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El cristianismo primitivo (hasta el Primer Concilio de Nicea en 325) se extendió desde el Mediterráneo Oriental por todo el Imperio Romano y más allá. Originalmente, esta progresión estaba estrechamente relacionada con los centros judíos ya establecidos en Tierra Santa y la diáspora judía . Los primeros seguidores del cristianismo fueron judíos o prosélitos , comúnmente conocidos como judíos cristianos y temerosos de Dios .

La sede apostólica afirma haber sido fundada por uno o más de los apóstoles de Jesús , de quienes se dice que se dispersaron de Jerusalén en algún momento después de la crucifixión de Jesús , c. 26–36, quizás siguiendo la Gran Comisión . Los primeros cristianos se reunían en pequeñas casas privadas, [1] conocidas como iglesias en las casas , pero toda la comunidad cristiana de una ciudad también se llamaría iglesia: el sustantivo griego ἐκκλησία significa literalmente asamblea, reunión o congregación [2] [3] pero se traduce como iglesia en la mayoría de las traducciones inglesas del Nuevo Testamento.

Muchos de estos primeros cristianos eran comerciantes y otros que tenían razones prácticas para viajar al norte de África , Asia Menor, Arabia, Grecia y otros lugares. [4] [5] [6] Más de 40 comunidades de este tipo se establecieron para el año 100, [5] [6] muchas en Anatolia , también conocida como Asia Menor , como las Siete iglesias de Asia . A finales del siglo I , el cristianismo ya se había extendido a Roma y a las principales ciudades de Armenia , Grecia y Siria., sirviendo como cimientos para la expansión expansiva del cristianismo, eventualmente en todo el mundo.

Imperio Romano de Oriente [ editar ]

Véase también: cristianismo oriental

Jerusalén [ editar ]

Véase también: Jerusalén en el cristianismo y los primeros obispos de Jerusalén
El Cenáculo en el Monte Sión , afirmó ser el lugar de la Última Cena y Pentecostés . Bargil Pixner [7] afirma que la Iglesia de los Apóstoles original está ubicada bajo la estructura actual.
Un diagrama de la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro basado en un documental alemán. Se afirma que la iglesia está en el lugar del Calvario y la Tumba de Jesús .

Jerusalén fue el primer centro de la iglesia, según el Libro de los Hechos , y según la Enciclopedia Católica , la ubicación de "la primera iglesia cristiana". [8] Los apóstoles vivieron y enseñaron allí durante algún tiempo después de Pentecostés . [9] Santiago, el hermano de Jesús era un líder en la iglesia, y sus otros parientes probablemente ocuparon posiciones de liderazgo en el área circundante después de la destrucción de la ciudad hasta su reconstrucción como Aelia Capitolina , c. 130, cuando todos los judíos fueron desterrados de la ciudad. [9]

Aproximadamente en el 50, Bernabé y Pablo fueron a Jerusalén para encontrarse con los "pilares de la iglesia", [10] Santiago, Pedro y Juan . Posteriormente, llamado Concilio de Jerusalén , según los cristianos paulinos, este encuentro (entre otras cosas) confirmó la legitimidad de la misión de Bernabé y Pablo a los gentiles , y la libertad de los conversos gentiles de la mayor parte de la ley mosaica , especialmente de la circuncisión , que era repulsiva. a la mente helénica . [11] Así, el Decreto Apostólico ( Hechos 15: 19-21) puede ser un acto importante de diferenciación de la Iglesia de sus raíces judías [12], aunque el decreto puede simplemente ser paralelo a la Ley Noájida judía y, por lo tanto, ser un elemento común en lugar de un diferencial. Aproximadamente en el mismo período de tiempo, el judaísmo rabínico hizo que el requisito de circuncisión de los niños judíos fuera aún más estricto. [13]

Cuando Pedro salió de Jerusalén después de que Herodes Agripa traté de matarlo, Santiago aparece como la autoridad principal. [14] Clemente de Alejandría (c. 150-215) lo llamó obispo de Jerusalén . [14] Un historiador de la iglesia del siglo II , Hegesippus , escribió que el Sanedrín lo martirizó en el 62. [14]

En el 66, los judíos se rebelaron contra Roma . [9] Roma sitió a Jerusalén durante cuatro años, y la ciudad cayó en el 70. [9] La ciudad, incluido el Templo, fue destruida y la mayoría de la población fue asesinada o desplazada. [9] Según una tradición registrada por Eusebio y Epifanio de Salamina , la iglesia de Jerusalén huyó a Pella al estallar la Primera Revuelta Judía . [15] [16] Según Epifanio de Salamina , [17] el Cenáculo sobrevivió al menos a la visita de Adriano en 130. Sobrevivió una población dispersa. [9] El Sanedrín se trasladó a Jamnia . [18] Las profecías de la destrucción del Segundo Templo se encuentran en los sinópticos , [19] específicamente en el Discurso del Monte de los Olivos .

En el siglo II, Adriano reconstruyó Jerusalén como una ciudad pagana llamada Aelia Capitolina , [20] erigiendo estatuas de Júpiter y él mismo en el sitio del antiguo templo judío, el Monte del Templo . Bar Cochba lideró una revuelta fallida como Mesías , pero los cristianos se negaron a reconocerlo como tal. Cuando Bar Cochba fue derrotado, Adriano excluyó a los judíos de la ciudad, excepto el día de Tishá Be Av , por lo que los obispos de Jerusalén posteriores fueron gentiles ("incircuncisos") por primera vez. [21]

El significado general de Jerusalén para los cristianos entró en un período de declive durante la persecución de los cristianos en el Imperio Romano . Según la Enciclopedia Católica, tradicionalmente se cree que los cristianos de Jerusalén esperaron las guerras entre judíos y romanos (66-135) en Pella en la Decápolis . Los obispos de Jerusalén se convirtieron en sufragáneos (subordinados) del obispo metropolitano en la cercana Cesarea , [22] El interés en Jerusalén se reanudó con la peregrinación de Helena (la madre de Constantino el Grande) a Tierra Santa c. 326-28. Según el historiador de la iglesia Sócrates de Constantinopla , [23] Helena (con la ayuda del obispo Macario de Jerusalén ) afirmó haber encontrado la cruz de Cristo , después de quitar un Templo a Venus (atribuido a Adriano) que se había construido sobre el sitio. . (Por esa razón, se la considera la santa patrona de los arqueólogos .) Jerusalén había recibido un reconocimiento especial en el Canon VII de Nicea en 325. [24] La fecha tradicional de fundación de la Hermandad del Santo Sepulcro (que guarda laLugares santos cristianos en Tierra Santa ) es 313 que corresponde a la fecha del Edicto de Milán que legalizó el cristianismo en el Imperio Romano. Jerusalén fue nombrada más tarde como parte de la Pentarquía , pero esto nunca fue aceptado por la iglesia de Roma . [25] [26] Véase también Cisma Este-Oeste # Perspectivas de reconciliación .

