De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
Saltar a navegación Saltar a búsqueda
El profesor Peter Singer da una conferencia sobre '¿Qué es lo mejor que puedes hacer ?' en Conway Hall en 2015.

El altruismo efectivo es una filosofía y un movimiento social que aboga por el uso de evidencia y razonamiento para determinar las formas más efectivas de beneficiar a otros. [1] : 2 [2] : 4–7 El altruismo se refiere a mejorar la vida de los demás, en oposición al egoísmo , que enfatiza solo el interés propio. [2] : 4–5 [3] : 12 La eficacia se refiere a hacer el mayor bien con los recursos disponibles, en lugar de hacer solo algunoscantidad de bien, además de determinar qué es lo más bueno mediante el uso de evidencia y razonamiento, en lugar de hacer solo lo que se siente bien o parece intuitivamente atractivo. [2] : 6–7 [3] : 12

Las personas que abrazan el altruismo efectivo a menudo se denominan altruistas efectivos . [4] Si bien muchos altruistas efectivos se han centrado en el sector sin fines de lucro , la filosofía del altruismo efectivo se aplica de manera más amplia para priorizar los proyectos científicos, las empresas y las iniciativas políticas que se pueden estimar para salvar vidas, ayudar a las personas o tener el mayor beneficio. . [3] : 179-195 Algunos altruistas eficaces también participan en la comunidad racionalista . [5]

Filosofía [ editar ]

Peter Singer es uno de varios filósofos que ayudaron a popularizar el altruismo efectivo.

Los filósofos jugaron un papel importante en la creación del altruismo efectivo (ver § Historia del movimiento social más abajo), y gran parte de la literatura publicada sobre el altruismo efectivo plantea preguntas filosóficas sobre por qué y cómo usar la evidencia y el razonamiento para determinar las formas más efectivas de beneficiar a los demás. , y luego trata de encontrar las respuestas más plausibles a esas preguntas, para que la gente pueda actuar sobre la base de esas respuestas. [6] [7] Estas preguntas filosóficas cambian el punto de partida del razonamiento de "qué hacer" a por qué y cómo hacerlo. [8]

La "pregunta guía" [3] : 14 del altruismo efectivo es: ¿Cómo podemos, individual y colectivamente, hacer el mayor bien? [2] : 5 [6] Otras preguntas que siguen rápidamente incluyen:

  • "¿Qué cuenta como 'el más bueno'?" [2] : 7
  • "¿Cómo puedo hacer el mayor bien, dado lo que es probable que hagan los demás?" [6]
  • "¿El sufrimiento de todos cuenta por igual?" [2] : 7
  • "¿'Lo mejor que puedes hacer' significa que está mal dar prioridad a los propios hijos?" [2] : 8
  • "¿Qué pasa con otros valores, como la justicia , la libertad , la igualdad y el conocimiento ?" [2] : 8
  • "¿Todos pueden practicar un altruismo efectivo?" [2] : 9
  • ¿Es mejor pensar en el altruismo efectivo "como una 'oportunidad' o una 'obligación'?" [7] : 16
  • "¿Qué pasa si el acto de uno reduce el sufrimiento, pero para hacerlo hay que mentir o dañar a una persona inocente?" [2] : 9 ¿" El fin justifica los medios "? [7] : 20
  • "¿Qué hubiera pasado de otra manera?" [3] : 13
  • "¿Cuáles son las posibilidades de éxito y qué tan bueno sería el éxito?" [3] : 13

Existe un desacuerdo razonable, entre filósofos y otras personas, sobre las respuestas a tales preguntas. [6] Pero el núcleo filosófico mínimo del altruismo efectivo implica al menos tener alguna razón para beneficiar a todos los demás, es decir, una razón para promover su bienestar , [9] "y más razones para beneficiarlos más, y más razones para beneficiarse ellos tanto como sea posible, al menos derrotables y en igualdad de condiciones ". [6] Es probable que este núcleo filosófico mínimo de altruismo efectivo esté respaldado por una amplia variedad de puntos de vista sobre la moralidad y la metaética . [1] [6]Por ejemplo, la teoría moral del consecuencialismo , incluido el utilitarismo , apoya el objetivo de utilizar los recursos para beneficiar a otros tanto como sea posible, pero el altruismo efectivo no es necesariamente, como se ha dicho a veces, lo mismo que el consecuencialismo. [1] [6]

Hay diferentes puntos de vista sobre si el altruismo efectivo implica afirmaciones éticas normativas como "debemos hacer el mayor bien que podamos". [10] [7] : 12-15 Un punto de vista dice que el altruismo efectivo no es un conjunto de afirmaciones normativas (que dicen lo que la gente "debería hacer") sino que es un proyecto, intelectual y práctico, de "tratar de averiguar cómo utilizar los recursos de la manera que sea más beneficiosa con una determinada unidad de recursos "y de poner en práctica lo aprendido. [7] : 15 Según esta visión, las teorías éticas normativas del consecuencialismo, igualitarismo , prioritarismo , contractualismo ,La ética deontológica , la ética de la virtud , así como muchas enseñanzas religiosas tradicionales sobre el altruismo, pueden ser todas compatibles con el proyecto de un altruismo efectivo. [1] [6] El altruismo efectivo no es una filosofía completa de cómo vivir moralmente, pero el altruismo efectivo puede ser relevante para cualquier punto de vista que asuma alguna razón para promover el bien y que asuma que el bienestar de los demás es parte del bien. [7] : 19

Algunas personas han informado que las preguntas y respuestas planteadas por la filosofía del altruismo efectivo les han ayudado a aprender más sobre problemas complejos y a obtener un sentido más profundo de significado, así como un sentimiento de satisfacción por ayudar a los demás de manera más eficaz. [11]

Las siguientes subsecciones describen ideas importantes que se discuten en la literatura publicada sobre el altruismo efectivo.

