improving military capability through research. The design, development, and prototyping of weapons, military support equipment, and military technology in general, is also an area in which much effort is invested – it includes everything from global communication networks and aircraft carriers to paint and food.

Logistics

The Kawasaki C-1 is a tactical military transport of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force
Red Ball Express convoy in France

Possessing military capability is not sufficient if this capability cannot be deployed for, and employed in combat operations. To achieve this, military logistics are used for the logistics management and logistics planning of the forces military supply chain management, the consumables, and capital equipment of the troops.

Although mostly concerned with the military transport, as a means of delivery using different modes of transport; from military trucks, to container ships operating from permanent military base, it also involves creating field supply dumps at the rear of the combat zone, and even forward supply points in specific unit's Tactical Area of Responsibility.

These supply points are also used to provide military engineering services, such as the recovery of defective and derelict vehicles and weapons, maintenance of weapons in the field, the repair and field modification of weapons and equipment; and in peacetime, the life-extension programmes undertaken to allow continued use of equipment. One of the most important role of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of consumable, their storage, and disposal.

In combat

The primary reason for the existence of the military is to engage in combat, should it be required to do so by the national defence policy, and to win. This represents an organisational goal of any military, and the primary focus for military thought through military history. How victory is achieved, and what shape it assumes, is studied by most, if not all, military groups on three levels.

Strategic victory

The Maratha Navy, which is considered to be the foundation of the modern Indian Navy, often employed land and sea coordination tactics when attacking, which won them many battles against the Mughals and Portuguese

Military strategy is the management of forces in wars and military campaigns by a commander-in-chief, employing large military forces, either national and allied as a whole, or the component elements of armies, navies and air forces; such as army groups, naval fleets, and large numbers of aircraft. Military strategy is a long-term projection of belligerents' policy, with a broad view of outcome implications, including outside the concerns of military command. Military strategy is more concerned with the supply of war and planning, than management of field forces and combat between them. The scope of strategic military planning can span weeks, but is more often months or even years.[34]

Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of the I Canadian Corps in Utrecht as the Canadian Army liberates the Netherlands from Nazi occupation

Operational victory

Operational mobility is, within warfare and military doctrine, the level of command which coordinates the minute details of tactics with the overarching goals of strategy. A common synonym is operational art.

The operational level is at a scale bigger than one where line of sight and the time of day are important, and smaller than the strategic level, where production and politics are considerations. Formations are of the operational level if they are able to conduct operations on their own, and are of sufficient size to be directly handled or have a significant impact at the strategic level. This concept was pioneered by the German army prior to and during the Second World War. At this level, planning and duration of activities takes from one week to a month, and are executed by Field Armies and Army Corps and their naval and air equivalents.[34]

Tactical victory

Military tactics concerns itself with the methods for engaging and defeating the enemy in direct combat. Military tactics are usually used by units over hours or days, and are focused on the specific, close proximity tasks and objectives of squadrons, companies, battalions, regiments, brigades, and divisions, and their naval and air force equivalents.[34]

One of the oldest military publications is The Art of War, by the Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu.[35] Written in the 6th century BCE, the 13-chapter book is intended as military instruction, and not as military theory, but has had a huge influence on Asian military doctrine, and from the late 19th century, on European and United States military planning. It has even been used to formulate business tactics, and can even be applied in social and political areas.[where?]

Battle formation and tactics of Macedon[36]

The Classical Greeks and the Romans wrote prolifically on military campaigning. Among the best-known Roman works are Julius Caesar's commentaries on the Gallic Wars, and the Roman Civil war – written about 50 BC.

Two major works on tactics come from the late Roman period: Taktike Theoria by Aelianus Tacticus, and De Re Militari ('On military matters') by Vegetius. Taktike Theoria examined Greek military tactics, and was most influential in the Byzantine world and during the Golden Age of Islam.

De Re Militari formed the basis of European military tactics until the late 17th century. Perhaps its most enduring maxim is Igitur qui desiderat pacem, praeparet bellum (let he who desires peace prepare for war).

Due to the changing nature of combat with the introduction of artillery in the European Middle Ages, and infantry firearms in the Renaissance, attempts were made to define and identify those strategies, grand tactics, and tactics that would produce a victory more often than that achieved by the Romans in praying to the gods before the battle.

Later this became known as military science, and later still, would adopt the scientific method approach to the conduct of military operations under the influence of the Industrial Revolution thinking. In his seminal book On War, the Prussian Major-General and leading expert on modern military strategy, Carl von Clausewitz defined military strategy as 'the employment of battles to gain the end of war'.[37] According to Clausewitz:

strategy forms the plan of the War, and to this end it links together the series of acts which are to lead to the final decision, that is to say, it makes the plans for the separate campaigns and regulates the combats to be fought in each.[38]

Hence, Clausewitz placed political aims above military goals, ensuring civilian control of the military. Military strategy was one of a triumvirate of 'arts' or 'sciences' that governed the conduct of warfare, the others being: military tactics, the execution of plans and manoeuvring of forces in battle, and maintenance of an army.

