Entretenimiento


El entretenimiento es una forma de actividad que atrae la atención y el interés de una audiencia o da placer y deleite. Puede ser una idea o una tarea, pero es más probable que sea una de las actividades o eventos que se han desarrollado durante miles de años específicamente con el propósito de mantener la atención de la audiencia.

Banquetes jugando kottabos y niña tocando los aulos . Grecia ( c.  420 a  . C. ) Los
banquetes y la música han seguido siendo dos entretenimientos importantes desde la antigüedad.

Aunque la atención de las personas se concentra en cosas diferentes porque los individuos tienen preferencias diferentes, la mayoría de las formas de entretenimiento son reconocibles y familiares. La narración , la música , el teatro , la danza y diferentes tipos de actuación existen en todas las culturas, fueron apoyados en las cortes reales , se desarrollaron en formas sofisticadas y con el tiempo estuvieron disponibles para todos los ciudadanos. El proceso ha sido acelerado en los tiempos modernos por una industria del entretenimiento que graba y vende productos de entretenimiento. El entretenimiento evoluciona y puede adaptarse para adaptarse a cualquier escala, desde un individuo que elige un entretenimiento privado de una enorme variedad de productos pregrabados; a un banquete adaptado para dos; a cualquier tamaño o tipo de fiesta , con música y baile apropiados; a actuaciones destinadas a miles; e incluso para una audiencia global.

La experiencia de estar entretenido ha llegado a estar fuertemente asociada con la diversión , de modo que un entendimiento común de la idea es la diversión y la risa, aunque muchos entretenimientos tienen un propósito serio. Este puede ser el caso de las diversas formas de ceremonia , celebración, fiesta religiosa o sátira, por ejemplo. Por lo tanto, existe la posibilidad de que lo que aparece como entretenimiento también pueda ser un medio para lograr conocimiento o crecimiento intelectual.

Un aspecto importante de entretenimiento es el público, que convierte una privada de recreo o de ocio actividad en el entretenimiento. El público puede tener un papel pasivo, como en el caso de las personas que ven una obra de teatro , una ópera , un programa de televisión o una película ; o el rol de la audiencia puede ser activo, como en el caso de los juegos , donde los roles de participante / público pueden invertirse rutinariamente. El entretenimiento puede ser público o privado, involucrando actuaciones formales con guión, como en el caso del teatro o conciertos ; o sin guión y espontáneo, como en el caso de los juegos infantiles . La mayoría de las formas de entretenimiento han persistido durante muchos siglos, evolucionando debido a cambios en la cultura, la tecnología y la moda, por ejemplo, con la magia escénica . Las películas y los videojuegos , por ejemplo, aunque utilizan medios más nuevos, continúan contando historias , presentando drama y tocando música. Los festivales dedicados a la música , el cine o la danza permiten entretener al público durante varios días consecutivos.

Algunas actividades de entretenimiento, como las ejecuciones públicas, son ahora ilegales en la mayoría de los países. Actividades como la esgrima o el tiro con arco , una vez utilizadas en la caza o la guerra , se han convertido en deportes para espectadores . De la misma manera, otras actividades, como la cocina , se han convertido en espectáculos entre profesionales, que se organizan como concursos globales y luego se transmiten para entretenimiento. Lo que es entretenimiento para un grupo o individuo puede ser considerado trabajo o un acto de crueldad por parte de otro.

Las formas familiares de entretenimiento tienen la capacidad de cruzar diferentes medios y han demostrado un potencial aparentemente ilimitado de remezclas creativas . Esto ha asegurado la continuidad y longevidad de muchos temas, imágenes y estructuras.

El Oxford English Dictionary da orígenes latinos y franceses para la palabra "entretener", incluyendo inter (entre) + tenir (mantener) como derivaciones, dando traducciones de "mantener mutuamente" o "mantener entrelazados" y "participar, mantener ocupado, los pensamientos de atención o el tiempo (de una persona) ". También proporciona palabras como "alegría", "placer", "deleite", así como "recibir como invitado y mostrar hospitalidad". Cita un uso de 1490 por William Caxton . [1]

El entretenimiento se puede distinguir de otras actividades como la educación y el marketing a pesar de que han aprendido a utilizar el atractivo del entretenimiento para lograr sus diferentes objetivos. A veces, el entretenimiento puede ser una mezcla para ambos. Los estudiosos [2] [3] reconocen la importancia y el impacto del entretenimiento y su creciente sofisticación ha influido en las prácticas en otros campos como la museología . [4] [5]

Los psicólogos dicen que la función del entretenimiento mediático es "el logro de la gratificación ". [6] Por lo general, no se esperan otros resultados o beneficios medibles (excepto quizás la puntuación final en un entretenimiento deportivo). Esto contrasta con la educación (que está diseñada con el propósito de desarrollar la comprensión o ayudar a las personas a aprender) y el marketing (que tiene como objetivo alentar a las personas a comprar productos comerciales ). Sin embargo, las distinciones se vuelven borrosas cuando la educación busca ser más "entretenida" y el entretenimiento o el marketing buscan ser más "educativos". Estas mezclas se conocen a menudo con los neologismos " edutainment " o " infoentretenimiento ". La psicología del entretenimiento y del aprendizaje se ha aplicado a todos estos campos. [7] Algo de educación-entretenimiento es un intento serio de combinar las mejores características de los dos. [8] [9] Algunas personas se entretienen con el dolor de otros o la idea de su infelicidad ( schadenfreude ).

Un entretenimiento puede ir más allá de la gratificación y producir alguna percepción en su audiencia. El entretenimiento puede considerar hábilmente preguntas filosóficas universales como: "¿Qué significa ser humano?"; "¿Qué es lo correcto?"; o "¿Cómo sé lo que sé?". "El significado de la vida ", por ejemplo, es el tema en una amplia gama de formas de entretenimiento, incluidas el cine, la música y la literatura. Preguntas como estas impulsan muchas narrativas y dramas, ya sea que se presenten en forma de historia, película, obra de teatro, poema, libro, danza, cómic o juego. Los ejemplos dramáticos incluyen la influyente obra de Shakespeare Hamlet , cuyo héroe articula estas preocupaciones en la poesía ; y películas, como The Matrix , que explora la naturaleza del conocimiento [10] y se estrenó en todo el mundo. [11] Las novelas brindan un gran alcance para investigar estos temas mientras entretienen a sus lectores. [12] Un ejemplo de un trabajo creativo que considera las cuestiones filosóficas de manera tan entretenida que se ha presentado en una amplia gama de formas es La guía del autoestopista galáctico . Originalmente una comedia de radio , esta historia se hizo tan popular que también ha aparecido como novela, película, serie de televisión, espectáculo teatral, cómic, audiolibro , disco LP , juego de aventuras y juego en línea , sus ideas se convirtieron en referencias populares (ver Frases de The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy ) y se ha traducido a muchos idiomas. [13] Sus temas abarcan el significado de la vida , así como "la ética del entretenimiento, la inteligencia artificial , los mundos múltiples, Dios y el método filosófico ". [14]

Albert Bierstadt 's de la fogata representa la narración , una forma universal de entretenimiento
Mosaico que muestra entretenimientos romanos que se habrían ofrecido en los juegos de gladiadores , del siglo I

El "antiguo oficio de comunicar eventos y experiencias, utilizando palabras, imágenes, sonidos y gestos" contando una historia [15] no es solo el medio por el cual las personas transmiten sus valores culturales, tradiciones e historia de una generación a otra, sino que ha sido una parte importante de la mayoría de las formas de entretenimiento desde los tiempos más remotos. Las historias todavía se cuentan en las formas tempranas, por ejemplo, alrededor de una fogata mientras se acampa o al escuchar las historias de otra cultura como turista . "Las primeras secuencias de narración que poseemos, ahora por supuesto, comprometidas con la escritura, fueron sin duda originalmente un hablar de boca a oído y su fuerza como entretenimiento derivó de los mismos elementos que hoy disfrutamos en películas y novelas". [16] La narración de historias es una actividad que ha evolucionado y desarrollado "hacia la variedad". [16] Muchos entretenimientos, incluida la narración de cuentos, pero especialmente la música y el teatro, siguen siendo familiares, pero se han desarrollado en una amplia variedad de formas para adaptarse a una amplia gama de preferencias personales y expresiones culturales. Muchos tipos se mezclan o se apoyan en otras formas. Por ejemplo, el teatro, las historias y los banquetes (o cenas) comúnmente se mejoran con la música; el deporte y los juegos se incorporan a otras actividades para aumentar el atractivo. Algunos pueden haber evolucionado de actividades serias o necesarias (como correr y saltar ) a la competencia y luego convertirse en entretenimiento. Se dice, por ejemplo, que el salto con pértiga "puede haberse originado en los Países Bajos, donde la gente usaba palos largos para saltar sobre canales anchos en lugar de gastar sus zuecos caminando kilómetros hasta el puente más cercano. Otros sostienen que el salto con pértiga se utilizó en la guerra saltar por encima de las murallas de la fortaleza durante la batalla ". [17] El equipamiento para tales deportes se ha vuelto cada vez más sofisticado. Los postes de bóveda, por ejemplo, se fabricaron originalmente con maderas como fresno , nogal o avellano ; en el siglo XIX se usaba bambú y en el siglo XXI los postes se pueden fabricar con fibra de carbono . [17] Otras actividades, como caminar sobre zancos , todavía se ven en representaciones de circo en el siglo XXI. Los combates de gladiadores , también conocidos como "juegos de gladiadores", populares durante la época romana, son un buen ejemplo de una actividad que es una combinación de deporte, castigo y entretenimiento. [18] [19]