Antioquía [ editar ]

Se dice que la Iglesia de San Pedro cerca de Antakya , Turquía, es el lugar donde San Pedro predicó por primera vez el Evangelio en la Antioquía romana .
Véase también: Escuela de Antioquía , Patriarca de Antioquía y Rito de Antioquía

Antioquía , un centro importante de la Grecia helenística , y la tercera ciudad más importante del Imperio Romano, [27] entonces parte de la provincia de Siria , hoy una ruina cerca de Antakya , Turquía, fue donde los cristianos fueron llamados por primera vez cristianos [28] y también la ubicación del incidente en Antioquía . Fue el sitio de una iglesia primitiva, tradicionalmente se dice que fue fundada por Pedro, quien es considerado el primer obispo . Es posible que allí se hayan escrito el Evangelio de Mateo y las Constituciones Apostólicas . El padre de la iglesia Ignacio de Antioquíafue su tercer obispo. La Escuela de Antioquía, fundada en 270, fue uno de los dos principales centros de aprendizaje de la iglesia primitiva. Los evangelios de Cureton y el siríaco Sinaítico son dos tipos de textos del Nuevo Testamento tempranos (anteriores a Peshitta ) asociados con el cristianismo siríaco . Fue uno de los tres cuyos obispos fueron reconocidos en el Primer Concilio de Nicea (325) por ejercer jurisdicción sobre los territorios colindantes. [29]

Alejandría [ editar ]

Ver también: escuela de Alejandría , escuela catequética de Alejandría , obispo de Alejandría , Egipto (provincia romana) § Cristiano Egipto y Alejandría Rite

Alejandría , en el delta del Nilo , fue fundada por Alejandro Magno . Sus famosas bibliotecas fueron un centro de aprendizaje helenístico . La traducción de la Septuaginta del Antiguo Testamento comenzó allí y los eruditos reconocen el tipo de texto alejandrino como uno de los primeros tipos del Nuevo Testamento. Tenía una población judía significativa , de la cual Filón de Alejandría es probablemente su autor más conocido. [30] Produjo escrituras superiores y notables padres de la iglesia, como Clemente, Orígenes y Atanasio, [31] también dignos de mención fueron los cercanos Padres del Desierto. Al final de la era, Alejandría, Roma y Antioquía recibieron autoridad sobre los metropolitanos cercanos . El Concilio de Nicea en el canon VI afirmó la autoridad tradicional de Alejandría sobre Egipto, Libia y Pentápolis (África del Norte) (la Diócesis de Egipto ) y probablemente otorgó a Alejandría el derecho de declarar una fecha universal para la observancia de la Pascua , [32] ver también Controversia de Pascua . Algunos postulan, sin embargo, que Alejandría no solo era un centro del cristianismo, sino también un centro de sectas gnósticas de base cristiana .

Asia Menor [ editar ]

Mapa de Anatolia occidental que muestra las " Siete iglesias de Asia " y la isla griega de Patmos .
Véase también: Historia de Anatolia y el cristianismo en Turquía

La tradición del apóstol Juan era fuerte en Anatolia (el Cercano Oriente , parte de la Turquía moderna, la parte occidental se llamaba la provincia romana de Asia ). La autoría de las obras joánicas se produjo tradicional y plausiblemente en Éfeso , c. 90-110, aunque algunos estudiosos defienden su origen en Siria . [33] Según el Nuevo Testamento, el apóstol Pablo era de Tarso (en el centro-sur de Anatolia) y sus viajes misioneros fueron principalmente en Anatolia. El Libro del Apocalipsis , que se cree que fue escrito porJuan de Patmos (una isla griega a unas 30 millas de la costa de Anatolia), menciona siete iglesias de Asia . La Primera Epístola de Pedro ( 1: 1-2 ) está dirigida a las regiones de Anatolia. En la costa sureste del Mar Negro , Ponto era una colonia griega mencionada tres veces en el Nuevo Testamento. Los habitantes de Ponto fueron algunos de los primeros conversos al cristianismo. Plinio, gobernador en 110 , en sus cartas, se dirigió a los cristianos del Ponto. De las cartas existentes de Ignacio de Antioquía consideradas auténticas , cinco de siete son para ciudades de Anatolia, la sexta es para Policarpo . Esmirnaera el hogar de Policarpo, el obispo que supuestamente conocía al apóstol Juan personalmente, y probablemente también a su alumno Ireneo . También se cree que Papías de Hierápolis fue alumno del apóstol Juan. En el siglo II, Anatolia fue el hogar del cuartodecimanismo , el montañismo , Marción de Sinope y Melito de Sardis, quienes registraron un canon bíblico cristiano temprano . Después de la crisis del siglo III , Nicomedia se convirtió en la capital del Imperio Romano de Oriente en 286. El Sínodo de Ancyra se celebró en 314. En 325, el emperador Constantinoconvocó el primer concilio ecuménico cristiano en Nicea y en 330 trasladó la capital del imperio reunificado a Bizancio (también un centro cristiano primitivo y justo al otro lado del Bósforo desde Anatolia , más tarde llamado Constantinopla ), conocido como el Imperio Bizantino , que duró hasta 1453 . [34] el siete primeros Concilios Ecuménicos se llevaron a cabo ya sea en Anatolia occidental o en todo el Bósforo en Constantinopla.

Cesarea [ editar ]

Restos del antiguo acueducto romano de Cesarea Marítima.
Véase también: Cesarea Marítima § Centro cristiano y Obispo de Cesarea

Cesarea , en la costa al noroeste de Jerusalén, primero Cesarea Marítima , luego después de 133 Cesarea Palaestina , fue construida por Herodes el Grande , c. 25-13 aC, y fue la capital de la provincia de Iudaea (6-132) y más tarde Palaestina Prima . Fue allí donde Pedro bautizó al centurión Cornelio , considerado el primer converso gentil. Pablo buscó refugio allí, una vez que se quedó en la casa de Felipe el Evangelista , y luego fue encarcelado allí durante dos años (se estima que entre 57 y 59). Las Constituciones Apostólicas (7.46) establecen que el primer obispo de Cesarea fue Zaqueo el publicanopero la Enciclopedia Católica afirma que: "... no hay registro de obispos de Cesarea hasta el siglo II. A fines de este siglo se celebró allí un concilio para regular la celebración de la Pascua ". [35] Según otro artículo de la Enciclopedia Católica, [36] después del asedio de Jerusalén por Adriano (c.133), Cesarea se convirtió en la sede metropolitana con el obispo de Jerusalén como uno de sus "sufragáneos" (subordinados). Orígenes (muerto en 254) compiló su Hexapla allí y tenía una famosa biblioteca y escuela teológica , San Pánfilo (muerto en 309) fue un destacado erudito-sacerdote.San Gregorio el Taumaturgo (muerto en 270), San Basilio el Grande (muerto en 379) y San Jerónimo (muerto en 420) visitaron y estudiaron en la biblioteca que más tarde fue destruida, probablemente por los persas en 614. o los sarracenos alrededor de 637. [37] El primer gran historiador de la iglesia, Eusebio de Cesarea , fue un obispo, c. 314–339. FJA Hort y Adolf von Harnack han argumentado que el Credo de Nicea se originó en Cesarea. El tipo de texto cesáreo es reconocido por muchos eruditos textuales como uno de los tipos más antiguos del Nuevo Testamento.

Chipre [ editar ]

Véase también: Iglesia de Chipre
Pilar de San Pablo en Paphos

Paphos fue la capital de la isla de Chipre durante los años romanos y sede de un comandante romano. En el 45 d. C., los apóstoles Pablo y Bernabé (según la Enciclopedia Católica "un nativo de la isla") llegaron a Chipre y llegaron a Pafos predicando la Palabra de Cristo, ver también Hechos 13: 4-13 . Según Hechos, los apóstoles fueron perseguidos por los romanos, pero finalmente lograron convencer al comandante romano Sergio Paulo de que renunciara a su antigua religión en favor del cristianismo. Barnabas se identifica tradicionalmente como el fundador de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Chipriota. [38]

Damasco [ editar ]

La Capilla de San Pablo , se dice que es Bab Kisan, donde San Pablo escapó del Viejo Damasco.
Véase también: Iglesia ortodoxa siríaca y cristianismo en Siria

Damasco es la capital de Siria y afirma ser la ciudad habitada más antigua del mundo. Según el Nuevo Testamento, el apóstol Pablo se convirtió en el camino a Damasco . En los tres relatos ( Hechos 9: 1–20 , 22: 1–22 , 26: 1–24 ), se describe que los acompañantes con los que viajaba, cegados por la luz, lo conducían a Damasco, donde se le devolvió la vista. por un discípulo llamado Ananías (quien, según la Enciclopedia Católica, se cree que fue el primer obispo de Damasco ) luego fue bautizado .