The meaning of military tactics has changed over time; from the deployment and manoeuvring of entire land armies on the fields of ancient battles, and galley fleets; to modern use of small unit ambushes, encirclements, bombardment attacks, frontal assaults, air assaults, hit-and-run tactics used mainly by guerrilla forces, and, in some cases, suicide attacks on land and at sea. Evolution of aerial warfare introduced its own air combat tactics. Often, military deception, in the form of military camouflage or misdirection using decoys, is used to confuse the enemy as a tactic.

A major development in infantry tactics came with the increased use of trench warfare in the 19th and 20th centuries. This was mainly employed in World War I in the Gallipoli campaign, and the Western Front. Trench warfare often turned to a stalemate, only broken by a large loss of life, because, in order to attack an enemy entrenchment, soldiers had to run through an exposed 'no man's land' under heavy fire from their opposing entrenched enemy.

Technology

Arrow-head. Bronze, 4th century BC. From Olynthus, Chalcidice.

As with any occupation, since the ancient times, the military has been distinguished from other members of the society by their tools, the military weapons, and military equipment used in combat. When Stone Age humans first took a sliver of flint to tip the spear, it was the first example of applying technology to improve the weapon.

Since then, the advances made by human societies, and that of weapons, has been irretrievably linked. Stone weapons gave way to Bronze Age weapons, and later, the Iron Age weapons. With each technological change, was realized some tangible increase in military capability, such as through greater effectiveness of a sharper edge in defeating leather armour, or improved density of materials used in manufacture of weapons.

On land, the first really significant technological advance in warfare was the development of the ranged weapons, and notably, the sling. The next significant advance came with the domestication of the horses and mastering of equestrianism.

Mounted armoured knight. Armour and cavalry dominated the battlefield, until the invention of firearms.

Arguably, the greatest invention that affected not just the military, but all society, after adoption of fire, was the wheel, and its use in the construction of the chariot. There were no advances in military technology, until, from the mechanical arm action of a slinger, the Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Persians, Chinese, etc., developed the siege engines. The bow was manufactured in increasingly larger and more powerful versions, to increase both the weapon range, and armour penetration performance. These developed into the powerful composite and recurve bows, and crossbows of Ancient China. These proved particularly useful during the rise of cavalry, as horsemen encased in ever-more sophisticated armour came to dominate the battlefield.

Somewhat earlier, in medieval China, gunpowder had been invented, and was increasingly used by the military in combat. The use of gunpowder in the early vase-like mortars in Europe, and advanced versions of the long bow and cross bow, which all had armour-piercing arrowheads, that put an end to the dominance of the armoured knight. After the long bow, which required great skill and strength to use, the next most significant technological advance was the musket, which could be used effectively, with little training. In time, the successors to muskets and cannon, in the form of rifles and artillery, would become core battlefield technology.

As the speed of technological advances accelerated in civilian applications, so too warfare became more industrialized. The newly invented machine gun and repeating rifle redefined firepower on the battlefield, and, in part, explains the high casualty rates of the American Civil War. The next breakthrough was the conversion of artillery parks from the muzzle loading guns, to the quicker loading breech loading guns with recoiling barrel that allowed quicker aimed fire and use of a shield. The widespread introduction of low smoke (smokeless) propellant powders since the 1880s also allowed for a great improvement of artillery ranges.

Naval military forces of France and Britain exchange fire at the Battle of the Chesapeake

The development of breech loading had the greatest effect on naval warfare, for the first time since the Middle Ages, altering the way weapons are mounted on warships, and therefore naval tactics, now divorced from the reliance on sails with the invention of the internal combustion. A further advance in military naval technology was the design of the submarine, and its weapon, the torpedo.

Main battle tanks, and other heavy equipment such as armoured fighting vehicles, military aircraft, and ships, are characteristic to organized military forces.

During World War I, the need to break the deadlock of trench warfare saw the rapid development of many new technologies, particularly tanks. Military aviation was extensively used, and bombers became decisive in many battles of World War II, which marked the most frantic period of weapons development in history. Many new designs, and concepts were used in combat, and all existing technologies of warfare were improved between 1939 and 1945.

During the war, significant advances were made in military communications through increased use of radio, military intelligence through use of the radar, and in military medicine through use of penicillin, while in the air, the guided missile, jet aircraft, and helicopters were seen for the first time. Perhaps the most infamous of all military technologies was the creation of the atomic bomb, although the exact effects of its radiation were unknown until the early 1950s. Far greater use of military vehicles had finally eliminated the cavalry from the military force structure.