Los cambios en lo que se considera entretenimiento pueden ocurrir en respuesta a cambios culturales o históricos. La caza de animales salvajes, por ejemplo, se introdujo en el Imperio Romano desde Cartago y se convirtió en un espectáculo y entretenimiento público popular, apoyando el comercio internacional de animales salvajes. [20]

El entretenimiento también evolucionó en diferentes formas y expresiones como resultado de trastornos sociales como guerras y revoluciones. Durante la Revolución Cultural China , por ejemplo, la ópera revolucionaria fue sancionada por el Partido Comunista y la Primera Guerra Mundial , la Gran Depresión y la Revolución Rusa afectaron el entretenimiento. [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

Los cambios relativamente menores en la forma y el lugar de un entretenimiento continúan apareciendo y desapareciendo a medida que se ven afectados por el período, la moda, la cultura, la tecnología y la economía. Por ejemplo, una historia contada en forma dramática se puede presentar en un teatro al aire libre, un salón de música , un cine , un multiplex o como posibilidades tecnológicas avanzadas, a través de un dispositivo electrónico personal como una tableta . Se proporciona entretenimiento para audiencias masivas en estructuras especialmente diseñadas como un teatro , auditorio o estadio . Uno de los lugares más famosos del mundo occidental, el Coliseo , "dedicado el año  80 d. C. con cien días de juegos, con cincuenta mil espectadores", y en él el público "disfrutaba del deporte de sangre con los adornos de los espectáculos teatrales". [26] Los espectáculos , las competiciones, las carreras y los deportes se presentaron una vez en esta arena especialmente construida como entretenimiento público. Se siguen construyendo nuevos estadios para adaptarse a los requisitos cada vez más sofisticados de las audiencias globales.

Entretenimiento en la cancha

Torneo ante público y músicos (siglo XIV)
Ralph Hedley The Tournament (1898) Niños adaptando un entretenimiento cortesano

Las cortes imperiales y reales han proporcionado campos de entrenamiento y apoyo para artistas profesionales, con diferentes culturas que utilizan palacios, castillos y fortalezas de diferentes maneras. En las ciudades-estado mayas , por ejemplo, "los espectáculos a menudo se llevaban a cabo en grandes plazas frente a los palacios; las multitudes se reunían allí o en lugares designados desde los cuales podían mirar a distancia". [27] Los entretenimientos de la corte también cruzaron culturas. Por ejemplo, el durbar fue introducido en la India por los mogoles y pasó al Imperio Británico , que luego siguió la tradición india: "instituciones, títulos, costumbres, ceremonias mediante las cuales se instaló un maharajá o nawab ... el intercambio de regalos oficiales ... el orden de precedencia ", por ejemplo, fueron" todos heredados de ... los emperadores de Delhi ". [28] En Corea, el "baile de entretenimiento de la corte" se "realizaba originalmente en el palacio para entretener a los banquetes de la corte". [29]

El entretenimiento de la corte a menudo pasó de estar asociado con la corte a un uso más general entre los plebeyos . Este fue el caso de las "danzas dramáticas enmascaradas" en Corea, que "se originaron junto con los rituales de los chamanes de la aldea y finalmente se convirtieron en una forma de entretenimiento para los plebeyos". [30] Los bailarines de Nautch en el Imperio Mughal actuaron en cortes y palacios indios. Otra evolución, similar a la del entretenimiento cortesano a la práctica común, fue la transición del ritual religioso al entretenimiento secular, como sucedió durante la dinastía Goryeo con el festival Narye. Originalmente "exclusivamente religioso o ritualista, se añadió un componente secular al final". [31] Los antiguos entretenimientos cortesanos, como las justas , a menudo también sobrevivían en los juegos infantiles.

En algunas cortes, como las del Imperio Bizantino , los géneros estaban segregados entre las clases altas, de modo que "al menos antes del período de Komnenoi " (1081-1185) los hombres eran separados de las mujeres en ceremonias donde había entretenimiento como como recepciones y banquetes. [32]

Las ceremonias de la corte, los banquetes palaciegos y los espectáculos asociados con ellos se han utilizado no solo para entretener sino también para demostrar riqueza y poder. Tales eventos refuerzan la relación entre gobernante y gobernado; entre los que tienen poder y los que no lo tienen, sirviendo para "dramatizar las diferencias entre las familias ordinarias y la del gobernante". [33] Este es el caso tanto de los tribunales tradicionales como de las ceremonias contemporáneas, como la ceremonia de entrega de Hong Kong en 1997, en la que se ofrecieron una variedad de entretenimientos (incluido un banquete, un desfile, fuegos artificiales, un festival y un espectáculo de arte) se pusieron al servicio de resaltar un cambio en el poder político. Los entretenimientos de la corte se realizaban normalmente para la realeza y los cortesanos, así como "para el placer de los dignatarios locales y visitantes". [34] Las cortes reales, como la coreana, también apoyaron las danzas tradicionales. [34] En Sudán, los instrumentos musicales como los llamados tambores de "hendidura" o "parlantes", que alguna vez fueron "parte de la orquesta de la corte de un jefe poderoso", tenían múltiples propósitos: se usaban para hacer música; "hablar" en las ceremonias; marcar eventos comunitarios; enviar mensajes de larga distancia; y llamar a los hombres a la caza o la guerra. [35] [36] [37]

Los entretenimientos cortesanos también demuestran la compleja relación entre el animador y el espectador: los individuos pueden ser un animador o parte de la audiencia, o pueden intercambiar roles incluso durante el transcurso de un entretenimiento. En la corte del Palacio de Versalles , "miles de cortesanos, incluidos hombres y mujeres que habitaban sus apartamentos, actuaban como intérpretes y espectadores en rituales diarios que reforzaban la jerarquía de estatus". [33]

Al igual que el entretenimiento de la corte, las ocasiones reales como las coronaciones y las bodas brindaban oportunidades para entretener tanto a la aristocracia como al pueblo. Por ejemplo, las espléndidas celebraciones del Día de la Adhesión de 1595 de la reina Isabel I ofrecieron torneos, justas y otros eventos realizados "no solo ante la corte reunida, con todas sus mejores galas, sino también ante miles de londinenses deseosos de un buen día de entretenimiento. Entrada para el eventos dia en el Tiltyard en Whitehall se fijó en 12d ". [38]

Castigo público

Billete para la ejecución de Jonathan Wild (1725)

Aunque la mayoría de las formas de entretenimiento han evolucionado y continuado con el tiempo, algunas formas que alguna vez fueron populares ya no son tan aceptables. Por ejemplo, durante siglos anteriores en Europa, ver o participar en el castigo de criminales o marginados sociales era una forma de entretenimiento aceptada y popular. Muchas formas de humillación pública también ofrecían entretenimiento local en el pasado. Incluso la pena capital, como la horca y la decapitación , ofrecida al público como advertencia, también se consideraba en parte como entretenimiento. Penas capitales que duraron más tiempo, como la lapidación y el dibujo y despiece , proporcionó una mayor espectáculo público. "Un ahorcamiento era un carnaval que distraía no sólo a los desempleados, sino a los desempleados. Buenos burgueses o aristócratas curiosos que podían permitírselo lo veían desde un carruaje o alquilaban una habitación". [39] El castigo público como entretenimiento duró hasta el siglo XIX, momento en el que "el terrible acontecimiento de un ahorcamiento público despertó el [ir] odio de escritores y filósofos". [39] Tanto Dickens como Thackeray escribieron sobre un ahorcamiento en la prisión de Newgate en 1840 y "enseñaron a un público aún más amplio que las ejecuciones son entretenimientos obscenos". [39]

Juegos infantiles Pieter Bruegel (1560)

El entretenimiento infantil se centra en el juego y es importante para su crecimiento. A menudo imita las actividades de los adultos, como ver actuaciones ( 10 ); los prepara para las responsabilidades de los adultos, como la crianza de los hijos o la interacción social ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 9 ); o desarrolla habilidades como las habilidades motoras ( 6 ), necesarias para los deportes y la música ( 5 , 7 , 8 ).

También se ofrece entretenimiento a los niños o se les enseña por adultos y los adultos también disfrutan de muchas actividades que les atraen, como títeres , payasos , pantomimas y dibujos animados . [40] [41]

Los niños siempre han jugado juegos. Se acepta que, además de entretenido, los juegos ayudan al desarrollo de los niños. Uno de los relatos visuales más famosos de los juegos para niños es un cuadro de Pieter Bruegel el Viejo llamado Juegos para niños , pintado en 1560. Representa a niños jugando una variedad de juegos que presumiblemente eran típicos de la época. Muchos de estos juegos, como canicas , escondite , soplar pompas de jabón y montar a cuestas, continúan jugándose.