Grecia [ editar ]

Véase también: Iglesia de Grecia

Salónica , la principal ciudad del norte de Grecia donde se cree que el cristianismo fue fundado por Pablo , por lo tanto una Sede Apostólica , y las regiones circundantes de Macedonia , Tracia y Epiro , que también se extienden a los estados vecinos de los Balcanes de Albania y Bulgaria , fueron los primeros centros. del cristianismo. Cabe destacar las epístolas de Pablo a los tesalonicenses y a Filipos , que a menudo se considera el primer contacto del cristianismo con Europa. [39] El Padre Apostólico Policarpo escribió una carta a los filipenses , c.125.

Nicópolis era una ciudad en la provincia romana de Epiro Vetus , hoy una ruina en la parte norte de la costa occidental griega. Según la Enciclopedia Católica: "San Pablo tenía la intención de ir allí ( Tito 3:12 ) y es posible que incluso entonces contara con algunos cristianos entre su población; Orígenes (c. 185-254) residió allí por un tiempo (Eusebio, Historia de la Iglesia VI.16). "

La antigua Corinto , hoy una ruina cerca de la moderna Corinto en el sur de Grecia, fue un centro temprano del cristianismo. Según la Enciclopedia Católica: "San Pablo predicó con éxito en Corinto, donde vivía en la casa de Aquila y Priscila ( Hechos 18: 1 ), donde pronto se le unieron Silas y Timoteo . Después de su partida, fue reemplazado por Apolo , quien había sido enviado desde Éfeso por Priscila. El Apóstol visitó Corinto al menos una vez más. Escribió a los Corintios en 57 desde Éfeso , y luego desde Macedonia en el mismo año, o en el 58. La famosa carta de San Clemente de Roma a la iglesia de Corinto(alrededor de 96) exhibe la evidencia más temprana sobre la primacía eclesiástica de la Iglesia Romana . Además de San Apolo, Lequien (II, 155) menciona cuarenta y tres obispos: entre ellos, San Sóstenes (?), El discípulo de San Pablo, San Dionisio ; Pablo, hermano de San Pedro ... " [40]

Atenas , la capital y ciudad más grande de Grecia, fue visitada por Paul. Según la Enciclopedia Católica: Pablo "llegó a Atenas desde Berea de Macedonia , probablemente por agua y desembarcando en Peireev , el puerto de Atenas. Esto fue alrededor del año 53. Habiendo llegado a Atenas, inmediatamente envió a buscar a Silas y Timoteo, que se había quedado en Beroa. Mientras esperaba la llegada de éstos, se quedó en Atenas, contemplando la ciudad idólatra y frecuentando la sinagoga , porque ya había judíos en Atenas ... Parece que una comunidad cristiana se formó rápidamente, aunque durante un tiempo considerable no tuvo una membresía numerosa.Areopagita como primer jefe y obispo de los atenienses cristianos . Otra tradición, sin embargo, otorga este honor a Hierotheos thesmothete . Los sucesores del primer obispo no fueron todos atenienses por linaje. Están catalogados como Narkissos, Publius y Quadratus . Se dice que Narkissos procedía de Palestina y Publius de Malta . En algunas listas se omite Narkissos. Quadratus es venerado por haber contribuido a la literatura cristiana primitiva escribiendo una disculpa , que dirigió al emperador Adriano . Esto fue con motivo de la visita de Adriano a Atenas. Aristeides dedicó una disculpa al emperador Adriano alrededor del 134 d.C.Atenágoras también escribió una disculpa. En el siglo II debe haber habido una comunidad considerable de cristianos en Atenas, porque se dice que Hygeinos, obispo de Roma , escribió una carta a la comunidad en el año 139 ".

Gortyn en Creta , se alió con Roma y así se hizo capital de Roman Creta et Cyrenaica . Se cree que San Tito fue el primer obispo. La ciudad fue saqueada por el pirata Abu Hafs en 828.

Tracia [ editar ]

El apóstol Pablo predicó en Macedonia y también en Filipos , ubicada en Tracia, en la costa del mar de Tracia . Según Hipólito de Roma , el apóstol Andrés predicó en Tracia , en la costa del Mar Negro y en el curso inferior del río Danubio . La difusión del cristianismo entre los tracios y la aparición de centros de cristianismo como Serdica (actual Sofía ), Philippopolis (actual Plovdiv ) y Durostorum.era probable que hubiera comenzado con estas primeras misiones apostólicas . [41] El primer monasterio cristiano en Europa fue fundado en Tracia en 344 por San Atanasio cerca de la actual Chirpan , Bulgaria , siguiendo el Concilio de Serdica . [42]

Libia [ editar ]

Véase también: cristianismo en Libia

Cyrene y la región circundante de Cyrenaica o la " Pentápolis " del norte de África , al sur del Mediterráneo desde Grecia, la parte noreste de la actual Libia , fue una colonia griega en el norte de África que más tarde se convirtió en una provincia romana. Además de griegos y romanos, también hubo una importante población judía , al menos hasta la Guerra de Kitos (115-117). Según Marcos 15:21 , Simón de Cirene llevó la cruz de Jesús. Los cireneos también se mencionan en Hechos 2:10 , 6: 9 , 11:20 , 13: 1 . De acuerdo con laEnciclopedia católica : " Lequien menciona a seis obispos de Cirene, y según la leyenda bizantina, el primero fue San Lucio (Hechos 13: 1); San Teodoro sufrió el martirio bajo Diocleciano "; (284-305).

Imperio Romano Occidental [ editar ]

Ver también: cristianismo occidental

Roma [ editar ]

Basílica de San Pedro , que se cree que es el lugar de enterramiento de San Pedro , vista desde el río Tíber
Véase también: Obispo de Roma

Exactamente cuando los cristianos apareció por primera vez en Roma es difícil de determinar (ver temerosos de Dios , prosélitos , y la Historia de los Judios en el Imperio Romano de los antecedentes históricos). Los Hechos de los Apóstoles afirman que la pareja judía cristiana Priscila y Aquila habían llegado recientemente de Roma a Corinto cuando, alrededor del año 50, Pablo llegó a esta última ciudad, [43] indicando que la fe en Jesús en Roma había precedido a Pablo.

