El esoterismo occidental , también conocido como esoterismo , esoterismo y, a veces, la tradición occidental de los misterios , [1] es un término bajo el cual los estudiosos han categorizado una amplia gama de ideas y movimientos vagamente relacionados que se han desarrollado dentro de la sociedad occidental . Estas ideas y corrientes están unidas por el hecho de que son en gran medida distintas tanto de la religión ortodoxa judeocristiana como del racionalismo de la Ilustración . El esoterismo ha invadido varias formas de filosofía occidental , religión , pseudociencia , arte , literatura.y la música , que siguen afectando las ideas intelectuales y la cultura popular .
La idea de agrupar una amplia gama de tradiciones y filosofías occidentales en la categoría que ahora se denomina esoterismo se desarrolló en Europa a finales del siglo XVII. Varios académicos han debatido cómo definir el esoterismo occidental, con varias opciones propuestas. Un modelo académico adopta su definición de "esoterismo" de ciertas escuelas de pensamiento esoteristas mismas, tratando el "esoterismo" como una tradición interna perennialista oculta. Una segunda perspectiva ve el esoterismo como una categoría que engloba movimientos que adoptan una visión del mundo "encantada" frente al creciente desencanto. Un tercero ve el esoterismo occidental como una categoría que abarca todo el "conocimiento rechazado" de la cultura occidental que no es aceptado ni por el establecimiento científico ni por las autoridades religiosas ortodoxas.
Las primeras tradiciones que un análisis posterior etiquetaría como formas de esoterismo occidental surgieron en el Mediterráneo oriental durante la Antigüedad tardía , donde el hermetismo , el gnosticismo y el neoplatonismo se desarrollaron como escuelas de pensamiento distintas de lo que se convirtió en la corriente principal del cristianismo. [2] La Europa del Renacimiento vio un interés creciente en muchas de estas ideas antiguas, con varios intelectuales que combinaron filosofías " paganas " con la Cábala y la filosofía cristiana, lo que resultó en el surgimiento de movimientos esotéricos como la teosofía cristiana . El siglo XVII vio el desarrollo de sociedades iniciáticas que profesaban conocimientos esotéricos como el rosacrucianismo y la masonería , mientras que la Era de la Ilustración del siglo XVIII condujo al desarrollo de nuevas formas de pensamiento esotérico. El siglo XIX vio el surgimiento de nuevas tendencias de pensamiento esotérico que han llegado a conocerse como ocultismo . Los grupos prominentes en este siglo incluyeron la Sociedad Teosófica y la Orden Hermética de la Golden Dawn . El paganismo moderno se desarrolló dentro del ocultismo e incluye movimientos religiosos como la Wicca . Las ideas esotéricas impregnaron la contracultura de la década de 1960 y las tendencias culturales posteriores, de las que surgió el fenómeno New Age en la década de 1970.
Aunque la idea de que estos movimientos variados pudieran clasificarse juntos bajo la rúbrica de "esoterismo occidental" se desarrolló a fines del siglo XVIII, estas corrientes esotéricas fueron ignoradas en gran medida como un tema de investigación académica. El estudio académico del esoterismo occidental solo surgió a fines del siglo XX, iniciado por académicos como Frances Yates y Antoine Faivre . Mientras tanto, las ideas esotéricas también han ejercido una influencia en la cultura popular , apareciendo en el arte, la literatura, el cine y la música.
Etimología
El concepto de "esotérico" se originó en el siglo II [3] con la acuñación del adjetivo griego antiguo esôterikós ("perteneciente a un círculo interno"); el ejemplo más antiguo conocido de la palabra apareció en una sátira escrita por Luciano de Samosata [4] ( c. 125 - después de 180).