Imparcialidad [ editar ]

Una imagen alegórica de la igualdad de Jean-Guillaume Moitte, 1793

El altruismo, o beneficiar a otros, puede estar impulsado por varios tipos de motivación y justificación, incluido el razonamiento imparcial o impersonal y sentimientos como la simpatía y la compasión. [12] Gran parte de la literatura publicada sobre altruismo efectivo enfatiza el razonamiento imparcial o impersonal y concluye que, en igualdad de condiciones, el bienestar (y el sufrimiento ) de todos cuenta por igual, sin tener en cuenta las identidades individuales de los demás. [2] : 85–95 [6] [7] : 17–19

La imparcialidad en el beneficio de los demás combinada con la búsqueda de hacer el mayor bien es compatible con priorizar los beneficios para aquellos que se encuentran en peor estado, porque cualquiera que esté en peor situación se beneficiará más de una mejora en su estado, en igualdad de condiciones ( ver § Alivio de la pobreza global a continuación). [6]

La imparcialidad es también la base de lo que se llama la neutralidad de causa del altruismo efectivo (ver § Priorización de causas a continuación): elegir entre posibles actividades altruistas o causas (problemas) en función de si harán el mayor bien con recursos limitados, en lugar de elegir entre ellos en función de otros factores como las conexiones personales. [6]

Algunos altruistas eficaces han argumentado que habrá muchos más miembros de las generaciones futuras que miembros de las poblaciones actuales, por lo que la forma de hacer el mayor bien es centrarse en promover el bienestar a largo plazo, por ejemplo, reduciendo los riesgos existenciales. a la humanidad (ver § Riesgos catastróficos globales y futuros a largo plazo a continuación). [2] : 165–178 [13] [14]

Algunos altruistas efectivos piensan que los intereses de los animales no humanos deben tener el mismo peso moral que los intereses similares de los humanos, por lo que trabajan para prevenir el sufrimiento de los animales (ver § Bienestar animal más abajo), [15] [16] especialmente los animales criados en granjas industriales . [17]

Hay muchos tipos de motivación y justificación para la imparcialidad, como para el altruismo. [18] Un argumento a favor de la imparcialidad que ha sido influyente entre los altruistas efectivos [19] fue expresado por el filósofo Peter Singer en su ensayo de 1972 " Hambruna, afluencia y moralidad ", en el que escribió: [20] : 231-232, 237

No importa moralmente si la persona a la que puedo ayudar es el hijo de un vecino a diez metros de mí o un bengalí cuyo nombre nunca sabré, a diez mil millas de distancia. ... El punto de vista moral nos obliga a mirar más allá de los intereses de nuestra propia sociedad. Anteriormente, ... esto puede que difícilmente haya sido factible, pero es bastante factible ahora. Desde el punto de vista moral, la prevención del hambre de millones de personas fuera de nuestra sociedad debe considerarse al menos tan urgente como la defensa de las normas de propiedad dentro de nuestra sociedad.

Este argumento a favor de la imparcialidad se repitió más tarde en otros libros de Singer [2] [21] y se amplió en el libro de 1996 Living High and Letting Die del filósofo Peter Unger . [22]

Obstáculos a la imparcialidad [ editar ]

Singer especuló en "Famine, Affluence, and Morality" que si las personas realmente razonan y actúan de manera imparcial es probable que se vea afectado por la influencia social : "Lo que es posible que un hombre haga y lo que probablemente haga son ambos, creo , muy influenciado por lo que las personas que lo rodean están haciendo y esperan que haga ". [20] : 237 En su libro de 2015 The Most Good You Can Do , Singer admitió que a pesar de que había argumentado en 1972 que "deberíamos destinar grandes proporciones de nuestros ingresos a los fondos de ayuda en casos de desastre", sin embargo, "aunque yo sostuve que esto es lo que debemos hacer, yo no lo hice ". [2] :13 Señaló el papel de la influencia social y la inercia psicológicacomo obstáculos para actuar de forma altruista. [2] : 13-14 La investigación sociológica ha demostrado que la influencia social puede socavar la actividad altruista. [23] Para apoyar la capacidad de las personas para actuar de manera altruista sobre la base de un razonamiento imparcial, el movimiento de altruismo efectivo promueve valores y acciones adicionales que no forman parte del núcleo filosófico mínimo del altruismo efectivo, como el espíritu colaborativo, la honestidad y la transparencia, y comprometiéndose públicamente a donar un cierto porcentaje de los ingresos u otros recursos. [1] : 2

Causa priorización [ editar ]

Muchas organizaciones sin fines de lucro enfatizan la efectividad y la evidencia, pero esto generalmente se hace con una sola causa (problema) en mente, como la educación o el cambio climático. [24] Los altruistas efectivos, sin embargo, buscan comparar la importancia relativa de diferentes causas y asignar recursos entre ellas de manera objetiva, un concepto que generalmente se conoce como neutralidad de causa . [25] Un enfoque para la neutralidad de la causa, por ejemplo, es elegir las causas de mayor prioridad en función de si las actividades en cada área de causa podrían promover de manera eficiente objetivos amplios, como aumentar el bienestar humano o animal, y luego centrar la atención en las intervenciones en esas causas. áreas. [26]

La información requerida para la priorización de causas puede ser difícil de producir; puede implicar recopilar y procesar conjuntos de datos complejos , comparar los posibles resultados con lo que habría sucedido en otras condiciones (ver § Razonamiento contrafactual a continuación) e identificar varios tipos de incertidumbre . [6] [27] Estos desafíos han llevado a la creación de organizaciones que se especializan en investigar la priorización relativa de causas. [6] [28] [29] Algunas prioridades comunes entre los altruistas eficaces incluyen la pobreza en el mundo en desarrollo , el sufrimiento de los animales en las granjas industriales yriesgos para la civilización, los seres humanos y el planeta Tierra (ver § Prioridades de causa a continuación). [3] [8]

Rentabilidad [ editar ]

Effective altruist organizations have argued that some charities are far more effective than others, either because some do not achieve their goals or because of variability in the cost of achieving those goals.[30][31] When possible, they seek to identify charities that are highly cost-effective, meaning that they achieve a large benefit for a given amount of money.[32] For example, they select health interventions on the basis of their impact as measured by lives saved per dollar, quality-adjusted life years (QALY) saved per dollar, or disability-adjusted life years (DALY) averted per dollar. This measure of disease burden is expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability or early death.

Some effective altruism organizations use randomized controlled trials as a primary form of evidence,[32][33] as they are often considered to be at the highest level of strong evidence in healthcare research.[34] Others have argued that requiring this stringent level of evidence unnecessarily narrows the focus to only those issues on which this kind of evidence is possible, and that the history of philanthropy suggests that the most effective interventions have often proceeded without this level of evidence.[35]

Room for more funding[edit]

Effective altruist organizations make philanthropic recommendations for charities on the basis of the impact from marginal funding rather than merely evaluating the average value of all donations to the charity.[36][37] Effective altruists would avoid donating to organizations that have no "room for more funding" – those that face bottlenecks other than money which prevent them from spending the funds they have already accumulated or are expected to receive.[38] For example, a medical charity might not be able to hire enough doctors or nurses to distribute the medical supplies it is capable of purchasing, or it might already be serving all of the potential patients in its market. There are many other organizations which do have room for more funding, so giving to one of those instead would produce real-world improvements.