Los historiadores consideran consistentemente que Pedro y Pablo fueron martirizados en Roma bajo el reinado de Nerón [44] [45] [46] en 64, después del Gran Incendio de Roma que, según Tácito , el Emperador culpó a los cristianos . [47] [48] En el siglo II, Ireneo de Lyon , reflejando la antigua opinión de que la iglesia no podía estar completamente presente en ningún lugar sin un obispo , registró que Pedro y Pablo habían sido los fundadores de la Iglesia en Roma y habían designado a Linus como obispo. [49][50]

Sin embargo, Ireneo no dice que ni Pedro ni Pablo fueran "obispo" de la Iglesia en Roma y varios historiadores han cuestionado si Pedro pasó mucho tiempo en Roma antes de su martirio. Mientras que la iglesia en Roma ya estaba floreciendo cuando Pablo les escribió su Epístola a los Romanos desde Corinto (c.58) [51], él da fe de una gran comunidad cristiana que ya está allí [48] y saluda a unas cincuenta personas en Roma por su nombre, [52] pero no a Pedro, a quien conocía . Tampoco se menciona a Pedro en Roma más tarde durante la estadía de dos años de Pablo allí en Hechos 28., alrededor de 60–62. Lo más probable es que no pasó mucho tiempo en Roma antes del 58, cuando Pablo escribió a los romanos, por lo que pudo haber sido solo en los años 60 y relativamente poco antes de su martirio cuando Pedro llegó a la capital. [53]

Oscar Cullmann rechazó tajantemente la afirmación de que Pedro inició la sucesión papal , [54] y concluye que, si bien Pedro fue el jefe original de los apóstoles , Pedro no fue el fundador de ninguna sucesión eclesiástica visible. [54] [55]

Una escena que muestra a Cristo Pantocrátor de un mosaico romano en la iglesia de Santa Pudenziana en Roma, c. 410 d.C.

La sede original del poder imperial romano pronto se convirtió en un centro de autoridad de la iglesia, creció en el poder década tras década y fue reconocida durante el período de los Siete Concilios Ecuménicos , cuando la sede del gobierno se transfirió a Constantinopla , como la "cabeza". de la Iglesia. [56]

Roma y Alejandría , que por tradición tenían autoridad sobre las sedes fuera de su propia provincia , [57] aún no se denominaban patriarcados . [58]

Los primeros obispos de Roma eran todos de habla griega, siendo los más notables: el Papa Clemente I (c. 88-97), autor de una Epístola a la Iglesia en Corinto ; Papa Telesphorus (c. 126-136), probablemente el único mártir entre ellos; El papa Pío I (c. 141-154), según el fragmento de Muratoriano , se dice que fue hermano del autor del Pastor de Hermas ; y el Papa Anicetus (c. 155-160), quien recibió a San Policarpo y discutió con él la fecha de la Pascua . [48]

El papa Víctor I (189-198) fue el primer escritor eclesiástico conocido que escribió en latín; sin embargo, sus únicas obras que se conservan son sus encíclicas, que naturalmente se habrían publicado tanto en latín como en griego. [59]

Los textos griegos del Nuevo Testamento se tradujeron al latín desde el principio, mucho antes que Jerónimo , y se clasifican como Vetus Latina y tipo de texto occidental .

Durante el siglo II, cristianos y semicristianos de diversos puntos de vista se congregaron en Roma, en particular Marción y Valentinius , y en el siglo siguiente hubo cismas relacionados con Hipólito de Roma y Novaciano . [48]

The Roman church survived various persecutions. Among the prominent Christians executed as a result of their refusal to perform acts of worship to the Roman gods as ordered by emperor Valerian in 258 were Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.[60] The last and most severe of the imperial persecutions was that under Diocletian in 303; they ended in Rome, and the West in general, with the accession of Maxentius in 306.

Carthage[edit]

See also: Church of Carthage, Bishop of Carthage, and Councils of Carthage

Carthage, in the Roman province of Africa, south of the Mediterranean from Rome, gave the early church the Latin fathers Tertullian[61] (c. 120–c. 220) and Cyprian[62] (d. 258). Carthage fell to Islam in 698.

Southern Gaul[edit]

Amphithéâtre des Trois-Gaules, in Lyon. The pole in the arena is a memorial to the people killed during the persecution.
See also: Christianity in Gaul

The Mediterranean coast of France and the Rhone valley, then part of Roman Gallia Narbonensis, were early centers of Christianity. Major cities are Arles, Avignon, Vienne, Lyon, and Marseille (the oldest city in France). The Persecution in Lyon occurred in 177. The Apostolic Father Irenaeus from Smyrna of Anatolia was Bishop of Lyon near the end of the 2nd century and he claimed Saint Pothinus was his predecessor. The Council of Arles in 314 is considered a forerunner of the ecumenical councils. The Ephesine theory attributes the Gallican Rite to Lyon.

Italy outside Rome[edit]

Aquileia[edit]

See also: Bishop of Aquileia

The ancient Roman city of Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic Sea, today one of the main archaeological sites of Northern Italy, was an early center of Christianity said to be founded by Mark before his mission to Alexandria. Hermagoras of Aquileia is believed to be its first bishop. The Aquileian Rite is associated with Aquileia.

Milan[edit]

See also: Bishop of Milan

It is believed that the Church of Milan in northwest Italy was founded by the apostle Barnabas in the 1st century. Gervasius and Protasius and others were martyred there. It has long maintained its own rite known as the Ambrosian Rite attributed to Ambrose (born c. 330) who was bishop in 374–397 and one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. Duchesne argues that the Gallican Rite originated in Milan.

Syracuse and Calabria[edit]

See also: Bishop of Syracuse and Bishop of Reggio Calabria

Syracuse was founded by Greek colonists in 734 or 733 BC, part of Magna Graecia. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia: "Syracuse claims to be the second Church founded by St. Peter, after that of Antioch. It also claims that St. Paul preached there. ... In the times of St. Cyprian (the middle of the third century), Christianity certainly flourished at Syracuse, and the catacombs clearly show that this was the case in the second century." Across the Strait of Messina, Calabria on the mainland was also probably an early center of Christianity.[63]

Malta[edit]

See also: Christianity in Malta
St Paul's Islands near St. Paul's Bay, traditionally identified as the place where St Paul was shipwrecked

According to Acts, Paul was shipwrecked and ministered on an island which some scholars have identified as Malta (an island just south of Sicily) for three months during which time he is said to have been bitten by a poisonous viper and survived (Acts 27:39–42; Acts 28:1–11), an event usually dated c. AD 60. Paul had been allowed passage from Caesarea Maritima to Rome by Porcius Festus, procurator of Iudaea Province, to stand trial before the Emperor. Many traditions are associated with this episode, and catacombs in Rabat testify to an Early Christian community on the islands. According to tradition, Publius, the Roman Governor of Malta at the time of Saint Paul's shipwreck, became the first Bishop of Malta following his conversion to Christianity. After ruling the Maltese Church for thirty-one years, Publius was transferred to the See of Athens in 90 AD, where he was martyred in 125 AD. There is scant information about the continuity of Christianity in Malta in subsequent years, although tradition has it that there was a continuous line of bishops from the days of St. Paul to the time of Emperor Constantine.

Salona[edit]

See also: Religion in Croatia

Salona, the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea, was an early center of Christianity and today is a ruin in modern Croatia. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia it was where: "...Titus the pupil of St. Paul preached, where the followers of Jesus Christ first shed their blood as martyrs, and where beautiful examples of basilicas and other early Christian sculpture have been discovered." According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on Dalmatia: "Salona became the centre from which Christianity spread. In Pannonia St. Andronicus founded the See of Syrmium (Mitrovica) and later those of Siscia and Mursia. The cruel persecution under Diocletian, who was a Dalmatian by birth, left numerous traces in Old Dalmatia and Pannonia. St. Quirinus, Bishop of Siscia, died a martyr A.D. 303. St. Jerome was born in Strido, a city on the border of Pannonia and Dalmatia."