Ejemplo de un sistema de clasificación que especifica la idoneidad para la edad (Israel)

La mayoría de las formas de entretenimiento pueden modificarse o modificarse para adaptarse a las necesidades e intereses de los niños. Durante el siglo XX, comenzando con la obra a menudo criticada pero sin embargo importante de G. Stanley Hall , quien "promovió el vínculo entre el estudio del desarrollo y la 'nueva' psicología de laboratorio", [42] y especialmente con la obra de Jean Piaget , que "veía el desarrollo cognitivo como análogo al desarrollo biológico", [43] se comprendió que el desarrollo psicológico de los niños ocurre en etapas y que sus capacidades difieren de las de los adultos. Por lo tanto, las historias y actividades, ya sea en libros, películas o videojuegos, se desarrollaron específicamente para el público infantil. Los países han respondido a las necesidades especiales de los niños y al aumento del entretenimiento digital mediante el desarrollo de sistemas como los sistemas de clasificación de contenido de televisión , para guiar al público y a la industria del entretenimiento .

En el siglo XXI, al igual que con los productos para adultos, hay mucho entretenimiento disponible para los niños en Internet para uso privado. Esto constituye un cambio significativo con respecto a épocas anteriores. La cantidad de tiempo que dedican los niños en el interior al entretenimiento basado en la pantalla y el "notable colapso del compromiso de los niños con la naturaleza" ha generado críticas por sus efectos negativos sobre la imaginación , la cognición adulta y el bienestar psicológico . [44] [45] [46]

  • Tipos de entretenimiento infantil
  • 1 Soldados de la Guardia de Coldstream de juguete (siglo XIX)

  • 2 Muñeca de un bebé recién nacido

  • 3 Niños entretenidos por un perro (pintura del siglo XIX)

  • 4 explorador francés (principios del siglo XX)

  • 5 el niño estadounidense Joe Biden jugando béisbol (mediados del siglo XX)

  • 6 niño egipcio jugando con canicas de vidrio

  • 7 niños armenios tocan flautas dulces

  • 8 niña china en una piscina

  • 9 niños tanzanos en un juego grupal

  • 10 niños polacos ven televisión infantil

Banquetes

Los banquetes han sido un lugar de diversión , entretenimiento o placer desde la antigüedad, hasta el siglo XXI, cuando todavía se utilizan para muchos de sus propósitos originales: impresionar a los visitantes, especialmente los importantes ( 4 , 6 , 9 ); mostrar hospitalidad ( 2 , 4 , 8 ); como una ocasión para exhibir entretenimientos de apoyo como música o baile, o ambos ( 2 , 3 ). Eran una parte integral de los entretenimientos de la corte ( 3 , 4 ) y ayudaron a los artistas a desarrollar sus habilidades ( 2 , 3 ). También son componentes importantes de celebraciones como coronaciones ( 9 ), bodas ( 7 ), cumpleaños ( 10 ) logros cívicos o políticos ( 5 ), compromisos o victorias militares ( 6 ) así como obligaciones religiosas ( 1 ). En los tiempos modernos, los banquetes están disponibles comercialmente, por ejemplo, en restaurantes ( 10 ) y se combinan con una actuación en teatros . La cocina de chefs profesionales también se ha convertido en una forma de entretenimiento como parte de concursos mundiales como el Bocuse d'Or .

  • Banquetes a lo largo de 10 siglos y culturas
  • 1 Escena de un banquete del Antiguo Egipto (de una pintura mural en Tebas )

  • 2 Banquete bizantino con músicos y varios instrumentos musicales (1204-1453)

  • 3 Jean Fouquet , banquete para Carlos V de Francia (1455-1460)

  • 4 Un banquete que incluye ganso asado ofrecido a Babur por los Mirza en 1507 (miniatura c.  1590 )

  • 5 Bartholomeus van der Helst , Paz de Münster
    Amsterdam (1648)

  • 6 Banquete de la victoria del emperador Qian Long para saludar a los oficiales que asistieron a la campaña contra Taiwán . (finales del siglo XVIII)

  • 7 propietarios que vienen al banquete de bodas de los campesinos (finales del siglo XVIII)

  • 8 El salón de banquetes en el palacio del rey Sahle Selassie pintura de una foto, Etiopía (1852)

  • 9 banquete de coronación de Jorge IV en Westminster Hall (1821)

  • 10 banquete chino en un salón de banquetes como celebración de cumpleaños (2012)

Música

Una casa llena en el Metropolitan Opera de la ciudad de Nueva York, esperando que comience un entretenimiento musical (1937)

La música es un componente de apoyo de muchos tipos de entretenimiento y de la mayoría de los tipos de interpretación. Por ejemplo, se utiliza para potenciar la narración, es indispensable en la danza ( 1 , 4 ) y la ópera, y suele incorporarse en producciones teatrales o cinematográficas. [47]

La música también es un tipo de entretenimiento universal y popular por sí solo, que constituye una actuación completa, como cuando se dan conciertos ( 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ). Dependiendo del ritmo , instrumento , interpretación y estilo, la música se divide en muchos géneros, como clásica , jazz , folk , ( 4 , 5 , 8 ), rock , música pop ( 6 , 9 ) o tradicional ( 1 , 3 ). . Desde el siglo XX, la música interpretada, que alguna vez estuvo disponible solo para aquellos que podían pagar por los artistas intérpretes o ejecutantes, ha estado disponible a bajo precio para las personas a través de la industria del entretenimiento, que la transmite o pregraba para la venta.

La amplia variedad de actuaciones musicales, amplificadas o no artificialmente ( 6 , 7 , 9 , 10 ), proporcionan entretenimiento con independencia de que la actuación sea de solistas ( 6 ), corales ( 2 ) u orquestales ( 5 , 8). ) o conjunto ( 3 ). Las presentaciones en vivo utilizan lugares especializados, que pueden ser pequeños o grandes; en interiores o exteriores; gratis o caro. El público tiene diferentes expectativas de los artistas intérpretes o ejecutantes, así como de su propio papel en la actuación. Por ejemplo, algunas audiencias esperan escuchar en silencio y se entretienen con la excelencia de la música, su interpretación o su interpretación ( 5 , 8 ). Otras audiencias de actuaciones en vivo se entretienen con el ambiente y la posibilidad de participar ( 7 , 9 ). Incluso más oyentes se entretienen con música pregrabada y escuchan en privado ( 10 ).

Los instrumentos utilizados en el entretenimiento musical son únicamente la voz humana ( 2 , 6 ) o únicamente instrumentales ( 1 , 3 ) o alguna combinación de los dos ( 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 ). Ya sea que la actuación sea realizada por vocalistas o instrumentistas , los intérpretes pueden ser solistas o parte de un grupo pequeño o grande, a su vez entreteniendo a una audiencia que puede ser individual ( 10 ), de paso ( 3 ), pequeña ( 1 , 2 ) o grande ( 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ). El canto suele ir acompañado de instrumentos, aunque algunas formas, en particular el canto a capella y el canto armónico , no están acompañados. Los conciertos modernos a menudo utilizan varios efectos especiales y otras teatrales para acompañar las actuaciones de canto y baile ( 7 ).

  • Entretenimiento musical: 10 tipos de participación de la audiencia
  • 1 Instrumentos tradicionales utilizados para acompañar la danza (Tibet, 1949)

  • 2 Coro de niños que ofrece entretenimiento musical ( Unión Soviética , 1979)

  • 3 Ensemble entretiene a los viajeros en el Metro de París (2002)

  • 4 Baterista tocando Boduberu (Maldivas, 2010)

  • 5 Coro y orquesta en entorno eclesiástico (Italia, 2008)

  • 6 Audiencia contemporánea en un antiguo estadio al aire libre (Grecia, 2009)

  • 7 Un concierto con un escenario mejorado en 3D (Singapur, 2010)

  • 8 Audiencia de la sala de conciertos (Países Bajos, 2010)

  • 9 Crowd surfing en un concierto (Francia, 2011)

  • 10 Mujer escuchando música en privado a través de auriculares (Rusia, 2010)

Juegos

Los juegos se juegan con fines de entretenimiento, a veces simplemente para recreación, a veces también para obtener logros o recompensas. Se pueden jugar solos, en equipo o en línea; por aficionados o por profesionales. Los jugadores pueden tener una audiencia de no jugadores, como cuando la gente se entretiene viendo un campeonato de ajedrez . Por otro lado, los jugadores de un juego pueden constituir su propia audiencia cuando toman su turno para jugar. A menudo, parte del entretenimiento para los niños que juegan un juego es decidir quién forma parte de su audiencia y quién es un jugador.

El equipo varía según el juego. Los juegos de mesa , como Go , Monopoly o backgammon, necesitan un tablero y marcadores. Uno de los juegos de mesa más antiguos que se conocen es el Senet , un juego que se jugaba en el Antiguo Egipto y que disfrutaba el faraón Tutankamón . [48] Los juegos de cartas , como el whist , el póquer y el bridge, se han jugado durante mucho tiempo como entretenimiento nocturno entre amigos. Para estos juegos, todo lo que se necesita es una baraja de cartas . Otros juegos, como el bingo , jugado con numerosos extraños, se han organizado para involucrar la participación de no jugadores a través del juego . Muchos están diseñados para niños y se pueden jugar al aire libre, como la rayuela , el escondite o el farol del ciego . La lista de juegos de pelota es bastante extensa. Incluye, por ejemplo, croquet , bolos y paintball , así como muchos deportes que utilizan diversas formas de bolas . Las opciones se adaptan a una amplia gama de habilidades y niveles de condición física. Los juegos físicos pueden desarrollar la agilidad y la competencia en las habilidades motoras . Los juegos numéricos como el Sudoku y los juegos de rompecabezas como el cubo de Rubik pueden desarrollar destreza mental.