El sustantivo "esoterismo", en su forma francesa "ésotérisme", apareció por primera vez en 1828 [5] en la obra de Jacques Matter necesita un ejemplo ] comenzaron a disociarse del cristianismo dominante en Europa Oriental. [8] Durante los siglos XIX y XX, el término "esoterismo" llegó a ser visto comúnmente [¿ por quién? ] como algo que era distinto del cristianismo, y que había formado una subcultura que había estado en desacuerdo con la corriente principal cristiana desde al menos la época del Renacimiento . [8] El ocultista y mago ceremonial francés Eliphas Lévi (1810-1875) popularizó el término en la década de 1850, y el teósofo Alfred Percy Sinnett (1840-1921) lo introdujo en el idioma inglés en su libro Esoteric Buddhism (1883). [6] Lévi también introdujo el término l'occultisme , una noción que desarrolló en el contexto de los discursos socialistas y católicos contemporáneos . [9] El "esoterismo" y el "ocultismo" fueron empleados a menudo [¿ por quién? ] como sinónimos hasta que los estudiosos posteriores distinguieron los conceptos. [10]
(1791-1864), Histoire critique du gnosticisme (3 vols.). [6] [7] El término "esoterismo" entró en uso a raíz del Siglo de las Luces y de su crítica de la religión institucionalizada , durante la cual los grupos religiosos alternativos [seDesarrollo conceptual
- El estudioso del esoterismo Wouter Hanegraaff, 2013. [11]
El concepto de "esoterismo occidental" representa una construcción académica moderna en lugar de una tradición de pensamiento preexistente y autodefinida. [12] A finales del siglo XVII, varios pensadores cristianos europeos presentaron el argumento de que se podían categorizar ciertas tradiciones de la filosofía y el pensamiento occidentales juntos, estableciendo así la categoría ahora denominada "esoterismo occidental". [13] El primero en hacerlo, Ehregott Daniel Colberg
(1659-1698), un teólogo luterano alemán , escribió Platonisch-Hermetisches Christianity (1690-1691). Un crítico hostil de varias corrientes del pensamiento occidental que habían surgido desde el Renacimiento, entre ellas el paracelismo , el weigelianismo y la teosofía cristiana, en su libro etiquetó todas estas tradiciones bajo la categoría de "cristianismo platónico-hermético", retratándolas como heréticas. a lo que él vio como cristianismo "verdadero". [14] A pesar de su actitud hostil hacia estas tradiciones de pensamiento, Colberg se convirtió en el primero en conectar estas filosofías dispares y en estudiarlas bajo una rúbrica, reconociendo también que estas ideas se remontan a filosofías anteriores de la antigüedad tardía . [15]En Europa durante el siglo XVIII, en medio del Siglo de las Luces , estas tradiciones esotéricas llegaron a ser categorizadas regularmente [¿ por quién? ] bajo las etiquetas de " superstición ", "magia" y "lo oculto" , términos que a menudo se usan indistintamente. [16] La academia moderna , entonces en el proceso de desarrollo, rechazó e ignoró constantemente los temas incluidos en "lo oculto", dejando así la investigación sobre ellos en gran parte a los entusiastas fuera de la academia. [17] De hecho, según el historiador del esoterismo Wouter J. Hanegraaff (nacido en 1961), el rechazo de los temas "ocultos" se consideraba un "marcador de identidad crucial" para cualquier intelectual que buscara afiliarse a la academia. [17]
Los académicos establecieron esta categoría a fines del siglo XVIII después de identificar "similitudes estructurales" entre "las ideas y visiones del mundo de una amplia variedad de pensadores y movimientos" que antes de esto no habían sido colocados en el mismo grupo analítico. [11] Según el estudioso del esoterismo Wouter J. Hanegraaff, el término proporcionó una "etiqueta genérica útil" para "un grupo grande y complicado de fenómenos históricos que durante mucho tiempo se percibieron como compartiendo un aire de familia ". [18]