Seville[edit]

See also: Bishop of Seville

Seville was the capital of Hispania Baetica or the Roman province of southern Spain. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia: "...the origin of the diocese goes back to Apostolic times, or at least to the first century of our era. St. Gerontius, Bishop of Italica (about four miles from Hispalis or Seville), preached in Baetica in Apostolic times, and without doubt must have left a pastor of its own to Seville. It is certain that in 303, when Sts. Justa and Rufina, the potters, suffered martyrdom for refusing to adore the idol Salambo, there was a Bishop of Seville, Sabinus, who assisted at the Council of Illiberis (287). Before that time Marcellus had been bishop, as appears from a catalogue of the ancient prelates of Seville preserved in the 'Codex Emilianensis', a manuscript of the year 1000, now in the Escorial. When Constantine brought peace to the Church [313] Evodius was Bishop of Seville; he set himself to rebuild the ruined churches, among them he appears to have built the church of San Vicente, perhaps the first cathedral of Seville." Early Christianity also spread from the Iberian peninsula south across the Strait of Gibraltar into Roman Mauretania Tingitana, of note is Marcellus of Tangier who was martyred in 298.

Roman Britain[edit]

See also: History of the Church of England § Roman and Sub-Roman Christianity in the British Isles

Christianity reached Roman Britain by the third century of the Christian era, the first recorded martyrs in Britain being St. Alban of Verulamium and Julius and Aaron of Caerleon, during the reign of Diocletian (284–305). Gildas dated the faith's arrival to the latter part of the reign of Tiberius, although stories connecting it with Joseph of Arimathea, Lucius, or Fagan are now generally considered pious forgeries. Restitutus, Bishop of London, is recorded as attending the 314 Council of Arles, along with the Bishop of Lincoln and Bishop of York.

Christianisation intensified and evolved into Celtic Christianity after the Romans left Britain c. 410.

Outside the Roman Empire[edit]

See also: History of Eastern Christianity in Asia and Church of the East

Christianity also spread beyond the Roman Empire during the early Christian period.

Armenia[edit]

It is accepted that Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion. Christianity became the official religion of Armenia in 301,[64] when it was still illegal in the Roman Empire. According to church tradition,[citation needed] the Armenian Apostolic Church was founded by Gregory the Illuminator of the late third – early fourth centuries while they trace their origins to the missions of Bartholomew the Apostle and Thaddeus (Jude the Apostle) in the 1st century. Although it has long been claimed that Armenia was the first Christian kingdom, according to some scholars this has relied on a source by Agathangelos titled "The History of the Armenians", which has recently been redated, casting some doubt.[65]

Georgia[edit]

According to Orthodox tradition, Christianity was first preached in Georgia by the Apostles Simon and Andrew in the 1st century. It became the state religion of Kartli (Iberia) in 319. The conversion of Kartli to Christianity is credited to a Greek lady called St. Nino of Cappadocia. The Georgian Orthodox Church, originally part of the Church of Antioch, gained its autocephaly and developed its doctrinal specificity progressively between the 5th and 10th centuries. The Bible was also translated into Georgian in the 5th century, as the Georgian alphabet was developed for that purpose.

India[edit]

Main articles: Christianity in India, Christianity in Pakistan, and Saint Thomas Christians
According to tradition, the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares was proselytized by St Thomas, who continued on to southern India, and possibly as far as Malaysia or China.

According to Eusebius' record, the apostles Thomas and Bartholomew were assigned to Parthia (modern Iran) and India.[66][67] By the time of the establishment of the Second Persian Empire (AD 226), there were bishops of the Church of the East in northwest India, Afghanistan and Baluchistan (including parts of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan), with laymen and clergy alike engaging in missionary activity.[66]

An early third-century Syriac work known as the Acts of Thomas[66] connects the apostle's Indian ministry with two kings, one in the north and the other in the south. According to the Acts, Thomas was at first reluctant to accept this mission, but the Lord appeared to him in a night vision and compelled him to accompany an Indian merchant, Abbanes (or Habban), to his native place in northwest India. There, Thomas found himself in the service of the Indo-Parthian King, Gondophares. The Apostle's ministry resulted in many conversions throughout the kingdom, including the king and his brother.[66]

Thomas thereafter went south to Kerala and baptized the natives, whose descendants form the Saint Thomas Christians or the Syrian Malabar Nasranis.[68]

Piecing together the various traditions, the story suggests that Thomas left northwest India when invasion threatened, and traveled by vessel to the Malabar Coast along the southwestern coast of the Indian continent, possibly visiting southeast Arabia and Socotra en route, and landing at the former flourishing port of Muziris on an island near Cochin in 52. From there he preached the gospel throughout the Malabar Coast. The various Churches he founded were located mainly on the Periyar River and its tributaries and along the coast. He preached to all classes of people and had about 170 converts, including members of the four principal castes. Later, stone crosses were erected at the places where churches were founded, and they became pilgrimage centres. In accordance with apostolic custom, Thomas ordained teachers and leaders or elders, who were reported to be the earliest ministry of the Malabar church.

Thomas next proceeded overland to the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India, and ministered in what is now the Madras area, where a local King and many people were converted. One tradition related that he went from there to China via Malacca in Malaysia, and after spending some time there, returned to the Madras area.[69] Apparently his renewed ministry outraged the Brahmins, who were fearful lest Christianity undermine their social caste system. So according to the Syriac version of the Acts of Thomas, Mazdai, the local king at Mylapore, after questioning the Apostle condemned him to death about the year AD 72. Anxious to avoid popular excitement, the King ordered Thomas conducted to a nearby mountain, where, after being allowed to pray, he was then stoned and stabbed to death with a lance wielded by an angry Brahmin.[66][68]

Mesopotamia and the Parthian Empire[edit]

Edessa, which was held by Rome from 116 to 118 and 212 to 214, but was mostly a client kingdom associated either with Rome or Persia, was an important Christian city. Shortly after 201 or even earlier, its royal house became Christian[70]

Edessa (now Şanlıurfa) in northwestern Mesopotamia was from apostolic times the principal center of Syriac-speaking Christianity. it was the capital of an independent kingdom from 132 BC to AD 216, when it became tributary to Rome. Celebrated as an important centre of Greco-Syrian culture, Edessa was also noted for its Jewish community, with proselytes in the royal family. Strategically located on the main trade routes of the Fertile Crescent, it was easily accessible from Antioch, where the mission to the Gentiles was inaugurated. When early Christians were scattered abroad because of persecution, some found refuge at Edessa. Thus the Edessan church traced its origin to the apostolic age (which may account for its rapid growth), and Christianity even became the state religion for a time.

The Church of the East had its inception at a very early date in the buffer zone between the Parthian and Roman Empires in Upper Mesopotamia, known as the Assyrian Church of the East. The vicissitudes of its later growth were rooted in its minority status in a situation of international tension. The rulers of the Parthian Empire (250 BC – AD 226) were on the whole tolerant in spirit, and with the older faiths of Babylonia and Assyria in a state of decay, the time was ripe for a new and vital faith. The rulers of the Second Persian empire (226–640) also followed a policy of religious toleration to begin with, though later they gave Christians the same status as a subject race. However, these rulers also encouraged the revival of the ancient Persian dualistic faith of Zoroastrianism and established it as the state religion, with the result that the Christians were increasingly subjected to repressive measures. Nevertheless, it was not until Christianity became the state religion in the West (380) that enmity toward Rome was focused on the Eastern Christians. After the Muslim conquest in the 7th century, the caliphate tolerated other faiths but forbade proselytism and subjected Christians to heavy taxation.