Los videojuegos se juegan usando un controlador para crear resultados en una pantalla. También se pueden jugar en línea con participantes que se unen de forma remota. En la segunda mitad del siglo XX y en el siglo XXI, el número de estos juegos aumentó enormemente, proporcionando una amplia variedad de entretenimiento a los jugadores de todo el mundo. [49] [50] Los videojuegos son populares en todo el mundo.

  • Juegos
  • Sofonisba Anguissola
    The Chess Game (1555)
    Un juego intelectual

  • Théophile Emmanuel Duverger (antes de 1901) Rayuela
    Un juego físico

  • Partido televisado de StarCraft (2006) Corea del Sur
    Un juego electrónico

Literatura

La poeta francesa Louise Labé (1520 / 1522-1566) escribió "una visión profunda y atemporal del poder innato de la lectura". El pasado nos da placer y es más útil que el presente; pero el deleite de lo que una vez sentimos se pierde vagamente para nunca volver y su recuerdo es tan angustioso como los eventos mismos eran entonces deliciosos ... Pero cuando damos la casualidad de que ponemos nuestros pensamientos por escrito, con qué facilidad, más adelante, nuestra mente Correr a través de una infinidad de acontecimientos, incesantemente vivos, de modo que mucho tiempo después cuando retomamos esas páginas escritas podemos volver al mismo lugar y a la misma disposición en que nos encontramos una vez.
cita y comentario de Fischer (2003) [51]
La joven Santa Teresa de Ávila (1515-1582) leyó novelas caballerescas y escribió sobre el "éxtasis" que proporcionaban los libros. Me acostumbré a leer [novelas] y ese pequeño defecto me hizo enfriar mis ganas y ganas de hacer otras tareas. No pensé en pasar muchas horas al día y a la noche en este vano ejercicio, oculto a mi padre. Mi éxtasis en esto fue tan grande, que a menos que tuviera un nuevo libro para leer, me parecía que no podría ser feliz.
citado en Fischer (2003) [52]

La lectura ha sido una fuente de entretenimiento durante mucho tiempo, especialmente cuando otras formas, como los espectáculos de entretenimiento, no estaban (o están) disponibles o son demasiado costosas. Incluso cuando el propósito principal de la escritura es informar o instruir, la lectura es bien conocida por su capacidad para distraer la atención de las preocupaciones cotidianas. Tanto las historias como la información se han transmitido a través de la tradición de la oralidad y las tradiciones orales sobreviven en forma de poesía escénica, por ejemplo. Sin embargo, han disminuido drásticamente. "Una vez que la alfabetización se fortaleció, no hubo retorno a la prerrogativa oral". [53] El advenimiento de la imprenta, la reducción de los costos de los libros y el aumento de la alfabetización sirvieron para realzar el atractivo masivo de la lectura. Además, a medida que las fuentes se estandarizaron y los textos se volvieron más claros, "la lectura dejó de ser un doloroso proceso de desciframiento para convertirse en un acto de puro placer". [54] En el siglo XVI en Europa, el atractivo de la lectura para el entretenimiento estaba bien establecido.

Entre los muchos géneros de la literatura hay algunos diseñados, en su totalidad o en parte, puramente para el entretenimiento. Limericks , por ejemplo, usa el verso en una rima y un ritmo estrictos y predecibles para crear humor y divertir a una audiencia de oyentes o lectores. Los libros interactivos como " elige tu propia aventura " pueden hacer que el entretenimiento literario sea más participativo.

Anciano leyendo el periódico en Basantapur.

Los cómics y las caricaturas son géneros literarios que utilizan dibujos o gráficos, generalmente en combinación con texto, para transmitir una narrativa entretenida. [55] Muchos cómics contemporáneos tienen elementos de fantasía y son producidos por compañías que forman parte de la industria del entretenimiento . Otros tienen autores únicos que ofrecen una visión filosófica más personal del mundo y los problemas que enfrentan las personas. Los cómics sobre superhéroes como Superman son del primer tipo. [56] Ejemplos del segundo tipo incluyen el trabajo individual durante 50 años de Charles M. Schulz [57], quien produjo un cómic popular llamado Peanuts [58] sobre las relaciones entre un elenco de personajes infantiles; [59] y Michael Leunig que entretiene produciendo caricaturas caprichosas que también incorporan la crítica social . El estilo manga japonés se diferencia del enfoque occidental en que abarca una amplia gama de géneros y temas para lectores de todas las edades. Caricatura utiliza una especie de entretenimiento gráfico con fines que van desde simplemente poner una sonrisa en el rostro del espectador hasta aumentar la conciencia social y resaltar las características morales de una persona que está siendo caricaturizada.

Comedia

El comediante Charlie Chaplin se hace pasar por Hitler para lograr un efecto cómico en la película satírica El gran dictador (1940)

Comedy is both a genre of entertainment and a component of it, providing laughter and amusement, whether the comedy is the sole purpose or used as a form of contrast in an otherwise serious piece. It is a valued contributor to many forms of entertainment, including in literature, theatre, opera, film and games.[60][61] In royal courts, such as in the Byzantine court, and presumably, also in its wealthy households, "mimes were the focus of orchestrated humour, expected or obliged to make fun of all at court, not even excepting the emperor and members of the imperial family. This highly structured role of jester consisted of verbal humour, including teasing, jests, insult, ridicule, and obscenity and non-verbal humour such as slapstick and horseplay in the presence of an audience."[32] In medieval times, all comic types – the buffoon, jester, hunchback, dwarf, jokester, were all "considered to be essentially of one comic type: the fool", who while not necessarily funny, represented "the shortcomings of the individual".[62][63]

Shakespeare wrote seventeen comedies that incorporate many techniques still used by performers and writers of comedy—such as jokes, puns, parody, wit, observational humor, or the unexpected effect of irony.[64][65] One-liner jokes and satire are also used to comedic effect in literature. In farce, the comedy is a primary purpose.

The meaning of the word "comedy" and the audience's expectations of it have changed over time and vary according to culture.[66] Simple physical comedy such as slapstick is entertaining to a broad range of people of all ages. However, as cultures become more sophisticated, national nuances appear in the style and references so that what is amusing in one culture may be unintelligible in another.[67]

Performance

Live performances before an audience constitute a major form of entertainment, especially before the invention of audio and video recording. Performance takes a wide range of forms, including theatre, music and drama. In the 16th and 17th centuries, European royal courts presented masques that were complex theatrical entertainments involving dancing, singing and acting. Opera is a similarly demanding performance style that remains popular. It also encompass all three forms, demanding a high level of musical and dramatic skill, collaboration and like the masque, production expertise as well.

Poster for a 1908 production of Verdi's 1871 opera Aida, performed by the Hippodrome Opera Company of Cleveland, Ohio

Audiences generally show their appreciation of an entertaining performance with applause. However, all performers run the risk of failing to hold their audience's attention and thus, failing to entertain. Audience dissatisfaction is often brutally honest and direct.

"Of course you all ought to know that while singing a good song or, or giving a good recitation ... helps to arrest the company's attention ... Such at least was the case with me – the publican devised a plan to bring my entertainment to an end abruptly, and the plan was, he told the waiter to throw a wet towel at me, which, of course, the waiter did ... and I received the wet towel, full force, in the face, which staggered me ... and had the desired effect of putting an end to me giving any more entertainments in the house." William McGonagall (Performance artist and poet)[68]

Storytelling

The Boyhood of Raleigh by Sir John Everett Millais, oil on canvas, 1870.
A seafarer tells the young Sir Walter Raleigh and his brother the story of what happened out at sea

Storytelling is an ancient form of entertainment that has influenced almost all other forms. It is "not only entertainment, it is also thinking through human conflicts and contradictions".[16] Hence, although stories may be delivered directly to a small listening audience, they are also presented as entertainment and used as a component of any piece that relies on a narrative, such as film, drama, ballet, and opera. Written stories have been enhanced by illustrations, often to a very high artistic standard, for example, on illuminated manuscripts and on ancient scrolls such as Japanese ones.[69] Stories remain a common way of entertaining a group that is on a journey. Showing how stories are used to pass the time and entertain an audience of travellers, Chaucer used pilgrims in his literary work The Canterbury Tales in the 14th century, as did Wu Cheng'en in the 16th century in Journey to the West. Even though journeys can now be completed much faster, stories are still told to passengers en route in cars and aeroplanes either orally or delivered by some form of technology.

The power of stories to entertain is evident in one of the most famous ones—Scheherazade—a story in the Persian professional storytelling tradition, of a woman who saves her own life by telling stories.[70][71][72] The connections between the different types of entertainment are shown by the way that stories like this inspire a retelling in another medium, such as music, film or games. For example, composers Rimsky-Korsakov, Ravel and Szymanowski have each been inspired by the Scheherazade story and turned it into an orchestral work; director Pasolini made a film adaptation; and there is an innovative video game based on the tale. Stories may be told wordlessly, in music, dance or puppetry for example, such as in the Javanese tradition of wayang, in which the performance is accompanied by a gamelan orchestra or the similarly traditional Punch and Judy show.