Counterfactual reasoning[edit]

Effective altruists have argued that counterfactual reasoning is important to determine which course of action maximizes positive impact. Many people assume that the best way to help people is through direct methods, such as working for a charity or providing social services,[39] but since charities and social-service providers can usually find people willing to work for them, effective altruists would compare the amount of good somebody does in a conventional altruistic career to how much good would have been done had the next-best candidate been hired for the position. According to this reasoning, the impact of a career may be smaller than it appears.[40][41]

Behavior[edit]

The philosophical or intellectual part of effective altruism, described above, is about learning how to do the most good through the use of evidence and reasoning. The behavioral or practical part is about using what has been learned to try to do the most good through altruistic activities.[6][7]:14

Donation[edit]

Effective altruism encourages significant charitable donation. Some believe it is a moral duty to alleviate suffering through donations if the purchases that one forgoes to donate do not cause comparable suffering to oneself,[20] leading some of them to lead a frugal lifestyle in order to give substantially more than is typical in their society.[42]

Giving What We Can (GWWC) is an organization whose members have pledged to donate at least 10% of their income for the remainder of their working lives to the causes that they believe are the most effective. GWWC was founded in 2009 by Toby Ord, a moral philosopher, who lives on £18,000 ($27,000) per year and donates the remainder of his income to charity.[43]

The Founders Pledge is a similar initiative run by the nonprofit Founders Forum for Good where startup founders make a legally binding commitment to donate at least 2% of their personal proceeds to charity in the event that they sell their business.[44][45] By January 2019, three years after launch, more than 1400 entrepreneurs have pledged an estimated total value of $700 million based on the founders' equity and the companies' valuation and at least $91 million were raised.[46]

Career selection[edit]

Effective altruists have argued that selection of one's career is an important determinant of the amount of good one does,[47] both directly (through the services one provides to the world) and indirectly (through the ways one directs the money earned based on the career).[48]

80,000 Hours is an organisation in the effective altruism community that conducts research on which careers have the largest positive social impact and provides career advice based on that research.[49][50] It considers indirect methods of altruistic employment, such as earning a high salary in a conventional career and donating a portion of it, as well as direct practices, such as scientific research. It was co-founded by William MacAskill and Benjamin Todd.[51][52]

Earning to give has been proposed as a possible strategy for effective altruists. This strategy involves choosing to work in high-paying careers with the explicit goal of donating large sums of money to charity.[53][54] MacAskill argues that it might even be worth earning to give in morally controversial careers, since the marginal impact of taking an unethical job is small if someone else would have taken it regardless, while the counterfactual impact of the donations would be large.[48] However, 80,000 Hours have more recently argued that it is better to avoid careers that do significant direct harm, even if it seems like the negative consequences would be outweighed by donations. This is because there are often hidden harms in following unethical careers, and because they think it is important to take moral uncertainty into account.[55]

David Brooks, a columnist for The New York Times, criticized earning to give. He wrote that most people who work in finance and other high-paying industries value money for selfish reasons and that being surrounded by these people will cause effective altruists to become less altruistic.[56] Peter Singer responded to these criticisms in his book The Most Good You Can Do by giving examples of people who have been earning to give for years without losing their altruistic motivation.[57] In The Week, Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry argued that the practice was "unsettling".[58]

Cause priorities[edit]

Since effective altruism aims for cause neutrality (see § Cause prioritization above),[25] it is in principle open to helping in whichever causes (problems) allow people to do the most good, impartially considered.[8][59] Such causes may include, for example, providing food for the hungry, protecting endangered species, mitigating climate change, reforming immigration policy, researching cures for illnesses, preventing sexual violence, alleviating poverty, eliminating factory farming, or averting nuclear warfare.[6] Many people in the effective altruist movement have prioritized global poverty, animal welfare, and risks to the survival and flourishing of humanity and its descendants over the long-term future.[60][33][28][61]

Global poverty alleviation[edit]

Global poverty alleviation has been a focus of some of the earliest and most prominent organizations associated with effective altruism.

Charity evaluator GiveWell was founded by Holden Karnofsky and Elie Hassenfeld in 2007 to address poverty and is part of the effective altruism community.[62][63] GiveWell has argued that the value of donations is greatest for international poverty alleviation and developing world health issues,[31][64] and its leading recommendations have been in these domains (including malaria prevention charities Against Malaria Foundation and Malaria Consortium, deworming charities Schistosomiasis Control Initiative and Deworm the World Initiative, and GiveDirectly for direct unconditional cash transfers).[65][66]

The effective altruism organization The Life You Can Save, which originated from Singer's book by the same name,[21] also works to alleviate global poverty by promoting evidence-backed charities, conducting philanthropy education, and changing the culture of giving in affluent countries.[67][68]

While much of the initial focus of effective altruism was on direct strategies such as health interventions and cash transfers, there has also been interest in more systematic social, economic, and political reform that would facilitate larger long-term poverty reduction.[69] In 2011, GiveWell announced GiveWell Labs, which was later renamed as the Open Philanthropy Project, for research and philanthropic funding of more speculative and diverse causes such as policy reform, global catastrophic risk reduction and scientific research.[70][71] It is a collaboration between GiveWell and Good Ventures, a philanthropic foundation founded by Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz and his wife Cari Tuna.[72][73][74]

Animal welfare[edit]

Many effective altruists believe that reducing animal suffering should be a major priority and that, at the current margin, there are cost-effective ways of accomplishing this.[75][76][77] Singer quotes estimates by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the British organization Fishcount according to which 60 billion land animals are slaughtered and between 1 and 2.7 trillion individual fish are killed each year for human consumption.[78][79][80] He argues that effective animal welfare altruists should prioritize factory farming over more overfunded popular causes such as pet welfare.[81][17] Singer also argues that, if farm animals such as chickens are assigned even a modicum of consciousness, efforts to reduce factory farming (for example, by reducing global meat consumption) could be an even more underfunded and cost-effective way of reducing current global suffering than human poverty reduction.[2]:138, 146–147 Philosophically, wild animal suffering may be an additional moral concern for effective altruists.[82] In 2018, the book The End of Animal Farming by Jacy Reese Anthis discussed animal welfare issues from an effective altruism perspective, with a specific focus on the potential for cultured meat to address farm animal suffering and the importance of expanding the moral circle to help people care more about future beings, wild animals, invertebrates, and artificial sentience.[83]

Animal Charity Evaluators (ACE) is an effective altruism organization that evaluates and compares various animal charities based on their cost-effectiveness and transparency, particularly those that are tackling factory farming.[84][85][2]:139 Faunalytics (formerly the Humane Research Council) is an organization loosely affiliated with the effective altruism community that conducts independent research on important animal welfare topics, provides resources for advocates and donors, and works with animal protection organizations to evaluate their work.[86][87] The Sentience Institute is a new effective altruism think tank founded in 2017 to address the expansion of the moral circle.[88]