The missionary Addai evangelized Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) about the middle of the 2nd century. An ancient legend recorded by Eusebius (AD 260–340) and also found in the Doctrine of Addai (c. AD 400) (from information in the royal archives of Edessa) describes how King Abgar V of Edessa communicated to Jesus, requesting he come and heal him, to which appeal he received a reply. It is said that after the resurrection, the Thomas sent Addai (or Thaddaeus), to the king, with the result that the city was won to the Christian faith. In this mission he was accompanied by a disciple, Mari, and the two are regarded as co-founders of the church, according to the Liturgy of Addai and Mari (c. AD 200), which is still the normal liturgy of the Assyrian church. The Doctrine of Addai further states that Thomas was regarded as an apostle of the church in Edessa.[2][3]

Addai, who became the first bishop of Edessa, was succeeded by Aggai, then by Palut, who was ordained about 200 by Serapion of Antioch. Thence came to us in the 2nd century the famous Peshitta, or Syriac translation of the Old Testament; also Tatian's Diatessaron, which was compiled about 172 and in common use until St. Rabbula, Bishop of Edessa (412–435), forbade its use. This arrangement of the four Canonical gospels as a continuous narrative, whose original language may have been Syriac, Greek, or even Latin, circulated widely in Syriac-speaking Churches.[71]

A Christian council was held at Edessa as early as 197.[72] In 201 the city was devastated by a great flood, and the Christian church was destroyed.[73] In 232, the Syriac Acts were written supposedly on the event of the relics of the Apostle Thomas being handed to the church in Edessa. Under Roman domination many martyrs suffered at Edessa: Sts. Scharbîl and Barsamya, under Decius; Sts. Gûrja, Schâmôna, Habib, and others under Diocletian. In the meanwhile Christian priests from Edessa had evangelized Eastern Mesopotamia and Persia, and established the first Churches in the kingdom of the Sasanians.[74] Atillâtiâ, Bishop of Edessa, assisted at the First Council of Nicaea (325).

Persia and Central Asia[edit]

By the latter half of the 2nd century, Christianity had spread east throughout Media, Persia, Parthia, and Bactria. The twenty bishops and many presbyters were more of the order of itinerant missionaries, passing from place to place as Paul did and supplying their needs with such occupations as merchant or craftsman. By AD 280 the metropolis of Seleucia assumed the title of "Catholicos" and in A.D. 424 a council of the church at Seleucia elected the first patriarch to have jurisdiction over the whole church of the East. The seat of the Patriarchate was fixed at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, since this was an important point on the East-West trade routes which extended both to India and China, Java and Japan. Thus the shift of ecclesiastical authority was away from Edessa, which in A.D. 216 had become tributary to Rome. the establishment of an independent patriarchate with nine subordinate metropoli contributed to a more favourable attitude by the Persian government, which no longer had to fear an ecclesiastical alliance with the common enemy, Rome.

By the time that Edessa was incorporated into the Persian Empire in 258, the city of Arbela, situated on the Tigris in what is now Iraq, had taken on more and more the role that Edessa had played in the early years, as a centre from which Christianity spread to the rest of the Persian Empire.[75]

Bardaisan, writing about 196, speaks of Christians throughout Media, Parthia and Bactria (modern-day Afghanistan)[76] and, according to Tertullian (c. 160–230), there were already a number of bishoprics within the Persian Empire by 220.[75] By 315, the bishop of Seleucia–Ctesiphon had assumed the title "Catholicos".[75] By this time, neither Edessa nor Arbela was the centre of the Church of the East anymore; ecclesiastical authority had moved east to the heart of the Persian Empire.[75] The twin cities of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, well-situated on the main trade routes between East and West, became, in the words of John Stewart, "a magnificent centre for the missionary church that was entering on its great task of carrying the gospel to the far east".[77]

During the reign of Shapur II of the Sasanian Empire, he was not initially hostile to his Christian subjects, who were led by Shemon Bar Sabbae, the Patriarch of the Church of the East, however, the conversion of Constantine the Great to Christianity caused Shapur to start distrusting his Christian subjects. He started seeing them as agents of a foreign enemy. The wars between the Sasanian and Roman empires turned Shapur's mistrust into hostility. After the death of Constantine, Shapur II, who had been preparing for a war against the Romans for several years, imposed a double tax on his Christian subjects to finance the conflict. Shemon, however, refused to pay the double tax. Shapur started pessuring Shemon and his clergy to convert to Zoroastrianism, which they refused to do. It was during this period the 'cycle of the martyrs' began during which 'many thousands of Christians' were put to death. During the following years, Shemon's successors, Shahdost and Barba'shmin, were also martyred.

A near-contemporary 5th century Christian work, the Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen, contains considerable detail on the Persian Christians martyred under Shapur II. Sozomen estimates the total number of Christians killed as follows:

The number of men and women whose names have been ascertained, and who were martyred at this period, has been computed to be upwards of sixteen thousand, while the multitude of martyrs whose names are unknown was so great that the Persians, the Syrians, and the inhabitants of Edessa, have failed in all their efforts to compute the number.

— Sozomen, in his Ecclesiastical History, Book II, Chapter XIV [78]

Arabian Peninsula[edit]

See also: Ghassanids and Lakhmids

To understand the penetration of the Arabian peninsula by the Christian gospel, it is helpful to distinguish between the Bedouin nomads of the interior, who were chiefly herdsmen and unreceptive to foreign control, and the inhabitants of the settled communities of the coastal areas and oases, who were either middlemen traders or farmers and were receptive to influences from abroad. Christianity apparently gained its strongest foothold in the ancient center of Semitic civilization in South-west Arabia or Yemen, (sometimes known as Seba or Sheba, whose queen visited Solomon). Because of geographic proximity, acculturation with Ethiopia was always strong, and the royal family traces its ancestry to this queen.

The presence of Arabians at Pentecost and Paul's three-year sojourn in Arabia suggest a very early gospel witness. A 4th-century church history, states that the apostle Bartholomew preached in Arabia and that Himyarites were among his converts. The Al-Jubail Church in what is now Saudi Arabia was built in the 4th century. Arabia's close relations with Ethiopia give significance to the conversion of the treasurer to the queen of Ethiopia, not to mention the tradition that the Apostle Matthew was assigned to this land.[4] Eusebius says that "one Pantaneous (c. A.D. 190) was sent from Alexandria as a missionary to the nations of the East", including southwest Arabia, on his way to India.[5]

Nubia[edit]

Christianity arrived early in Nubia. In the New Testament of the Christian Bible, a treasury official of "Candace, queen of the Ethiopians" returning from a trip to Jerusalem was baptised by Philip the Evangelist:

Then the Angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza, which is desert. And he arose and went: And behold, a man of Ethiopia, an Eunuch of great authority under Candace, Queen of E-thi-o'pi-ans, who had the charge of all her treasure, and had come to Jerusalem to worship.[79]

Ethiopia at that time meant any upper Nile region. Candace was the name and perhaps, title for the Meroë or Kushite queens.

In the fourth century, bishop Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated Marcus as bishop of Philae before his death in 373, showing that Christianity had permanently penetrated the region. John of Ephesus records that a Monophysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545 and another kingdom of Alodia converted around 569. By the 7th century Makuria expanded becoming the dominant power in the region so strong enough to halt the southern expansion of Islam after the Arabs had taken Egypt. After several failed invasions the new rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola allowing for peaceful coexistence and trade. This treaty held for six hundred years allowing Arab traders introducing Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted Christianity. The last recorded bishop was Timothy at Qasr Ibrim in 1372.