Epic narratives, poems, sagas and allegories from all cultures tell such gripping tales that they have inspired countless other stories in all forms of entertainment. Examples include the Hindu Ramayana and Mahabharata; Homer's Odyssey and Iliad; the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan; the Persian epic Shahnameh; the Sagas of Icelanders and the celebrated Tale of the Genji. Collections of stories, such as Grimms' Fairy Tales or those by Hans Christian Andersen, have been similarly influential. Originally published in the early 19th century, this collection of folk stories significantly influence modern popular culture, which subsequently used its themes, images, symbols, and structural elements to create new entertainment forms.[73]

Some of the most powerful and long-lasting stories are the foundation stories, also called origin or creation myths such as the Dreamtime myths of the Australian aborigines, the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh,[74] or the Hawaiian stories of the origin of the world.[75] These too are developed into books, films, music and games in a way that increases their longevity and enhances their entertainment value.

  • Telling stories
  • William Blake's painting of the pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales

  • Scheherazade telling her stories to King Shahryar in The Arabian Nights

  • Telling stories via Wayang golek puppets in Java

  • Tosa Mitsuoki illustrating her Tale of Genji

Theatre

Saturday night audience at the Victoria Theatre, London (1872)

Theatre performances, typically dramatic or musical, are presented on a stage for an audience and have a history that goes back to Hellenistic times when "leading musicians and actors" performed widely at "poetical competitions", for example at "Delphi, Delos, Ephesus".[76] Aristotle and his teacher Plato both wrote on the theory and purpose of theatre. Aristotle posed questions such as "What is the function of the arts in shaping character? Should a member of the ruling class merely watch performances or be a participant and perform? What kind of entertainment should be provided for those who do not belong to the elite?"[77] The "Ptolemys in Egypt, the Seleucids in Pergamum" also had a strong theatrical tradition and later, wealthy patrons in Rome staged "far more lavish productions".[78][79]

Expectations about the performance and their engagement with it have changed over time (1).[80] For example, in England during the 18th century, "the prejudice against actresses had faded"[81] and in Europe generally, going to the theatre, once a socially dubious activity, became "a more respectable middle-class pastime"[82] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the variety of popular entertainments increased. Operetta and music halls became available, and new drama theatres such as the Moscow Art Theatre and the Suvorin Theatre in Russia opened.[83] At the same time, commercial newspapers "began to carry theatre columns and reviews" that helped make theatre "a legitimate subject of intellectual debate" in general discussions about art and culture.[83] Audiences began to gather to "appreciate creative achievement, to marvel at, and be entertained by, the prominent 'stars'."[83] Vaudeville and music halls, popular at this time in the United States, England, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, were themselves eventually superseded.[84]

Plays,[85] musicals,[86] monologues, pantomimes, and performance poetry are part of the very long history of theatre, which is also the venue for the type of performance known as stand-up comedy.[87] In the 20th century, radio and television, often broadcast live, extended the theatrical tradition that continued to exist alongside the new forms.

The stage and the spaces set out in front of it for an audience create a theatre. All types of stage are used with all types of seating for the audience, including the impromptu or improvised (2, 3, 6); the temporary (2); the elaborate (9); or the traditional and permanent (5, 7). They are erected indoors (3, 5, 9) or outdoors (2, 4, 6). The skill of managing, organising and preparing the stage for a performance is known as stagecraft (10). The audience's experience of the entertainment is affected by their expectations, the stagecraft, the type of stage, and the type and standard of seating provided.

  • Theatrical entertainment – stages, staging and stagecraft
  • 1 Satirical representation of audience reaction (1809)

  • 2 Improvised stage for a public performance at a fair (1642)

  • 3 Improvised stage for domestic theatre

  • 4 Outdoor stage before a show

  • 5 Concert theatre ready for solo instrumentalist

  • 6 Outdoor theatre created from Edinburgh castle forecourt

  • 7 Traditional stage for Japanese Noh theatre

  • 8 Stage for theatre in the round

  • 9 Teatro Colón, a highly decorative, horseshoe theatre

  • 10 Stagecraft – a locking rail backstage

Cinema and film

Film audiences are typically seated in comfortable chairs arranged in close rows before a projection screen. Norway (2005)

Films are a major form of entertainment, although not all films have entertainment as their primary purpose: documentary film, for example, aims to create a record or inform,[88] although the two purposes often work together. The medium was a global business from the beginning: "The Lumière brothers were the first to send cameramen throughout the world, instructing them to film everything which could be of interest for the public."[89] In 1908, Pathé launched and distributed newsreels[89] and by World War I, films were meeting an enormous need for mass entertainment. "In the first decade of the [20th] century cinematic programmes combined, at random, fictions and newsfilms."[89] The Americans first "contrived a way of producing an illusion of motion through successive images," but "the French were able to transform a scientific principle into a commercially lucrative spectacle".[90] Film therefore became a part of the entertainment industry from its early days. Increasingly sophisticated techniques have been used in the film medium to delight and entertain audiences. Animation, for example, which involves the display of rapid movement in an art work, is one of these techniques that particularly appeals to younger audiences.[91] The advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the 21st century made it "possible to do spectacle" more cheaply and "on a scale never dreamed of" by Cecil B. DeMille.[92] From the 1930s to 1950s, movies and radio were the "only mass entertainment" but by the second decade of the 21st century, technological changes, economic decisions, risk aversion and globalisation reduced both the quality and range of films being produced.[93] Sophisticated visual effects and CGI techniques, for example, rather than humans, were used not only to create realistic images of people, landscapes and events (both real and fantastic) but also to animate non-living items such as Lego normally used as entertainment as a game in physical form.[94] Creators of The Lego Movie "wanted the audience to believe they were looking at actual Lego bricks on a tabletop that were shot with a real camera, not what we actually did, which was create vast environments with digital bricks inside the computer."[94] The convergence of computers and film has allowed entertainment to be presented in a new way and the technology has also allowed for those with the personal resources to screen films in a home theatre, recreating in a private venue the quality and experience of a public theatre. This is similar to the way that the nobility in earlier times could stage private musical performances or the use of domestic theatres in large homes to perform private plays in earlier centuries.

Films also re-imagine entertainment from other forms, turning stories, books and plays, for example, into new entertainments.[95] The Story of Film, a documentary about the history of film, gives a survey of global achievements and innovations in the medium, as well as changes in the conception of film-making. It demonstrates that while some films, particularly those in the Hollywood tradition that combines "realism and melodramatic romanticism",[96] are intended as a form of escapism, others require a deeper engagement or more thoughtful response from their audiences. For example, the award-winning Senegalese film Xala takes government corruption as its theme. Charlie Chaplin's film The Great Dictator was a brave and innovative parody, also on a political theme. Stories that are thousands of years old, such as Noah, have been re-interpreted in film, applying familiar literary devices such as allegory and personification with new techniques such as CGI to explore big themes such as "human folly", good and evil, courage and despair, love, faith, and death – themes that have been a main-stay of entertainment across all its forms.[97]

As in other media, excellence and achievement in films is recognised through a range of awards, including ones from the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, the Cannes International Film Festival in France and the Asia Pacific Screen Awards.

Dance

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Contra dancers at a ball in New Hampshire, United States (silent video)

The many forms of dance provide entertainment for all age groups and cultures. Dance can be serious in tone, such as when it is used to express a culture's history or important stories; it may be provocative; or it may put in the service of comedy. Since it combines many forms of entertainment – music, movement, storytelling, theatre – it provides a good example of the various ways that these forms can be combined to create entertainment for different purposes and audiences.

Dance is "a form of cultural representation" that involves not just dancers, but "choreographers, audience members, patrons and impresarios ... coming from all over the globe and from vastly varied time periods."[98] Whether from Africa, Asia or Europe, dance is constantly negotiating the realms of political, social, spiritual and artistic influence."[99] Even though dance traditions may be limited to one cultural group, they all develop. For example, in Africa, there are "Dahomean dances, Hausa dances, Masai dances and so forth."[100] Ballet is an example of a highly developed Western form of dance that moved to the theatres from the French court during the time of Louis XIV, the dancers becoming professional theatrical performers.[101] Some dances, such as the quadrille, a square dance that "emerged during the Napoleonic years in France"[102] and other country dances[103] were once popular at social gatherings like balls,[104][105] but are now rarely performed. On the other hand, many folk dances (such as Scottish Highland dancing and Irish dancing), have evolved into competitions, which by adding to their audiences, has increased their entertainment value. "Irish dance theatre, which sometimes features traditional Irish steps and music, has developed into a major dance form with an international reputation."[106]

Since dance is often "associated with the female body and women's experiences",[99] female dancers, who dance to entertain, have in some cases been regarded as distinct from "decent" women because they "use their bodies to make a living instead of hiding them as much as possible".[107] Society's attitudes to female dancers depend on the culture, its history and the entertainment industry itself. For example, while some cultures regard any dancing by women as "the most shameful form of entertainment",[108] other cultures have established venues such as strip clubs where deliberately erotic or sexually provocative dances such as striptease are performed in public by professional women dancers for mostly male audiences.