Long-term future and global catastrophic risks[edit]

Focusing on the long-term future, some effective altruists believe that the total value of any meaningful metric (wealth, potential for suffering, potential for happiness, etc.) summed up over future generations, far exceeds the value for people living today.[60][13][89][90] Some researchers have found it psychologically difficult to contemplate the trade-off; Toby Ord has stated that "Since there is so much work to be done to fix the needless suffering in our present, I was slow to turn to the future."[91]:8 Reasons Ord gave for working on long-term issues include a belief that preventing long-term suffering is "even more neglected" than causes related to current suffering, and that the residents of the future are even more powerless to affect risks caused by current events than are current dispossessed populations.[91]:8

Philosophically, attempts to reduce the suffering of future populations (given they exist) depend on attitudes toward pure time discounting, and initiatives focused on preventing human extinction (as opposed to preventing other dystopian futures) additionally depend on attitudes toward population ethics in order to compare with scenarios where future populations do not exist.[92] Peter Singer has argued that existential risk should not be "the dominant public face of the effective altruism movement" as doing so would drastically limit the movement's reach.[93]

In particular, the importance of addressing existential risks such as dangers associated with biotechnology and advanced artificial intelligence is often highlighted and the subject of active research.[94] Because it is often infeasible to use empirical science (such as randomized control trials) to measure the probability of an existential risk, researchers such as Nick Bostrom have used other methods such as expert opinion elicitation to estimate their importance.[95] Ord develops probability estimates for a number of existential risks in his 2020 book The Precipice.[96]

Some organizations that work actively on research and advocacy for improving the long term future, and have connections with the effective altruism community, are the Future of Humanity Institute at the University of Oxford, the Centre for the Study of Existential Risk at the University of Cambridge, and the Future of Life Institute.[97] In addition, the Machine Intelligence Research Institute is focused on the more narrow mission of aligning advanced artificial intelligence.[98][99]

History of the social movement[edit]

The movement that came to identify with the name effective altruism was created in the late 2000s as a community formed around Giving What We Can, founded in 2009 by philosopher Toby Ord with help from philosopher William MacAskill, who also co-founded 80,000 Hours in 2011.[100][2]:16–19 Those two groups, while planning to incorporate as a charity under a new umbrella organization, held a vote in late 2011 to choose a name for the new organization; the name "Centre for Effective Altruism" won.[101][100][2]:18 Ruairí Donnelly set up the "Effective Altruists" Facebook group in November 2012, and the movement gained wider exposure with Peter Singer's TED talk "The Why and How of Effective Altruism" in May 2013.[100] Other contributions to the social movement were the writings of philosophers such as Singer on applied ethics and Bostrom on reducing the risk of human extinction, the founding of organizations such as GiveWell and The Life You Can Save, and the creation of internet forums such as LessWrong.[102]:110[103]

Effective altruism conferences (called Effective Altruism Global) have been held since 2013.[104][105] In 2015, Peter Singer published The Most Good You Can Do, a book on effective altruism. The book describes the philosophy and social movement of effective altruism and argues in favor of it.[81] In the same year William MacAskill published his book Doing Good Better: How Effective Altruism Can Help You Make a Difference which helped to further popularize the movement.[106][107][32]

In 2018, American news website Vox launched its Future Perfect section, led by journalist Dylan Matthews.[108] Future Perfect has published written pieces and podcasts that cover effective altruism ideas on the mission of "Finding the best ways to do good",[109][110] including topics such as effective philanthropy,[111] high-impact career choice,[49] poverty reduction through women's empowerment,[112] improving children's learning efficiently through improving environmental health,[113] animal welfare improvements,[84] and ways to reduce global catastrophic risks.[114]

Key figures[edit]

Key figures in the effective altruism movement have included:

  • Princeton University philosopher Peter Singer[115]
  • Oxford University philosopher Derek Parfit[116]
  • Facebook cofounder Dustin Moskovitz[117]
  • Future of Humanity Institute director Nick Bostrom[102]:110
  • Global Priorities Institute director Hilary Greaves[118]
  • Oxford University philosopher William MacAskill[32]
  • Future of Humanity Institute researcher Toby Ord[119]
  • Professional poker player Liv Boeree[120][121]
  • Artificial intelligence researcher Eliezer Yudkowsky[citation needed]
  • GiveWell co-founder and Open Philanthropy Project CEO Holden Karnofsky[103]
  • Nanyang Technological University economist Yew-Kwang Ng[122]
  • Vox columnist Kelsey Piper[123]

Criticism[edit]

Claims that comparisons within and across cause areas are illegitimate[edit]

In the Stanford Social Innovation Review, Ken Berger and Robert Penna of Charity Navigator condemned effective altruism's practice of "weighing causes and beneficiaries against one another", calling this "moralistic, in the worst sense of the word".[124]

Bias toward measurable interventions[edit]

Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry warns about the "measurement problem", stating that some areas, such as medical research, or helping to reform third-world governance "one grinding step at a time", are hard to measure with controlled cost-effectiveness experiments and therefore risk being undervalued by the effective altruism movement.[58] Jennifer Rubenstein also hypothesizes that effective altruism can be biased against causes that are not straightforward to measure.[103]

Perceived neglect of radical economic change[edit]

In Jacobin magazine, Mathew Snow argued that effective altruism "implores individuals to use their money to procure necessities for those who desperately need them, but says nothing about the system that determines how those necessities are produced and distributed in the first place".[125] Various critics have similarly objected to effective altruism on the basis of the fact that its proponents tend not to support political causes such as anti-capitalism that change "the existing global institutional order".[126] Joshua Kissel has replied that anti-capitalism is compatible with effective altruism in theory, while adding that effective altruists and anti-capitalists have reason to be more sympathetic to each other.[59] Brian Berkey has also argued that support for institutional change does not contradict the principles of effective altruism, because effective altruism is open to any action that will have the greatest positive impact on the world, including the possibility of changing the existing global institutional order.[126] Elizabeth Ashford argues that we are separately obligated to donate to effective aid charities and to reform the structures that are responsible for poverty.[127]

See also[edit]

  • Appropriate technology
  • Charity (practice)
  • Charity evaluator
  • Prosocial behavior
  • Speciesism
  • Structural fix