AIM-7 Sparrow medium range air-to-air missile from an F-15 Eagle

After World War II, with the onset of the Cold War, the constant technological development of new weapons was institutionalized, as participants engaged in a constant 'arms race' in capability development. This constant state of weapons development continues into the present, and remains a constant drain on national resources, which some[who?] blame on the military–industrial complex.

The most significant technological developments that influenced combat have been the guided missiles, which can be used by all branches of the armed services. More recently, information technology, and its use in surveillance, including space-based reconnaissance systems, have played an increasing role in military operations.

The impact of information warfare that focuses on attacking command communication systems, and military databases, has been coupled with the new development in military technology, has been the use of robotic systems in intelligence combat, both in hardware and software applications.

Recently, there has also been a particular focus towards the use of renewable fuels for running military vehicles on. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strategic advantage. The US military has committed itself to have 50% of its energy consumption come from alternative sources.[39]

As part of society

Samurai, member of the Japanese warrior caste

For much of military history, the armed forces were considered to be for use by the heads of their societies, until recently, the crowned heads of states. In a democracy or other political system run in the public interest, it is a public force.

The relationship between the military and the society it serves is a complicated and ever-evolving one. Much depends on the nature of the society itself, and whether it sees the military as important, as for example in time of threat or war, or a burdensome expense typified by defence cuts in time of peace.

One difficult matter in the relation between military and society is control and transparency. In some countries, limited information on military operations and budgeting is accessible for the public. However transparency in the military sector is crucial to fight corruption. This showed the Government Defence Anti-corruption Index Transparency International UK published in 2013.[40]

Militaries often function as societies within societies, by having their own military communities, economies, education, medicine, and other aspects of a functioning civilian society. Although a 'military' is not limited to nations in of itself as many private military companies (or PMC's) can be used or 'hired' by organizations and figures as security, escort, or other means of protection; where police, agencies, or militaries are absent or not trusted.

Ideology and ethics

Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus leading a cavalry charge, 1634

Militarist ideology is the society's social attitude of being best served, or being a beneficiary of a government, or guided by concepts embodied in the military culture, doctrine, system, or leaders.

Either because of the cultural memory, national history, or the potentiality of a military threat, the militarist argument asserts that a civilian population is dependent upon, and thereby subservient to the needs and goals of its military for continued independence. Militarism is sometimes contrasted with the concepts of comprehensive national power, soft power and hard power.

Most nations have separate military laws which regulate conduct in war and during peacetime. An early exponent was Hugo Grotius, whose On the Law of War and Peace (1625) had a major impact of the humanitarian approach to warfare development. His theme was echoed by Gustavus Adolphus.

Ethics of warfare have developed since 1945, to create constraints on the military treatment of prisoners and civilians, primarily by the Geneva Conventions; but rarely apply to use of the military forces as internal security troops during times of political conflict that results in popular protests and incitement to popular uprising.

International protocols restrict the use, or have even created international bans on some types of weapons, notably weapons of mass destruction (WMD). International conventions define what constitutes a war crime, and provides for war crimes prosecution. Individual countries also have elaborate codes of military justice, an example being the United States' Uniform Code of Military Justice that can lead to court martial for military personnel found guilty of war crimes.

Military actions are sometimes argued to be justified by furthering a humanitarian cause, such as disaster relief operations, or in defence of refugees. The term military humanism is used to refer to such actions.

See also

  • Arms industry
  • Civil defense
  • Civilian control of the military
  • Command and control
  • Conscription
  • Court-martial
  • Deterrence theory
  • Martial arts
  • Martial law
  • Mercenary
  • Militaria
  • Military academy
  • Military advisor
  • Military aid
  • Military aid to the civil community (MACC)
  • Military aid to the civil power (MACP)
  • Military alliance
  • Military dictatorship
  • Military district
  • Military engineering
  • Military exercise
  • Military fiat
  • Military incompetence
  • Military junta
  • Military meteorology
  • Military operations other than war
  • Military police
  • Military prison
  • Military Revolution
  • Military sociology
  • Military terminology
  • Military–industrial complex
  • Militarization of police
  • Militia
  • Ministry of defence
  • Mobilization
  • Police
  • Private military company
  • Recruit training
  • Staff (military)
  • Standing army
  • Weapon
Armed forces of the world
  • List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel
  • List of countries by Military Strength Index
  • List of countries by level of military equipment
  • List of countries by Global Militarization Index
  • List of countries without armed forces
  • List of countries by military expenditures
  • List of countries by past military expenditure
  • List of countries by military expenditure per capita
  • List of air forces
  • List of armies
  • List of navies

References

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External links

  • Military Expenditure % of GDP hosted by Lebanese economy forum, extracted from the World Bank public data.
  • Military at Curlie