Various political regimes have sought to control or ban dancing or specific types of dancing, sometimes because of disapproval of the music or clothes associated with it. Nationalism, authoritarianism and racism have played a part in banning dances or dancing. For example, during the Nazi regime, American dances such as swing, regarded as "completely un-German", had "become a public offense and needed to be banned".[109] Similarly, in Shanghai, China, in the 1930s, "dancing and nightclubs had come to symbolise the excess that plagued Chinese society" and officials wondered if "other forms of entertainment such as brothels" should also be banned. Banning had the effect of making "the dance craze" even greater.[110] In Ireland, the Public Dance Hall Act of 1935 "banned – but did not stop – dancing at the crossroads and other popular dance forms such as house and barn dances."[106] In the US, various dances were once banned, either because like burlesque, they were suggestive,[111] or because, like the Twist, they were associated with African Americans.[112] "African American dancers were typically banned from performing in minstrel shows until after the Civil War."[113]

Dances can be performed solo (1, 4); in pairs, (2, 3); in groups, (5, 6, 7); or by massed performers (10). They might be improvised (4, 8) or highly choreographed (1, 2, 5, 10); spontaneous for personal entertainment, (such as when children begin dancing for themselves); a private audience, (4); a paying audience (2); a world audience (10); or an audience interested in a particular dance genre (3, 5). They might be a part of a celebration, such as a wedding or New Year (6, 8); or a cultural ritual with a specific purpose, such as a dance by warriors like a haka (7). Some dances, such as traditional dance in 1 and ballet in 2, need a very high level of skill and training; others, such as the can-can, require a very high level of energy and physical fitness. Entertaining the audience is a normal part of dance but its physicality often also produces joy for the dancers themselves (9).

  • Dance – 10 types across 10 cultures
  • 1 Traditional dancer (Thailand)

  • 2 Harlequin and Columbine (Denmark)

  • 3 Ballroom dancing (Czech Republic)

  • 4 Belly dancer (Morocco)

  • 5 Morris dancing (England)

  • 6 Highland wedding (Scotland, 1780)

  • 7 Warrior dancers (Papua New Guinea)

  • 8 Fire Dragon dance for Chinese New Year

  • 9 Bhangra dancers at the International Children's Festival

  • 10 Children in Mass Games (North Korea)

Animals

Animals have been used for the purposes of entertainment for millennia. They have been hunted for entertainment (as opposed to hunted for food); displayed while they hunt for prey; watched when they compete with each other; and watched while they perform a trained routine for human amusement. The Romans, for example, were entertained both by competitions involving wild animals and acts performed by trained animals. They watched as "lions and bears danced to the music of pipes and cymbals; horses were trained to kneel, bow, dance and prance ... acrobats turning handsprings over wild lions and vaulting over wild leopards." There were "violent confrontations with wild beasts" and "performances over time became more brutal and bloodier".[114]

Animals that perform trained routines or "acts" for human entertainment include fleas in flea circuses, dolphins in dolphinaria, and monkeys doing tricks for an audience on behalf of the player of a street organ. Animals kept in zoos in ancient times were often kept there for later use in the arena as entertainment or for their entertainment value as exotica.[115]

Many contests between animals are now regarded as sports – for example, horse racing is regarded as both a sport and an important source of entertainment. Its economic impact means that it is also considered a global industry, one in which horses are carefully transported around the world to compete in races. In Australia, the horse race run on Melbourne Cup Day is a public holiday and the public regards the race as an important annual event. Like horse racing, camel racing requires human riders, while greyhound racing does not. People find it entertaining to watch animals race competitively, whether they are trained, like horses, camels or dogs, or untrained, like cockroaches.

The use of animals for entertainment is sometimes controversial, especially the hunting of wild animals. Some contests between animals, once popular entertainment for the public, have become illegal because of the cruelty involved. Among these are blood sports such as bear-baiting, dog fighting and cockfighting. Other contests involving animals remain controversial and have both supporters and detractors. For example, the conflict between opponents of pigeon shooting who view it as "a cruel and moronic exercise in marksmanship, and proponents, who view it as entertainment" has been tested in a court of law.[116] Fox hunting, which involves the use of horses as well as hounds, and bullfighting, which has a strong theatrical component, are two entertainments that have a long and significant cultural history. They both involve animals and are variously regarded as sport, entertainment or cultural tradition. Among the organisations set up to advocate for the rights of animals are some whose concerns include the use of animals for entertainment.[117] However, "in many cases of animal advocacy groups versus organisations accused of animal abuse, both sides have cultural claims."[118]

  • Animals used for entertainment
  • 'Ala'ud-Din and Mahima Dharma hunting a tiger while in an intimate relationship, Punjab, South Asia, 1790

  • Trained monkey performing for an audience of children (1900–20)

  • Crowd watches Pharlap win the Melbourne Cup in Australia, 1930

  • Crowd watches a bullfight in Mexico, 2010

Circus

Children entertained by a stilt walker performing in a circus act

A circus, described as "one of the most brazen of entertainment forms",[119] is a special type of theatrical performance, involving a variety of physical skills such as acrobatics and juggling and sometimes performing animals. Usually thought of as a travelling show performed in a big top, circus was first performed in permanent venues. Philip Astley is regarded as the founder of the modern circus in the second half of the 18th century and Jules Léotard is the French performer credited with developing the art of the trapeze, considered synonymous with circuses.[120] Astley brought together performances that were generally familiar in traditional British fairs "at least since the beginning of the 17th century": "tumbling, rope-dancing, juggling, animal tricks and so on".[119] It has been claimed that "there is no direct link between the Roman circus and the circus of modern times. ... Between the demise of the Roman 'circus' and the foundation of Astley's Amphitheatre in London some 1300 years later, the nearest thing to a circus ring was the rough circle formed by the curious onlookers who gathered around the itinerant tumbler or juggler on a village green."[121]

Magic

The form of entertainment known as stage magic or conjuring and recognisable as performance, is based on traditions and texts of magical rites and dogmas that have been a part of most cultural traditions since ancient times. (References to magic, for example, can be found in the Bible, in Hermeticism, in Zoroastrianism, in the Kabbalistic tradition, in mysticism and in the sources of Freemasonry.)[122]

Stage magic is performed for an audience in a variety of media and locations: on stage, on television, in the street, and live at parties or events. It is often combined with other forms of entertainment, such as comedy or music and showmanship is often an essential part of magic performances. Performance magic relies on deception, psychological manipulation, sleight of hand and other forms of trickery to give an audience the illusion that a performer can achieve the impossible. Audiences amazed at the stunt performances and escape acts of Harry Houdini, for example, regarded him as a magician.[123][124][125]

Fantasy magicians have held an important place in literature for centuries, offering entertainment to millions of readers. Famous wizards such as Merlin in the Arthurian legends have been written about since the 5th and 6th centuries, while in the 21st century, the young wizard Harry Potter became a global entertainment phenomenon when the book series about him sold about 450 million copies (as at June 2011), making it the best-selling book series in history.[126][127]

Street performance

Didgeridoo player entertaining passers by in the street

Street entertainment, street performance, or "busking" are forms of performance that have been meeting the public's need for entertainment for centuries.[128] It was "an integral aspect of London's life", for example, when the city in the early 19th century was "filled with spectacle and diversion".[129] Minstrels or troubadours are part of the tradition. The art and practice of busking is still celebrated at annual busking festivals.[130]

There are three basic forms of contemporary street performance. The first form is the "circle show". It tends to gather a crowd, usually has a distinct beginning and end, and is done in conjunction with street theatre, puppeteering, magicians, comedians, acrobats, jugglers and sometimes musicians. This type has the potential to be the most lucrative for the performer because there are likely to be more donations from larger audiences if they are entertained by the act. Good buskers control the crowd so patrons do not obstruct foot traffic. The second form, the walk-by act, has no distinct beginning or end. Typically, the busker provides an entertaining ambience, often with an unusual instrument, and the audience may not stop to watch or form a crowd. Sometimes a walk-by act spontaneously turns into a circle show. The third form, café busking, is performed mostly in restaurants, pubs, bars and cafés. This type of act occasionally uses public transport as a venue.

Parades

Parades are held for a range of purposes, often more than one. Whether their mood is sombre or festive, being public events that are designed to attract attention and activities that necessarily divert normal traffic, parades have a clear entertainment value to their audiences. Cavalcades and the modern variant, the motorcade, are examples of public processions. Some people watching the parade or procession may have made a special effort to attend, while others become part of the audience by happenstance. Whatever their mood or primary purpose, parades attract and entertain people who watch them pass by. Occasionally, a parade takes place in an improvised theatre space (such as the Trooping the Colour in 8) and tickets are sold to the physical audience while the global audience participates via broadcast.

One of the earliest forms of parade were "triumphs" – grand and sensational displays of foreign treasures and spoils, given by triumphant Roman generals to celebrate their victories. They presented conquered peoples and nations that exalted the prestige of the victor. "In the summer of 46 BCE Julius Caesar chose to celebrate four triumphs held on different days extending for about one month."[131] In Europe from the Middle Ages to the Baroque the Royal Entry celebrated the formal visit of the monarch to the city with a parade through elaborately decorated streets, passing various shows and displays. The annual Lord Mayor's Show in London is an example of a civic parade that has survived since medieval times.