Varios académicos han enfatizado la idea de que el esoterismo es un fenómeno exclusivo del mundo occidental ; como afirmó Faivre, una "perspectiva empírica" sostendría que "el esoterismo es una noción occidental". [19] Como han señalado eruditos como Faivre y Hanegraaff, no existe una categoría comparable de esoterismo "oriental" u "oriental". [20] No obstante, el énfasis en el esoterismo occidental fue ideado principalmente [¿ por quién? ] para distinguir el campo de un esoterismo universal . [21] Hanegraaff los ha caracterizado como "visiones del mundo reconocibles y enfoques del conocimiento que han jugado un papel importante, aunque siempre controvertido, en la historia de la cultura occidental". [22] El historiador de la religión Henrik Bogdan afirmó que el esoterismo occidental constituía "un tercer pilar de la cultura occidental" junto con "la fe doctrinal y la racionalidad", siendo considerado herético por el primero e irracional por el segundo. [23] Sin embargo, los eruditos reconocen que varias tradiciones no occidentales han ejercido "una profunda influencia" sobre el esoterismo occidental, citando el ejemplo destacado de la incorporación de la Sociedad Teosófica de conceptos hindúes y budistas como la reencarnación en sus doctrinas. [24] Dadas estas influencias y la naturaleza imprecisa del término "occidental", el estudioso del esoterismo Kennet Granholm ha argumentado que los académicos deberían dejar de referirse al " esoterismo occidental " por completo, en lugar de simplemente favorecer el "esoterismo" como descriptor de este fenómeno. [25] Egil Asprem ha respaldado este enfoque. [26]
Definición
El historiador del esoterismo Antoine Faivre señaló que "nunca un término preciso, [esoterismo] ha comenzado a desbordar sus fronteras en todos los lados", [27] con Faivre y Karen-Claire Voss afirmando que el esoterismo occidental consiste en "un amplio espectro de autores, tendencias, obras de filosofía, religión, arte, literatura y música ". [28] Existe un amplio acuerdo entre los estudiosos en cuanto a qué corrientes de pensamiento se pueden colocar dentro de una categoría de "esoterismo", que van desde el antiguo gnosticismo y el hermetismo hasta el rosacrucianismo y la Cabalá y hasta fenómenos más recientes como el movimiento de la Nueva Era. . [29] Sin embargo, "esoterismo" en sí mismo sigue siendo un término controvertido, y los eruditos que se especializan en el tema no están de acuerdo en cómo se puede definir mejor. [29]
El esoterismo como tradición interior universal, secreta
Una definición adoptada por algunos estudiosos ha utilizado el "esoterismo occidental" en referencia a las "tradiciones internas" que se ocupan de una "dimensión espiritual universal de la realidad, en oposición a las instituciones religiosas meramente externas ('exotéricas') y los sistemas dogmáticos de las religiones establecidas. . " [30] Según este enfoque, el "esoterismo occidental" es visto como una variante de un "esoterismo" mundial que se puede encontrar en el corazón de todas las religiones y culturas del mundo, reflejando una realidad esotérica oculta. [31] Este uso del término "esoterismo" es el más cercano al significado original de la palabra tal como se usó en la antigüedad tardía, donde se aplicó a enseñanzas espirituales secretas que estaban reservadas para una élite específica y ocultas a las masas. [32] Esta definición se popularizó en el trabajo publicado de esoteristas del siglo XIX como AE Waite , que buscaban combinar sus propias creencias místicas con una interpretación histórica del esoterismo. [33] Posteriormente se convirtió en un enfoque popular dentro de varios movimientos esotéricos, sobre todo el martinismo y el tradicionalismo . [34]