Notes and references[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e MacAskill, William (January 2017). "Effective altruism: introduction". Essays in Philosophy. 18 (1): eP1580:1–5. doi:10.7710/1526-0569.1580. ISSN 1526-0569. Archived from the original on 2019-08-07. Retrieved 2020-02-08.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Singer, Peter (2015). The Most Good You Can Do: How Effective Altruism Is Changing Ideas About Living Ethically. Castle lectures in ethics, politics, and economics. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300180275. OCLC 890614537.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g MacAskill, William (2016) [2015]. Doing Good Better: How Effective Altruism Can Help You Help Others, Do Work that Matters, and Make Smarter Choices about Giving Back. New York: Avery. ISBN 9781592409662. OCLC 932001639.
  4. ^ The term effective altruists is used to refer to people who embrace effective altruism in many published sources such as Oliver (2014), Singer (2015), and MacAskill (2017), though as Pummer & MacAskill (2020) noted, calling people "effective altruists" just means minimally that they are engaged in the project of "using evidence and reason to try to find out how to do the most good, and on this basis trying to do the most good", not that they are perfectly effective nor even that they necessarily participate in the effective altruism community.
  5. ^ Chivers, Tom (2019). "Chapter 38: The Effective Altruists". The AI Does Not Hate You. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-1474608770.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Pummer, Theron; MacAskill, William (June 2020). "Effective altruism". In LaFollette, Hugh (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Ethics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee883. ISBN 9781444367072. OCLC 829259960.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h MacAskill, William (2019a). "The definition of effective altruism". In Greaves, Hilary; Pummer, Theron (eds.). Effective Altruism: Philosophical Issues. Engaging philosophy. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 10–28. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841364.003.0001. ISBN 9780198841364. OCLC 1101772304.
  8. ^ a b c Crouch, Will (May 30, 2013). "What is effective altruism?". blog.practicalethics.ox.ac.uk. Practical Ethics blog, Philosophy Faculty, University of Oxford. Archived from the original on October 3, 2015. Retrieved February 4, 2020.
  9. ^ MacAskill (2019a) said of the emphasis on well-being in effective altruism: "This welfarism is 'tentative', however, insofar as it is taken to be merely a working assumption. The ultimate aim of the effective altruist project is to do as much good as possible; the current focus on wellbeing rests on the idea that, given the current state of the world and our incredible opportunity to benefit others, the best ways of promoting welfarist value are broadly the same as the best ways of promoting the good." (p. 18)
  10. ^ Singer (2015) expressed a clearly normative view: "Effective altruism is based on a very simple idea: we should do the most good we can. Obeying the usual rules about not stealing, cheating, hurting, and killing is not enough, or at least not enough for those of us who have the great good fortune to live in material comfort, who can feed, house, and clothe ourselves and our families and still have money or time to spare. Living a minimally acceptable ethical life involves using a substantial part of our spare resources to make the world a better place. Living a fully ethical life involves doing the most good we can." (p. vii)
  11. ^ For example, Vox staff writer and self-identified effective altruist Kelsey Piper wrote: "You're asked to sacrifice to do good, but in return you get real and important results, as well as a life filled with meaning and purpose. You're asked to spend a lot of time thinking about complicated, intimidating questions, but you will learn how to approach hard questions and come away with a clearer picture of the world." Piper, Kelsey (2020). "Effective altruism". In Pigliucci, Massimo; Cleary, Skye; Kaufman, Daniel (eds.). How to Live a Good Life: A Guide to Choosing Your Personal Philosophy. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 255–270 (268). ISBN 9780525566144. OCLC 1133275390. And Singer (2015) reported: "Second, effective altruism is a way of giving meaning to our own lives and finding fulfillment in what we do. Many effective altruists say that in doing good, they feel good. Effective altruists directly benefit others, but indirectly they often benefit themselves." (p. viii)
  12. ^ Kraut, Richard (August 25, 2016). "Altruism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.). See especially the section "4. Why care about others?" Archived 2020-01-26 at the Wayback Machine: "Radically different ways of answering these questions [about why to benefit others] can be found in moral philosophy."
  13. ^ a b Todd, Benjamin (October 24, 2017). "Introducing longtermism: How important are future generations?". 80000 Hours. Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved February 8, 2020. Since the future is big, there could be far more people in the future than in the present generation. This means that if you want to help people in general, your key concern shouldn't be to help the present generation, but to ensure that the future goes well in the long-term. Previously, we called this the 'long-term value thesis', though it is now most commonly called 'longtermism'. This thesis is often confused with the claim that we shouldn't do anything to help people in the present generation. But the long-term value thesis is about what most matters—what we should do about it is a further question. It might turn out that the best way to help those in the future is to improve the lives of people in the present, such as through providing health and education.
  14. ^ Beckstead, Nick (2019). "A brief argument for the overwhelming importance of shaping the far future". In Greaves, Hilary; Pummer, Theron (eds.). Effective Altruism: Philosophical Issues. Engaging philosophy. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 80–98. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841364.003.0006. ISBN 9780198841364. OCLC 1101772304.
  15. ^ Fisher, Andrew (January 2017). "Theory-neutral arguments for 'effective animal advocacy'". Essays in Philosophy. 18 (1): eP1578:1–14. doi:10.7710/1526-0569.1578. ISSN 1526-0569. Archived from the original on 2019-08-07. Retrieved 2020-02-08.
  16. ^ Broad, Garrett M. (December 2018). "Effective animal advocacy: effective altruism, the social economy, and the animal protection movement". Agriculture and Human Values. 35 (4): 777–789. doi:10.1007/s10460-018-9873-5. S2CID 158634567.
  17. ^ a b "Why Farmed Animals?". Animal Charity Evaluators. November 2016. Archived from the original on 2019-07-06. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
  18. ^ Jollimore, Troy (February 6, 2017). "Impartiality". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2018 ed.).
  19. ^ On the influence of Singer's essay "Famine, Affluence, and Morality" see, for example: Snow 2015, Singer 2015, pp. 13–20, and Lichtenberg, Judith (November 30, 2015). "Peter Singer's extremely altruistic heirs: Forty years after it was written, 'Famine, Affluence, and Morality' has spawned a radical new movement". The New Republic.
  20. ^ a b c Singer, Peter (Spring 1972). "Famine, Affluence, and Morality". Philosophy and Public Affairs. 1 (3): 229–243. JSTOR 2265052. The essay was republished in book form in 2016 with a new preface and two extra essays by Singer: Singer, Peter (2016). Famine, Affluence, and Morality. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190219208. OCLC 907446001.
  21. ^ a b Singer, Peter (2009). The Life You Can Save: Acting Now to End World Poverty. New York: Random House. ISBN 9781400067107. OCLC 232980306.
  22. ^ Feldman, Fred (March 1998). "Review of Living High and Letting Die: Our Illusion of Innocence by Peter Unger" (PDF). Noûs. 32 (1): 138–147. doi:10.1111/0029-4624.00093. JSTOR 2671931. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-07. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
  23. ^ Simpson, Brent; Willer, Robb (August 2015). "Beyond altruism: sociological foundations of cooperation and prosocial behavior". Annual Review of Sociology. 41: 43–63. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-073014-112242. "More generally, laboratory studies of socially decontextualized groups show that person-level factors alone are generally unable to sustain cooperation at the high levels observed in many human groups. As noted above, these groups initially show much variation in contributions, with more altruistic individuals giving at high levels and more egoistic people contributing little or nothing at all. Contributions of more altruistic individuals then decline over time in response to their egoistic counterparts' noncooperation (Fehr & Gintis 2007, Sell & Wilson 1991). Thus, in the absence of social mechanisms—e.g., clear enforceable norms, opportunities to gain reputation or status for contributions to group efforts, or social connections between group members—contributions fall to very low levels." (p. 56)
  24. ^ Schambra, William A. (May 22, 2014). "Opinion: The coming showdown between philanthrolocalism and effective altruism". Philanthropy Daily. Archived from the original on February 5, 2020. Retrieved February 5, 2020. Strategic philanthropists like Paul Brest seek only to apply metrics to the selection of groups once a cause has been selected. But, altruist critics note, this foolishly leaves the choice of the cause itself willy-nilly to the all-too-often idiosyncratic, short-sighted, selfish impulses of the donor.