Many religious festivals (especially those that incorporate processions, such as Holy Week processions or the Indian festival of Holi) have some entertainment appeal in addition to their serious purpose. Sometimes, religious rituals have been adapted or evolved into secular entertainments, or like the Festa del Redentore in Venice, have managed to grow in popularity while holding both secular and sacred purposes in balance. However, pilgrimages, such as the Roman Catholic pilgrimage of the Way of St. James, the Muslim Hajj and the Hindu Kumbh Mela, which may appear to the outsider as an entertaining parade or procession, are not intended as entertainment: they are instead about an individual's spiritual journey. Hence, the relationship between spectator and participant, unlike entertainments proper, is different. The manner in which the Kumbh Mela, for example, "is divorced from its cultural context and repackaged for Western consumption – renders the presence of voyeurs deeply problematic."[132]

Parades generally impress and delight often by including unusual, colourful costumes (7, 10). Sometimes they also commemorate (5, 8) or celebrate (1, 4, 6, 8, 9). Sometimes they have a serious purpose, such as when the context is military (1, 2, 5), when the intention is sometimes to intimidate; or religious, when the audience might participate or have a role to play (6, 7, 10). Even if a parade uses new technology and is some distance away (9), it is likely to have a strong appeal, draw the attention of onlookers and entertain them.

  • Parades – 10 types, six cultures
  • 1 Triumph of Caesar, Andreani (1588/9)

  • 2 Alfred Jacob Miller Cavalcade by the Snake Indians (1858–60)

  • 3 Parade from the onlooker perspective (1816)

  • "> Play media

    4 Inauguration parade of US President McKinley (1897)

  • 5 Respectful crowd at motorcade in Canada (1945)

  • 6 Ganesh Visarjan, Mumbai (2007)

  • 7 Costumes in West Indian Day parade (2008)

  • 8 Celebratory parade in London before seated audience (2008)

  • 9 Flypast (2012)

  • 10 Festive parade in Brazil (2014)

  • Fireworks

    Spectators at Bicentennial fireworks in Colombia

    Fireworks are a part of many public entertainments and have retained an enduring popularity since they became a "crowning feature of elaborate celebrations" in the 17th century. First used in China, classical antiquity and Europe for military purposes, fireworks were most popular in the 18th century and high prices were paid for pyrotechnists, especially the skilled Italian ones, who were summoned to other countries to organise displays.[133][134] Fire and water were important aspects of court spectacles because the displays "inspired by means of fire, sudden noise, smoke and general magnificence the sentiments thought fitting for the subject to entertain of his sovereign: awe fear and a vicarious sense of glory in his might. Birthdays, name-days, weddings and anniversaries provided the occasion for celebration."[135] One of the most famous courtly uses of fireworks was one used to celebrate the end of the War of the Austrian Succession and while the fireworks themselves caused a fire,[136] the accompanying Music for the Royal Fireworks written by Handel has been popular ever since. Aside from their contribution to entertainments related to military successes, courtly displays and personal celebrations, fireworks are also used as part of religious ceremony. For example, during the Indian Dashavatara Kala of Gomantaka "the temple deity is taken around in a procession with a lot of singing, dancing and display of fireworks".[137]

    The "fire, sudden noise and smoke" of fireworks is still a significant part of public celebration and entertainment. For example, fireworks were one of the primary forms of display chosen to celebrate the turn of the millennium around the world. As the clock struck midnight and 1999 became 2000, firework displays and open-air parties greeted the New Year as the time zones changed over to the next century. Fireworks, carefully planned and choreographed, were let off against the backdrop of many of the world's most famous buildings, including the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Pyramids of Giza in Egypt, the Acropolis in Athens, Red Square in Moscow, Vatican City in Rome, the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and Elizabeth Tower in London.

    Sport

    Audience engagement from a crowd of Italian sport fans
    Audience engagement by individual South African fans at the 2010 FIFA World Cup

    Sporting competitions have always provided entertainment for crowds. To distinguish the players from the audience, the latter are often known as spectators. Developments in stadium and auditorium design, as well as in recording and broadcast technology, have allowed off-site spectators to watch sport, with the result that the size of the audience has grown ever larger and spectator sport has become increasingly popular. Two of the most popular sports with global appeal are association football and cricket. Their ultimate international competitions, the FIFA World Cup and the Cricket World Cup, are broadcast around the world. Beyond the very large numbers involved in playing these sports, they are notable for being a major source of entertainment for many millions of non-players worldwide.[138] A comparable multi-stage, long-form sport with global appeal is the Tour de France, unusual in that it takes place outside of special stadia, being run instead in the countryside.[139]

    Aside from sports that have worldwide appeal and competitions, such as the Olympic Games, the entertainment value of a sport depends on the culture and country where people play it. For example, in the United States, baseball and basketball games are popular forms of entertainment; in Bhutan, the national sport is archery; in New Zealand, it is rugby union; in Iran, it is freestyle wrestling. Japan's unique sumo wrestling contains ritual elements that derive from its long history.[140] In some cases, such as the international running group Hash House Harriers, participants create a blend of sport and entertainment for themselves, largely independent of spectator involvement, where the social component is more important than the competitive.

    The evolution of an activity into a sport and then an entertainment is also affected by the local climate and conditions. For example, the modern sport of surfing is associated with Hawaii and that of snow skiing probably evolved in Scandinavia. While these sports and the entertainment they offer to spectators have spread around the world, people in the two originating countries remain well known for their prowess. Sometimes the climate offers a chance to adapt another sport such as in the case of ice hockey—an important entertainment in Canada.

    Fairs, expositions, shopping

    Fairs and exhibitions have existed since ancient and medieval times, displaying wealth, innovations and objects for trade and offering specific entertainments as well as being places of entertainment in themselves.[141] Whether in a medieval market or a small shop, "shopping always offered forms of exhilaration that took one away from the everyday".[142] However, in the modern world, "merchandising has become entertainment: spinning signs, flashing signs, thumping music ... video screens, interactive computer kiosks, day care .. cafés".[142]

    By the 19th century, "expos" that encouraged arts, manufactures and commerce had become international. They were not only hugely popular but affected international ideas. For example, the 1878 Paris Exposition facilitated international cooperation about ideas, innovations and standards. From London 1851 to Paris 1900, "in excess of 200 million visitors had entered the turnstiles in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia, Chicago and a myriad of smaller shows around the world."[141][143] Since World War II "well over 500 million visits have been recorded through world expo turnstiles".[144] As a form of spectacle and entertainment, expositions influenced "everything from architecture, to patterns of globalisation, to fundamental matters of human identity"[144] and in the process established the close relationship between "fairs, the rise of department stores and art museums",[145] the modern world of mass consumption and the entertainment industry.

    • Entertainment in expositions and shops
    • Advertisement for 1889 Paris Universal Exposition

    • Audience queuing for Qatar's World Exposition Pavilion at the 2010 Shanghai World Expo

    • Ball pit of the type provided for children's entertainment in shopping malls

    Some entertainments, such as at large festivals (whether religious or secular), concerts, clubs, parties and celebrations, involve big crowds. From earliest times, crowds at an entertainment have associated hazards and dangers, especially when combined with the recreational consumption of intoxicants such as alcohol. The Ancient Greeks had Dionysian Mysteries, for example, and the Romans had Saturnalia. The consequence of excess and crowds can produce breaches of social norms of behaviour, sometimes causing injury or even death, such as for example, at the Altamont Free Concert, an outdoor rock festival. The list of serious incidents at nightclubs includes those caused by stampede; overcrowding; terrorism, such as the 2002 Bali bombings that targeted a nightclub; and especially fire. Investigations, such as that carried out in the US after The Station nightclub fire often demonstrate that lessons learned "regarding fire safety in nightclubs" from earlier events such as the Cocoanut Grove fire do "not necessarily result in lasting effective change".[146] Efforts to prevent such incidents include appointing special officers, such as the medieval Lord of Misrule or, in modern times, security officers who control access; and also ongoing improvement of relevant standards such as those for building safety. The tourism industry now regards safety and security at entertainment venues as an important management task.[147]

    Industria

    Entertainment is big business, especially in the United States,[148]but ubiquitous in all cultures. Although kings, rulers and powerful people have always been able to pay for entertainment to be provided for them and in many cases have paid for public entertainment, people generally have made their own entertainment or when possible, attended a live performance. Technological developments in the 20th century, especially in the area of mass media, meant that entertainment could be produced independently of the audience, packaged and sold on a commercial basis by an entertainment industry.[148][149] Sometimes referred to as show business, the industry relies on business models to produce, market, broadcast or otherwise distribute many of its traditional forms, including performances of all types.[150] The industry became so sophisticated that its economics became a separate area of academic study.[151]

    The film industry is a part of the entertainment industry. Components of it include the Hollywood[152] and Bollywood[153] film industries, as well as the cinema of the United Kingdom and all the cinemas of Europe, including France, Germany, Spain, Italy and others.[154] The sex industry is another component of the entertainment industry, applying the same forms and media (for example, film, books, dance and other performances) to the development, marketing and sale of sex products on a commercial basis.

    Amusement parks entertain paying guests with rides, such as roller coasters, ridable miniature railways, water rides, and dark rides, as well as other events and associated attractions. The parks are built on a large area subdivided into themed areas named "lands". Sometimes the whole amusement park is based on one theme, such as the various SeaWorld parks that focus on the theme of sea life.

    One of the consequences of the development of the entertainment industry has been the creation of new types of employment. While jobs such as writer, musician and composer exist as they always have, people doing this work are likely to be employed by a company rather than a patron as they once would have been. New jobs have appeared, such as gaffer or special effects supervisor in the film industry, and attendants in an amusement park.

    Prestigious awards are given by the industry for excellence in the various types of entertainment. For example, there are awards for Music, Games (including video games), Comics, Comedy, Theatre, Television, Film, Dance and Magic. Sporting awards are made for the results and skill, rather than for the entertainment value.