See also[edit]

  • Christianity in the 1st century
  • Christianity in the 2nd century
  • Christianity in the 3rd century
  • Early Christian art and architecture
  • Early Christianity
  • History of Christianity
  • History of early Christianity

References[edit]

  1. ^ Paul, for example, greets a house church in Romans 16:5.
  2. ^ ἐκκλησία. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  3. ^ Bauer lexicon
  4. ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 19–20
  5. ^ a b Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "By the year 100, more than 40 Christian communities existed in cities around the Mediterranean, including two in North Africa, at Alexandria and Cyrene, and several in Italy."
  6. ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 18, quote: "The story of how this tiny community of believers spread to many cities of the Roman Empire within less than a century is indeed a remarkable chapter in the history of humanity."
  7. ^ Pixner, Bargil (May–June 1990). "The Church of the Apostles found on Mount Zion". Biblical Archaeology Review. Vol. 16 no. 3. Archived from the original on 9 March 2018 – via CenturyOne Foundation.
  8. ^ Jerusalem (A.D. 71–1099): "During the first Christian centuries the church at this place was the centre of Christianity in Jerusalem, "Holy and glorious Sion, mother of all churches" (Intercession in "St. James' Liturgy", ed. Brightman, p. 54). Saint Mark of syriac orthodox church is also known as last supper church and believe first christian church. "
  9. ^ a b c d e f "Jerusalem." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  10. ^ St. James the Less Catholic Encyclopedia: "Then we lose sight of James till St. Paul, three years after his conversion (A.D. 37), went up to Jerusalem. ... On the same occasion, the "pillars" of the Church, James, Peter, and John "gave to me (Paul) and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship; that we should go unto the Gentiles, and they unto the circumcision" (Galatians 2:9)."
  11. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision: In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature: "Contact with Grecian life, especially at the games of the arena [which involved nudity], made this distinction obnoxious to the Hellenists, or anti-nationalists; and the consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by epispasm ("making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18;, Tosef., Shab. xv. 9; Yeb. 72a, b; Yer. Peah i. 16b; Yeb. viii. 9a). All the more did the law-observing Jews defy the edict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons."; Hodges, Frederick, M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (PDF). The Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 75 (Fall 2001): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. S2CID 29580193. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
  12. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition."
  13. ^ "peri'ah", (Shab. xxx. 6)
  14. ^ a b c "James, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  15. ^ Eusebius, Church History 3, 5, 3; Epiphanius, Panarion 29,7,7-8; 30, 2, 7; On Weights and Measures 15. On the flight to Pella see: Jonathan Bourgel, "'The Jewish Christians’ Move from Jerusalem as a pragmatic choice", in: Dan Jaffe (ed), Studies in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity, (Leyden: Brill, 2010), p. 107-138 (https://www.academia.edu/4909339/THE_JEWISH_CHRISTIANS_MOVE_FROM_JERUSALEM_AS_A_PRAGMATIC_CHOICE).
  16. ^ P. H. R. van Houwelingen, "Fleeing forward: The departure of Christians from Jerusalem to Pella", Westminster Theological Journal 65 (2003), 181-200.
  17. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (A.D. 71–1099): "Epiphanius (d. 403) says that when the Emperor Hadrian came to Jerusalem in 130 he found the Temple and the whole city destroyed save for a few houses, among them the one where the Apostles had received the Holy Ghost. This house, says Epiphanius, is "in that part of Sion which was spared when the city was destroyed" — therefore in the "upper part ("De mens. et pond.", cap. xiv). From the time of Cyril of Jerusalem, who speaks of "the upper Church of the Apostles, where the Holy Ghost came down upon them" (Catech., ii, 6; P.G., XXXIII), there are abundant witnesses of the place. A great basilica was built over the spot in the fourth century; the crusaders built another church when the older one had been destroyed by Hakim in 1010. It is the famous Coenaculum or Cenacle — now a Moslem shrine — near the Gate of David, and supposed to be David's tomb (Nebi Daud)."; Epiphanius' Weights and Measures at tertullian.org.14: "For this Hadrian..."
  18. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Academies in Palestine
  19. ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
  20. ^ It was still known as Aelia at the time of the First Council of Nicaea, which marks the end of the Early Christianity period (Canon VII of the First Council of Nicaea).
  21. ^ Eusebius' History of the Church Book IV, chapter V, verses 3–4
  22. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (AD. 71-1099)
  23. ^ Socrates' Church History at CCEL.org: Book I, Chapter XVII: The Emperor’s Mother Helena having come to Jerusalem, searches for and finds the Cross of Christ, and builds a Church.
  24. ^ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i.e., Jerusalem] should be honoured, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honour."; "It is very hard to determine just what was the "precedence" granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the metropolis referred to in the last clause. Most writers, including Hefele, Balsamon, Aristenus and Beveridge consider it to be Cæsarea; while Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it is Antioch that is referred to."
  25. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica "Quinisext Council". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 14, 2010. "The Western Church and the Pope were not represented at the council. Justinian, however, wanted the Pope as well as the Eastern bishops to sign the canons. Pope Sergius I (687–701) refused to sign, and the canons were never fully accepted by the Western Church".
  26. ^ Quinisext Canon 36 from Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils at ccel.org: "we decree that the see of Constantinople shall have equal privileges with the see of Old Rome, and shall be highly regarded in ecclesiastical matters as that is, and shall be second after it. After Constantinople shall be ranked the See of Alexandria, then that of Antioch, and afterwards the See of Jerusalem."
  27. ^ Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Antioch
  28. ^ Acts 11:26
  29. ^ "Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories ... The earliest bishops exercising such powers... were those of Rome (over the whole or part of Italy), Alexandria (over Egypt and Libya), and Antioch (over large parts of Asia Minor). These three were recognized by the Council of Nicaea (325)." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article patriarch (ecclesiastical)
  30. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Alexandria, Egypt— Ancient
  31. ^ According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article Alexandria: "An important seaport of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile. It was founded by Alexander the Great to replace the small borough called Racondah or Rakhotis, 331 B.C. The Ptolemies, Alexander's successors on the throne of Egypt, soon made it the intellectual and commercial metropolis of the world. Cæsar who visited it 46 B.C. left it to Queen Cleopatra, but when Octavius went there in 30 B.C. he transformed the Egyptian kingdom into a Roman province. Alexandria continued prosperous under the Roman rule but declined a little under that of Constantinople. ... Christianity was brought to Alexandria by the Evangelist St. Mark. It was made illustrious by a lineage of learned doctors such as Pantænus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen; it has been governed by a series of great bishops amongst whom Athanasius and Cyril must be mentioned."
  32. ^ Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church, volume 3, section 79: "The Time of the Easter Festival": "...this was the second main object of the first ecumenical council in 325. The result of the transactions on this point, the particulars of which are not known to us, does not appear in the canons (probably out of consideration for the numerous Quartodecimanians), but is doubtless preserved in the two circular letters of the council itself and the emperor Constantine. [Socrates: Hist. Eccl. i. 9; Theodoret: H. E. i. 10; Eusebius: Vita Const ii. 17.]"
  33. ^ Brown, Raymond E. (1997). Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Anchor Bible. p. 334. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
  34. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Asia Minor: Spread of Christianity in Asia Minor: "Asia Minor was certainly the first part of the Roman world to accept as a whole the principles and the spirit of the Christian religion, and it was not unnatural that the warmth of its conviction should eventually fire the neighbouring Armenia and make it, early in the fourth century, the first of the ancient states formally to accept the religion of Christ (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., IX, viii, 2)."