  25. ^ a b Schubert, Stefan (March 10, 2017). "Understanding cause-neutrality". Centre for Effective Altruism. Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020. Schubert said that the term cause neutrality has been used by various authors with different meanings and different decision rules.
  26. ^ Schubert (2017) called this approach the "cause-flexible investments" strategy and compared it to other strategies such as "cause-divergent investments". With regard to these two strategies, he noted: "How to prioritize between these two strategies is an important and understudied question."
  27. ^ MacAskill, William (September 2019b). "Practical ethics given moral uncertainty". Utilitas. 31 (3): 231–245. doi:10.1017/S0953820819000013. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2020-09-19.
  28. ^ a b "Our current view of the world's most pressing problems". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on March 14, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020.
  29. ^ Karnofsky, Holden (January 26, 2018). "Update on cause prioritization at Open Philanthropy". www.openphilanthropy.org. Archived from the original on February 23, 2020. Retrieved March 10, 2020.
  30. ^ "Your dollar goes further when you fund the right program". GiveWell. Archived from the original on 2019-08-30. Retrieved 2013-03-10.
  31. ^ a b "Your Dollar Goes Further Overseas". GiveWell. Archived from the original on 2019-10-31. Retrieved 2013-03-10.
  32. ^ a b c d Thompson, Derek (June 15, 2015). "The Greatest Good". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on August 20, 2019. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
  33. ^ a b Skelton, Anthony (2016). "The ethical principles of effective altruism". Journal of Global Ethics. 12 (2): 137–146. doi:10.1080/17449626.2016.1193552. S2CID 147936480. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  34. ^ A guide to the development, implementation and evaluation of clinical practice guidelines. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia: National Health and Medical Research Council. 1998. pp. 21–25. ISBN 1864960485. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  35. ^ Karnofsky, Holden (April 4, 2016). "Hits-based giving". www.openphilanthropy.org. Archived from the original on July 16, 2019. Retrieved March 10, 2020.
  36. ^ Zhang, Linch (June 21, 2016). "How Can You do the Most Good with Your Charitable Giving? This Expert's Answers Might Surprise You". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on April 6, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
  37. ^ Karnofsky, Holden. "We Should Expect Good Giving To Be Hard (SSIR)". Stanford Social Innovation Review. Stanford University. Archived from the original on March 18, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
  38. ^ "Room for More Funding | GiveWell". www.givewell.org. Archived from the original on 2019-08-12. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  39. ^ Rosato, Donna; Wong, Grace (November 2011). "Best jobs for saving the world". CNN. Archived from the original on March 3, 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  40. ^ Todd, Benjamin. "Which Ethical Careers Make a Difference?: The Replaceability Issue in the Ethics of Career Choice". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on February 15, 2021. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  41. ^ "'Replaceability' isn't as important as you might think (or we've suggested)". 80,000 Hours. 2015-07-27. Archived from the original on 2019-06-27. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  42. ^ Burton, Paul (October 13, 2015). "Family Gives Away Half Their Income To Help Others". Archived from the original on September 30, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  43. ^ Geoghegan, Tom (December 13, 2010). "Toby Ord: Why I'm giving £1m to charity". BBC News. Archived from the original on May 13, 2013. Retrieved March 2, 2013.
  44. ^ MacAskill, William (November 26, 2015). "One of the most exciting new effective altruist organisations: An interview with David Goldberg of the Founders Pledge". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  45. ^ Butcher, Mike (June 9, 2015). "UK Tech Founders Take The Founders Pledge To 2%, Committing $28m+ To Good Causes". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on December 5, 2015. Retrieved December 5, 2015.
  46. ^ Paynter, Ben (2018-09-25). "Why nonprofits should be courting entrepreneurs as donors". Fast Company. Archived from the original on 2018-12-09. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
  47. ^ Oliver, Huw (6 October 2014). "'Effective altruists' are a new type of nice person". Vice. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  48. ^ a b William, MacAskill (2014). "Replaceability, Career Choice, and Making a Difference". Ethical Theory and Moral Practice. 17 (2): 269–283. doi:10.1007/s10677-013-9433-4. ISSN 1386-2820. S2CID 143054318. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2017-03-11.
  49. ^ a b Matthews, Dylan (November 28, 2018). "How to pick a career that counts". Vox. Archived from the original on December 24, 2019. Retrieved December 8, 2018.
  50. ^ "Want To Make An Impact With Your Work? Try Some Advice From 80,000 Hours". TechCrunch. August 4, 2015. Archived from the original on November 9, 2015. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
  51. ^ Alcorn, Stan (June 4, 2013). "How To Choose An Ethical Career (With Help From Oxford Philosophers)". Co.Exist. Fast Company Inc. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  52. ^ "Meet the team". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on 2018-12-09. Retrieved 2018-12-09.
  53. ^ Todd, Benjamin (April 2017). "Why and how to earn to give". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on 2018-11-26. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  54. ^ Matthews, Dylan. "Join Wall Street. Save the world". Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 15, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  55. ^ Todd, Benjamin (August 2017). "Is it ever okay to take a harmful job in order to do more good? An in-depth analysis". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on June 27, 2019. Retrieved June 27, 2019.
  56. ^ Brooks, David (June 3, 2013). "The Way to Produce a Person". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 5, 2016. Retrieved July 7, 2015.
  57. ^ "'Earning to Give' Leads to Happiness". Yale Press Log. 2016-08-09. Archived from the original on 2017-04-05. Retrieved 2017-04-04.
  58. ^ a b Gobry, Pascal-Emmanuel (March 16, 2015). "Can Effective Altruism really change the world?". The Week. Archived from the original on March 21, 2015. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
  59. ^ a b Kissel, Joshua (January 31, 2017). "Effective Altruism and Anti-Capitalism: An Attempt at Reconciliation". Essays in Philosophy. Archived from the original on February 20, 2017. Retrieved February 19, 2017.
  60. ^ a b Matthews, Dylan (April 24, 2015). "You have $8 billion. You want to do as much good as possible. What do you do? Inside the Open Philanthropy Project". Vox. Archived from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
  61. ^ Muehlhauser, Luke (July 8, 2013). "Four focus areas of effective altruism – Effective Altruism Forum". forum.effectivealtruism.org. Archived from the original on January 13, 2019. Retrieved January 12, 2019.
  62. ^ Karnofsky, Holden (August 13, 2013). "Effective Altruism". GiveWell. Archived from the original on August 18, 2015. Retrieved April 11, 2015.
  63. ^ Konduri, Vimal. "GiveWell Co-Founder Explains Effective Altruism Frameworks". The Harvard Crimson. The Harvard Crimson, Inc. Archived from the original on March 13, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
  64. ^ Wolfe, Alexandra (November 24, 2011). "Hedge Fund Analytics for Nonprofits". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg LP. Archived from the original on March 16, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  65. ^ "Doing good by doing well". The Economist. Hearst Communications, Inc. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
  66. ^ Pitney, Nico (March 26, 2015). "That Time A Hedge Funder Quit His Job And Then Raised $60 Million For Charity". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
  67. ^ Zhang, Linch (March 17, 2017). "How To Do Good: A Conversation With The World's Leading Ethicist". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on March 24, 2017. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
  68. ^ The Life You Can Save. "Our story - The Life You Can Save". Archived from the original on September 18, 2020. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  69. ^ Weathers, Scott (29 February 2016). "Can 'effective altruism' change the world? It already has". Transformation. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  70. ^ "Focus Areas | Open Philanthropy Project". www.openphilanthropy.org. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  71. ^ Karnofsky, Holden (September 8, 2011). "Announcing GiveWell Labs". GiveWell. Archived from the original on July 2, 2015. Retrieved April 11, 2015.
  72. ^ "Who We Are | Open Philanthropy Project". www.openphilanthropy.org. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  73. ^ Karnofsky, Holden (August 20, 2014). "Open Philanthropy Project (formerly GiveWell Labs)". GiveWell. Archived from the original on August 16, 2015. Retrieved April 11, 2015.
  74. ^ Moses, Sue-Lynn (9 March 2016). "Leverage: Why This Silicon Valley Funder Is Doubling Down on a Beltway Think Tank". Inside Philanthropy. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  75. ^ Dullaghan, Neil (January 2, 2020). "EA Survey 2019 Series: Cause Prioritization". Effective Altruism Forum. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2020-04-15.