    • The entertainment industry
    • Packaged entertainment
      35mm film reels in boxes

    • Choosing music from a record store (Germany, 1988)

    • Ticket showing electronic barcode (Valencia, 2005)

    Architecture for entertainment

    Purpose-built structures as venues for entertainment that accommodate audiences have produced many famous and innovative buildings, among the most recognisable of which are theatre structures.[155] For the ancient Greeks, "the architectural importance of the theatre is a reflection of their importance to the community, made apparent in their monumentality, in the effort put into their design, and in the care put into their detail."[156] The Romans subsequently developed the stadium in an oval form known as a circus. In modern times, some of the grandest buildings for entertainment have brought fame to their cities as well as their designers. The Sydney Opera House, for example, is a World Heritage Site and The O₂ in London is an entertainment precinct that contains an indoor arena, a music club, a cinema and exhibition space. The Bayreuth Festspielhaus in Germany is a theatre designed and built for performances of one specific musical composition.

    Two of the chief architectural concerns for the design of venues for mass audiences are speed of egress and safety. The speed at which the venue empty is important both for amenity and safety, because large crowds take a long time to disperse from a badly designed venue, which creates a safety risk. The Hillsborough disaster is an example of how poor aspects of building design can contribute to audience deaths. Sightlines and acoustics are also important design considerations in most theatrical venues.

    In the 21st century, entertainment venues, especially stadia, are "likely to figure among the leading architectural genres".[157] However, they require "a whole new approach" to design, because they need to be "sophisticated entertainment centres, multi-experience venues, capable of being enjoyed in many diverse ways".[158] Hence, architects now have to design "with two distinct functions in mind, as sports and entertainment centres playing host to live audiences, and as sports and entertainment studios serving the viewing and listening requirements of the remote audience".[158]

    • Architecture for entertainment
    • Colosseum, Rome (70–80 AD), Roman venue for mass entertainment

    • The Grand Foyer in the Palais Garnier, Paris (1875), influenced architecture around the world.

    • Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro, at inauguration (1950) the world's largest stadium by capacity

    • The O₂ entertainment precinct, London (2007)

    • Flamingo Entertainment Centre, Vantaa (2008), include variety of entertainment activities (e.g. a movie theater, spa, bowling, laser games, virtual experiences), 40 different stores and hotel[159]

    Architecture as entertainment

    Inauthentic castle in Disneyland amusement park

    Architects who push the boundaries of design or construction sometimes create buildings that are entertaining because they exceed the expectations of the public and the client and are aesthetically outstanding. Buildings such as Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, designed by Frank Gehry, are of this type, becoming a tourist attraction as well as a significant international museum. Other apparently usable buildings are really follies, deliberately constructed for a decorative purpose and never intended to be practical.

    On the other hand, sometimes architecture is entertainment, while pretending to be functional. The tourism industry, for example, creates or renovates buildings as "attractions" that have either never been used or can never be used for their ostensible purpose. They are instead re-purposed to entertain visitors often by simulating cultural experiences. Buildings, history and sacred spaces are thus made into commodities for purchase. Such intentional tourist attractions divorce buildings from the past so that "the difference between historical authenticity and contemporary entertainment venues/theme parks becomes hard to define".[160] Examples include "the preservation of the Alcázar of Toledo, with its grim Civil War History, the conversion of slave dungeons into tourist attractions in Ghana, [such as, for example, Cape Coast Castle] and the presentation of indigenous culture in Libya".[161] The specially constructed buildings in amusement parks represent the park's theme and are usually neither authentic nor completely functional.

    Globalisation

    By the second half of the 20th century, developments in electronic media made possible the delivery of entertainment products to mass audiences across the globe. The technology enabled people to see, hear and participate in all the familiar forms – stories, theatre, music, dance – wherever they live. The rapid development of entertainment technology was assisted by improvements in data storage devices such as cassette tapes or compact discs, along with increasing miniaturisation. Computerisation and the development of barcodes also made ticketing easier, faster and global.

    Obsolescence

    Magazine advertisement for crystal radio (1922)
    Television tower in Almaty, Kazakhstan (constructed 1983)

    In the 1940s, radio was the electronic medium for family entertainment and information.[162][163][164] In the 1950s, it was television that was the new medium and it rapidly became global, bringing visual entertainment, first in black and white, then in colour, to the world.[165] By the 1970s, games could be played electronically, then hand-held devices provided mobile entertainment, and by the last decade of the 20th century, via networked play. In combination with products from the entertainment industry, all the traditional forms of entertainment became available personally. People could not only select an entertainment product such as a piece of music, film or game, they could choose the time and place to use it. The "proliferation of portable media players and the emphasis on the computer as a site for film consumption" together have significantly changed how audiences encounter films.[166] One of the most notable consequences of the rise of electronic entertainment has been the rapid obsolescence of the various recording and storage methods. As an example of speed of change driven by electronic media, over the course of one generation, television as a medium for receiving standardised entertainment products went from unknown, to novel, to ubiquitous and finally to superseded.[167] One estimate was that by 2011 over 30 percent of households in the US would own a Wii console, "about the same percentage that owned a television in 1953".[168] Some expected that halfway through the second decade of the 21st century, online entertainment would have completely replaced television—which didn't happen. The so-called "digital revolution" has produced an increasingly transnational marketplace that has caused difficulties for governments, business, industries, and individuals, as they all try to keep up.[169][170][171][172] Even the sports stadium of the future will increasingly compete with television viewing "...in terms of comfort, safety and the constant flow of audio-visual information and entertainment available."[173] Other flow on effects of the shift are likely to include those on public architecture such as hospitals and nursing homes, where television, regarded as an essential entertainment service for patients and residents, will need to be replaced by access to the internet. At the same time, the ongoing need for entertainers as "professional engagers" shows the continuity of traditional entertainment.[174]

    Convergence

    By the second decade of the 21st century, analogue recording was being replaced by digital recording and all forms of electronic entertainment began to converge.[175] For example, convergence is challenging standard practices in the film industry: whereas "success or failure used to be determined by the first weekend of its run. Today, ... a series of exhibition 'windows', such as DVD, pay-per-view, and fibre-optic video-on-demand are used to maximise profits."[176] Part of the industry's adjustment is its release of new commercial product directly via video hosting services. Media convergence is said to be more than technological: the convergence is cultural as well.[177] It is also "the result of a deliberate effort to protect the interests of business entities, policy institutions and other groups".[166] Globalisation and cultural imperialism are two of the cultural consequences of convergence.[178] Others include fandom and interactive storytelling as well as the way that single franchises are distributed through and affect a range of delivery methods.[179] The "greater diversity in the ways that signals may be received and packaged for the viewer, via terrestrial, satellite or cable television, and of course, via the Internet" also affects entertainment venues, such as sports stadia, which now need to be designed so that both live and remote audiences can interact in increasingly sophisticated ways – for example, audiences can "watch highlights, call up statistics", "order tickets and merchandise" and generally "tap into the stadium's resources at any time of the day or night".[158]

    The introduction of television altered the availability, cost, variety and quality of entertainment products for the public and the convergence of online entertainment is having a similar effect. For example, the possibility and popularity of user-generated content, as distinct from commercial product, creates a "networked audience model [that] makes programming obsolete".[180] Individuals and corporations use video hosting services to broadcast content that is equally accepted by the public as legitimate entertainment.

    While technology increases demand for entertainment products and offers increased speed of delivery, the forms that make up the content are in themselves, relatively stable. Storytelling, music, theatre, dance and games are recognisably the same as in earlier centuries.

    • Entertainment law
    • Family entertainment centre
    • List of entertainer occupations
    • Outline of entertainment
    • Performing arts
    • Performing arts education

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    155. ^ Green, J.R. "The Theatre of Paphos and the Theatre of Alexandria: Some First Thoughts" in MacLeod, Roy, ed. (2002). The Library of Alexandria. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-710-1. p. 115.
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    166. ^ Spigel, Lynn; Olsson, Jan, eds. (2004). Television after TV: Essays on a Medium in Transition. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3383-8.
    167. ^ Cogburn, Jon; Silcox, Mark (2002). Philosophy Through Video Games. New York: Routledge. p. i. ISBN 978-0-415-98857-5.
    168. ^ Doyle, Gillian (2002). Media Ownership: The Economics and Politics of Convergence and Concentration in the UK and European Media (Google eBook) |format= requires |url= (help). SAGE. ISBN 978-0-7619-6680-7.
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    170. ^ For example, in the UK: Tryhorn, Chris (21 December 2007). "Government thinktank to tackle media convergence issues". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 November 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
    171. ^ And for example, in Australia: "Convergence Review". Australian Government: Department of Broadband, Communications and the Digital Economy. 30 April 2012. Archived from the original on 21 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
    172. ^ Sheard (2001), p. 49.
    173. ^ Power, Julie (3 August 2013). "Laughter and music better than drugs for dementia patients". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
    174. ^ Dwyer, Tim (2010). Media Convergence. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England and New York: Open University Press McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-335-22873-7.
    175. ^ Sayre & King (2010), p. 156.
    176. ^ Sayre & King (2010), pp. 22, 30 ff.
    177. ^ Sayre & King (2010), p. 30.
    178. ^ Jenkins, Henry (2006). Convergence culture: where old and new media collide. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4281-5.
    179. ^ Sayre & King (2010), p. 536.