  35. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Caesarea Palaestinae, perhaps an oversight, what does the New Catholic Encyclopedia say?; the "council" is most likely a reference to Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea, see also Eusebius' Church History Book V chapter 23.
  36. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (A.D. 71–1099): "As the rank of the various sees among themselves was gradually arranged according to the divisions of the empire, Caesarea became the metropolitan see; the Bishop of Ælia [Jerusalem as renamed by Hadrian] was merely one of its suffragans. The bishops from the siege under Hadrian (135) to Constantine (312) were:".
  37. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Caesarea Palaestinae
  38. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Barnabas
  39. ^ Philippi: Catholic Encyclopedia "Philippi was the first European town in which St. Paul preached the Faith. He arrived there with Silas, Timothy, and Luke about the end of 52 A.D., on the occasion of his second Apostolic voyage."
  40. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Corinth
  41. ^ [1]
  42. ^ "The Saint Athanasius Monastery of Chirpan, the oldest cloister in Europe" (in Bulgarian). Bulgarian National Radio. 22 June 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  43. ^ Acts 18:1–2; The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Priscilla, St
  44. ^ "Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  45. ^ Pennington, p. 2
  46. ^ St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage Archived July 20, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  47. ^ Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not. Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press (1995), ISBN 0-8091-3610-4, Pp 190–192.; Dunn, James D.G., Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, 70 to 135, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), ISBN 0-8028-4498-7, Pp 33–34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, The Romans: From Village to Empire, Oxford University Press (2004), ISBN 0-19-511875-8, p. 426.;
  48. ^ a b c d The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Rome (early Christian)
  49. ^ Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3.2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate."
  50. ^ "Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3.2". ...[the] Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate.
  51. ^ Franzen 26
  52. ^ chapter 16
  53. ^ Brown, Raymond E. and Meier, John P. (1983). Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Christianity. Paulist Press. As for Peter, we have no knowledge at all of when he came to Rome and what he did there before he was martyred. Certainly he was not the original missionary who brought Christianity to Rome (and therefore not the founder of the church of Rome in that sense). There is no serious proof that he was the bishop (or local ecclesiastical officer) of the Roman church—a claim not made till the third century. Most likely he did not spend any major time at Rome before 58 when Paul wrote to the Romans, and so it may have been only in the 60s and relatively shortly before his martyrdom that Peter came to the capital.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  54. ^ a b "In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large." While Cullman believed the Matthew 16:18 text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal succession."— "Religion: Peter & the Rock." Time", December 7, 1953. Time.com Accessed October 8, 2009
  55. ^ Cullman, Oscar "In the New Testament [Jerusalem] is the only church of which we hear that Peter stood at its head. Of other episcopates of Peter we know nothing certain. Concerning Antioch, indeed ... there is a tradition, first appearing in the course of the second century, according to which Peter was its bishop. The assertion that he was Bishop of Rome we first find at a much later time. From the second half of the second century we do possess texts that mention the apostolic foundation of Rome, and at this time, which is indeed rather late, this foundation is traced back to Peter and Paul, an assertion that cannot be supported historically. Even here, however, nothing is said as yet of an episcopal office of Peter."
  56. ^ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: The Seventh: Letter to Pope Hadrian: "Therefore, O most holy Head (Caput)", "And after this, may there be no further schism and separation in the one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, of which Christ our true God is the Head."; Pope Hadrian's letter: "the holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church your spiritual mother ... the head of all Churches"; Canon IV: "For Peter the supreme head (ἡ κερυφαία ἀκρότης) of the Apostles"; Letter to the Emperor and Empress: "Christ our God (who is the head of the Church)".
  57. ^ First Council of Nicaea Archived 2008-09-15 at the Wayback Machine, canon VI
  58. ^ "Patriarch (ecclesiastical). A title dating from the 6th cent., for the bishops of the five chief sees of Christendom ... Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories ... The earliest bishops exercising such powers, though not so named, were those of Rome (over the whole or part of Italy, Alexandria (over Egypt and Libya), and Antioch (over large parts of Asia Minor))" [Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Patriarch (ecclesiastical)]. "Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then, or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward, when they were so called" (ffoulkes, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, quoted in Volume XIV of Philip Schaff's The Seven Ecumenical Councils).
  59. ^ Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article "Victor I, St"
  60. ^ Candida Moss (2013). The Myth of Persecution. HarperCollins. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-06-210452-6.
  61. ^ "Tertullian." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  62. ^ "Cyprian, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  63. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Reggio di Calabria: "Through a misinterpretation of Acts 27:13, St. Paul was said to have preached the Gospel there, and to have consecrated his companion, St. Stephen, bishop; it is probable, however, that it was evangelized at an early period. The first bishop known is Mark, legate of Pope Sylvester at the Council of Nicaea (325)."
  64. ^ "Armenian History, Chapter III". Archived from the original on 2011-08-03. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
  65. ^ Portella, Mario Alexis; Woldegaber, O. Cist Abba Abraham Buruk (2012-01-01). Pringle, Brendan (ed.). Abyssinian Christianity: The First Christian Nation. Pismo Beach, California: BP Editing. ISBN 9780615652979.
  66. ^ a b c d e A. E. Medlycott, India and The Apostle Thomas, pp. 18-71; M. R. James, Apocryphal New Testament, pp. 364-436; A. E. Medlycott, India and The Apostle Thomas, pp. 1-17, 213-97; Eusebius, History, chapter 4:30; J. N. Farquhar, The Apostle Thomas in North India, chapter 4:30; V. A. Smith, Early History of India, p. 235; L. W. Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas, p. 49-59.
  67. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  68. ^ a b James, M. R. (1966) "The Acts of Thomas" in The Apocryphal New Testament, pp. 365−77; 434−8. Oxford.
  69. ^ Breviary of the Mar Thoma Church in Malabar
  70. ^ von Harnack, Adolph (1905). The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. Williams & Norgate. p. 293. there is no doubt that even before 190 A.D. Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that (shortly after 201 or even earlier?) the royal house joined the church
  71. ^ Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Diatessaron
  72. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia Ecclesiastica, V, 23
  73. ^ Chronicon Edessenum, ad. an. 201
  74. ^ Christianity[permanent dead link] Encyclopædia Iranica
  75. ^ a b c d Mark Dickens: The Church of the East
  76. ^ "We are Christians by the one name of the Messiah. As regards our customs our brethren abstain from everything that is contrary to their profession.... Parthian Christians do not take two wives.... Our Bactrian sisters do not practice promiscuity with strangers. Persians do not take their daughters to wife. Medes do not desert their dying relations or bury them alive. Christians in Edessa do not kill their wives or sisters who commit fornication but keep them apart and commit them to the judgement of God. Christians in Hatra do not stone thieves" (quoted in Mark Dickens: The Church of the East).
  77. ^ John Stewart, Nestorian Missionary Enterprise (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1928)
  78. ^ Sozomen 2018.
  79. ^ Acts 8:26–27

Bibliography[edit]

  • Dunn, James D.G. Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, AD 70 to 135. Pp 33–34. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). ISBN 0-8028-4498-7.
  • Esler, Philip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
  • Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0-226-65371-4.
  • Stark, Rodney.The Rise of Christianity. Harper Collins Pbk. Ed edition 1997. ISBN 0-06-067701-5
  • Taylor, Joan E. Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-814785-6.
  • Thiede, Carsten Peter. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). ISBN 1-4039-6143-3.

External links[edit]

  • Early Christians
  • PBS Frontline: The First Christians
  • First Christians and Rome
  • Cave in Jordan Said to Have Been Used by Early Christians Biblical Archaeology Review