  76. ^ Whittlestone, Jess (November 16, 2017). "Cause Profile: Animal Welfare". Effective Altruism. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  77. ^ Banis, Davide. "New Book Draws Detailed Roadmap Of How We Can End Animal Farming". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  78. ^ "Fish: the forgotten victims on our plate". The Guardian. 2010-09-14. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2017-08-01. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
  79. ^ Global Warming Climate Change and Farm Animal Welfare (PDF). Compassion in World Farming. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-05-27. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
  80. ^ Mood, Alison (2010). Worse things happen at sea: the welfare of wild-caught fish (PDF). fishcount.org.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-19. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
  81. ^ a b Kristof, Nicholas (April 4, 2015). "The Trader Who Donates Half His Pay". New York Times. Archived from the original on October 9, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2015.
  82. ^ ""Effective Altruism for Animals" Panel, Animal Studies". New York University Animal Studies Initiative. NYU. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  83. ^ The End of Animal Farming. Beacon Press. 2018. ISBN 978-0807019450.
  84. ^ a b Piper, Kelsey (November 27, 2018). "Where will your donations do the most for animals?". Vox. Archived from the original on November 28, 2018. Retrieved December 8, 2018.
  85. ^ Daniel Engber, "Save the Chicken" Archived 2016-10-04 at the Wayback Machine, Slate, August 18, 2016.
  86. ^ Piper, Kelsey (2018-10-31). "Vegan diets are hard to sell. Animal activists might do better focused on corporate decisions, not people's plates". Vox. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  87. ^ "What We Do". Faunalytics. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  88. ^ Witwicki, Kelly; Reese, Jacy. "Introducing Sentience Institute". Sentience Institute. Archived from the original on 5 August 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
  89. ^ "The Importance of the Far Future". Effective Altruism Foundation. Effective Altruism Foundation. August 5, 2016. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  90. ^ Bostrom, Nick (2003). "Astronomical Waste: The Opportunity Cost of Delayed Technological Development" (PDF). Utilitas. 15 (3): 308–314. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.429.2849. doi:10.1017/S0953820800004076. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-11. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
  91. ^ a b Ord, Toby (2020). "Introduction" (PDF). The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781526600196. OCLC 1143365836. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-06. Retrieved 2020-04-06.
  92. ^ Bostrom, Nick (February 2013). "Existential risk prevention as global priority". Global Policy. pp. 15–31. doi:10.1111/1758-5899.12002.
  93. ^ Klein, Ezra (6 December 2019). "Peter Singer on the lives you can save". Vox. Archived from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
  94. ^ Todd, Benjamin (2017). "Why despite global progress, humanity is probably facing its most dangerous time ever". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  95. ^ Rowe, Thomas; Beard, Simon (2018). "Probabilities, methodologies and the evidence base in existential risk assessments" (PDF). Working Paper, Centre for the Study of Existential Risk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  96. ^ Ord, Toby (2020). The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 167. ISBN 9781526600196. OCLC 1143365836.
  97. ^ Guan, Melody (19 April 2015). "The New Social Movement of our Generation: Effective Altruism". Harvard Political Review. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  98. ^ Piper, Kelsey (2018-12-21). "The case for taking AI seriously as a threat to humanity". Vox. Archived from the original on 2019-01-13. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
  99. ^ Basulto, Dominic (July 7, 2015). "The very best ideas for preventing artificial intelligence from wrecking the planet". Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 16, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  100. ^ a b c MacAskill, William (March 10, 2014). "The history of the term 'effective altruism'". forum.effectivealtruism.org. Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2020.
  101. ^ Ram, Aliya (December 4, 2015). "The power and efficacy of effective altruism". Financial Times. Archived from the original on August 6, 2018. Retrieved February 14, 2018.
  102. ^ a b de Lazari-Radek, Katarzyna; Singer, Peter (September 27, 2017). "Effective altruism". Utilitarianism: A Very Short Introduction. Very short introductions. 530. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 108–112. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780198728795.003.0001. ISBN 9780198728795. OCLC 965456936.
  103. ^ a b c Rubenstein, Jennifer (14 December 2016). "The Lessons of Effective Altruism". Ethics & International Affairs. Archived from the original on 27 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  104. ^ Pitney, Nico (July 16, 2015). "Elon Musk To Address 'Nerd Altruists' At Google HQ". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  105. ^ "Jaan Tallinn's Keynote - Effective Altruism Summit 2013". Exponential Times. November 13, 2013. Archived from the original on August 9, 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2015.
  106. ^ Shariatmadari, David (August 20, 2015). "Doing Good Better by William MacAskill review – if you read this book, you'll change the charities you donate to". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on June 22, 2017. Retrieved May 21, 2017.
  107. ^ Cowen, Tyler (August 14, 2015). "Effective Altruism: Where Charity and Rationality Meet". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 21, 2016. Retrieved May 21, 2017.
  108. ^ Schmidt, Christine (October 15, 2018). "Will Vox's new section on effective altruism... well, do any good?". Nieman Journalism Lab. Archived from the original on February 1, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2020.
  109. ^ Matthews, Dylan (October 15, 2018). "Future Perfect, explained". Vox. Archived from the original on December 25, 2019. Retrieved December 8, 2018.
  110. ^ "Future Perfect". www.vox.com. Archived from the original on February 1, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2020.
  111. ^ Matthews, Dylan (December 17, 2019). "These are the charities where your money will do the most good". Vox. Archived from the original on August 29, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2020.
  112. ^ Illing, Sean (March 8, 2019). "Want less poverty in the world? Empower women". Vox. Archived from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved February 1, 2020.
  113. ^ Yglesias, Matthew (January 8, 2020). "Installing air filters in classrooms has surprisingly large educational benefits: $1,000 can raise a class's test scores by as much as cutting class size by a third". Vox. Archived from the original on February 1, 2020. Retrieved February 1, 2020.
  114. ^ Piper, Kelsey (November 19, 2018). "How technological progress is making it likelier than ever that humans will destroy ourselves". Vox. Archived from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved December 9, 2018.
  115. ^ Walters, Helen. "The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized". TED Blog. Archived from the original on 2019-04-08. Retrieved 2016-06-29.
  116. ^ Matthews, Derek (January 3, 2017). "The whole philosophy community is mourning Derek Parfit. Here's why he mattered". Vox. Archived from the original on November 1, 2019. Retrieved December 1, 2019.
  117. ^ "Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy". The Washington Post. December 26, 2014. Archived from the original on August 25, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2016.
  118. ^ "Global Priorities Institute opens at Oxford". April 5, 2018. Archived from the original on 25 November 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  119. ^ "Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" | Talks at Google". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2020-05-11. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
  120. ^ "News: Liv Boeree on Effective Altruism". www.pokerstrategy.com. Archived from the original on August 1, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
  121. ^ "Effective Altruism | Liv Boeree". www.livboeree.com. Archived from the original on August 1, 2019. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
  122. ^ Wiblin, Robert (July 26, 2018). "Prof Yew-Kwang Ng is a visionary economist who anticipated many key ideas in effective altruism decades ago. Here's his take on ethics and how to create a much happier world". 80,000 Hours. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  123. ^ "Kelsey Piper". EA Global. Archived from the original on 2021-01-30. Retrieved 2021-01-25.
  124. ^ Berger, Ken; Penna, Robert (November 25, 2013). "The Elitist Philanthropy of So-Called Effective Altruism". Stanford Social Innovation Review. Archived from the original on November 26, 2013. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
  125. ^ Snow, Mathew (August 25, 2015). "Against Charity". Jacobin. Archived from the original on August 28, 2015. Retrieved September 5, 2016.
  126. ^ a b Berkey, Brian (2018). "The Institutional Critique of Effective Altruism" (PDF). Utilitas. 30 (2): 143–171. doi:10.1017/S0953820817000176. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 September 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  127. ^ Ashford, Elizabeth (2018). Woodruff, Paul (ed.). "Severe Poverty as an Unjust Emergency". The Ethics of Giving: Philosophers' Perspectives on Philanthropy: 103–148. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190648879.001.0001. ISBN 9780190648879.

Further reading[edit]

  • Earle, Samantha; Read, Rupert (March 2016). "Effective altruism: Is it effective? Should it be more affective?". The Philosophers' Magazine (73): 84–91. doi:10.5840/tpm20167378.
  • Gabriel, Iason (August 2016). "Effective altruism and its critics". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 34 (4): 457–473. doi:10.1111/japp.12176. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2017-03-11.
  • Greaves, Hilary; Pummer, Theron, eds. (2019). Effective Altruism: Philosophical Issues. Engaging philosophy. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198841364.001.0001. ISBN 9780198841364. OCLC 1101772304.
  • Lechterman, Theodore M. (June 2019). "Being good in a world of uncertainty: a reply to Temkin". Journal of Practical Ethics. 7 (1): 33–39.
  • Lechterman, Theodore M. (January 2020). "The effective altruist's political problem". Polity. 52 (1): 88–115. doi:10.1086/706867. S2CID 212887647.
  • MacAskill, William (June 2019c). "Aid scepticism and effective altruism". Journal of Practical Ethics. 7 (1): 49–60.
  • McMahan, Jeff (March 2016). "Philosophical critiques of effective altruism" (PDF). The Philosophers' Magazine (73): 92–99. doi:10.5840/tpm20167379. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
  • Singer, Peter; Saunders-Hastings, Emma; Deaton, Angus; Gabriel, Iason; Janah, Leila; Acemoglu, Daron; Brest, Paul; MacFarquhar, Larissa; Tumber, Catherine; Reich, Rob (July 1, 2015). "Forum: The logic of effective altruism". Boston Review. Archived from the original on February 5, 2020. Retrieved February 5, 2020. An article based on the preface and first chapter of Singer's book The Most Good You Can Do was published in the Boston Review on July 1, 2015 with a forum of responses by other writers and a final response by Singer.
  • Temkin, Larry S. (June 2019). "Being good in a world of need: some empirical worries and an uncomfortable philosophical possibility". Journal of Practical Ethics. 7 (1): 1–23.
  • Zuolo, Federico (July 2019). "Beyond moral efficiency: effective altruism and theorizing about effectiveness". Utilitas. 32: 19–32. doi:10.1017/S0953820819000281. hdl:11567/1005385. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2020-02-05.

External links[edit]

  • Effective Altruism
  • Centre for Effective Altruism
  • 80,000 Hours