Esta definición, originalmente desarrollada por los mismos esoteristas, se hizo popular entre los académicos franceses durante la década de 1980, ejerciendo una fuerte influencia sobre los eruditos Mircea Eliade , Henry Corbin y los primeros trabajos de Faivre. [34] Dentro del campo académico de los estudios religiosos , aquellos que estudian diferentes religiones en busca de una dimensión universal interior para todos ellos se denominan "religiosos". [31] Tales ideas religiosas también ejercieron una influencia en estudiosos más recientes como Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke y Arthur Versluis . [31] Versluis, por ejemplo, definió el "esoterismo occidental" como "conocimiento espiritual interno u oculto transmitido a través de las corrientes históricas de Europa occidental que, a su vez, alimentan los escenarios norteamericanos y no europeos". [35] Agregó que todas estas corrientes esotéricas occidentales compartían una característica central, "un reclamo de gnosis, o una percepción espiritual directa de la cosmología o la percepción espiritual", [35] y, en consecuencia, sugirió que estas corrientes podrían denominarse "occidentales gnóstico "tanto como" esotérico occidental ". [36]
Hay varios problemas con este modelo para comprender el esoterismo occidental. [31] El más significativo es que se basa en la convicción de que realmente existe una "dimensión universal, oculta y esotérica de la realidad" que existe objetivamente. [31] La existencia de esta tradición interior universal no se ha descubierto a través de investigaciones científicas o académicas; esto había llevado a algunos [ ¿quién? ] para afirmar que no existe, aunque Hanegraaff pensó que era mejor adoptar una visión basada en el agnosticismo metodológico al afirmar que "simplemente no sabemos y no podemos saber" si existe o no. Señaló que, incluso si realmente existiera una naturaleza de realidad tan verdadera y absoluta, solo sería accesible a través de prácticas espirituales "esotéricas", y no podría ser descubierta o medida por las herramientas "exotéricas" de la investigación científica y académica. [37] Hanegraaff también destacó que una actitud que busca descubrir un núcleo interno oculto de todas las corrientes esotéricas enmascara el hecho de que tales grupos a menudo contienen diferencias significativas entre sí, están arraigados en sus propios contextos históricos y sociales, y expresan ideas y agendas. que son mutuamente excluyentes. [38] Un tercer problema fue que muchas de esas corrientes ampliamente reconocidas como esotéricas nunca ocultaron sus enseñanzas, y en el siglo XX llegaron a impregnar la cultura popular, problematizando así la afirmación de que el esoterismo podía definirse por su naturaleza oculta y reservada. [39] Además, Hanegraaff señaló que cuando los eruditos adoptan esta definición, muestra que se suscriben a las doctrinas religiosas que defienden los mismos grupos que están estudiando. [10]
El esoterismo como una cosmovisión encantada
Otro enfoque para el esoterismo occidental ha tratado como una visión del mundo que abarca "encanto" en contraste con las visiones del mundo influenciados por post- cartesiana , post- newtoniana , y la ciencia positivista , que han tratado de " des-encantamiento " del mundo. [40] Por lo tanto, se entiende que el esoterismo comprende aquellas visiones del mundo que evitan la creencia en la causalidad instrumental y, en cambio, adoptan la creencia de que todas las partes del universo están interrelacionadas sin necesidad de cadenas causales. [40] Por lo tanto, se presenta como una alternativa radical a las visiones del mundo desencantadas que han dominado la cultura occidental desde la revolución científica , [40] y, por lo tanto, siempre debe estar en desacuerdo con la cultura secular . [41]
Un exponente temprano de esta definición fue la historiadora del pensamiento renacentista Frances Yates en sus discusiones sobre una "Tradición Hermética", que ella vio como una alternativa "encantada" a la religión establecida y la ciencia racionalista. [42] Sin embargo, el principal exponente de este punto de vista fue Faivre, quien publicó una serie de criterios sobre cómo definir el "esoterismo occidental" en 1992. [43] Faivre afirmó que el esoterismo era "identificable por la presencia de seis características o componentes fundamentales ", cuatro de los cuales eran" intrínsecos "y, por tanto, vitales para definir algo como esotérico, mientras que los otros dos eran" secundarios "y, por tanto, no necesariamente presentes en todas las formas de esoterismo. [44] Enumeró estas características de la siguiente manera:
- "Correspondencias": esta es la idea de que existen correspondencias tanto reales como simbólicas entre todas las cosas dentro del universo. [45] Como ejemplos de esto, Faivre señaló el concepto esotérico de macrocosmos y microcosmos , a menudo presentado como el dictum de "como es arriba, es abajo", así como la idea astrológica de que las acciones de los planetas tienen una correspondencia directa influencia en el comportamiento de los seres humanos. [46]
- "Naturaleza viva": Faivre argumentó que todos los esoteristas conciben el universo natural como imbuido de su propia fuerza vital, y que como tal lo entienden como "complejo, plural, jerárquico". [47]
- "Imaginación y mediaciones": Faivre creía que todos los esoteristas ponen gran énfasis tanto en la imaginación humana como en las mediaciones - "como rituales, imágenes simbólicas, mandalas, espíritus intermediarios" - y mantras como herramientas que brindan acceso a mundos y niveles de realidad. existiendo entre el mundo material y el divino. [48]
- "Experiencia de Transmutación": La cuarta característica intrínseca del esoterismo de Faivre fue el énfasis que los esoteristas ponen en transformarse fundamentalmente a sí mismos a través de su práctica, por ejemplo, a través de la transformación espiritual que supuestamente acompaña al logro de la gnosis . [49]
- "Práctica de la concordancia": la primera de las características secundarias del esoterismo de Faivre fue la creencia, sostenida por muchos esoteristas, como los de la escuela tradicionalista , de que existe un principio unificador fundamental o raíz del que emergen todas las religiones y prácticas espirituales del mundo. El principio esotérico común es que al alcanzar este principio unificador, las diferentes creencias del mundo pueden unirse en unidad. [50]
- "Transmisión": La segunda característica secundaria de Faivre fue el énfasis en la transmisión de enseñanzas y secretos esotéricos de un maestro a su discípulo, a través de un proceso de iniciación . [51]
La forma de categorización de Faivre ha sido respaldada por académicos como Goodrick-Clarke, [52] y en 2007 Bogdan pudo notar que la de Faivre se había convertido en "la definición estándar" del esoterismo occidental en uso entre los académicos. [53] Sin embargo, en 2013 el académico Kennet Granholm declaró solo que la definición de Faivre había sido "el paradigma dominante durante mucho tiempo" y que "todavía ejerce influencia entre los académicos fuera del estudio del esoterismo occidental". [54] La ventaja del sistema de Faivre es que permite comparar diferentes tradiciones esotéricas "entre sí de forma sistemática". [55] Sin embargo, también se han expresado críticas a la teoría de Faivre, señalando sus diversas debilidades. [56] Hanegraaff afirmó que el enfoque de Faivre implicaba "razonamiento por prototipo" en el sentido de que se basaba en tener ya un "mejor ejemplo" de cómo debería ser el esoterismo occidental, contra el cual otros fenómenos tuvieron que ser comparados. [57] El estudioso del esoterismo Kocku von Stuckrad (nacido en 1966) señaló que la taxonomía de Faivre se basaba en sus propias áreas de especialización - Hermetismo renacentista, Cabalá cristiana y Teosofía protestante - y que, por lo tanto, no se basaba en una comprensión más amplia del esoterismo. como ha existido a lo largo de la historia, desde el mundo antiguo hasta el período contemporáneo. [58] En consecuencia, Von Stuckrad sugirió que era una buena tipología para entender el "esoterismo cristiano en el período moderno temprano ", pero carecía de utilidad más allá de eso. [59]
El esoterismo como afirmación de un conocimiento superior
- Historiador de la religión Henrik Bogdan, 2007. [60]
Como alternativa al marco de Faivre, Kocku von Stuckrad desarrolló su propia variante, aunque argumentó que esto no representaba una "definición" sino más bien "un marco de análisis" para uso académico. [61] Afirmó que "en el nivel más general de análisis", el esoterismo representaba "el reclamo de un conocimiento superior", un reclamo de poseer "sabiduría que es superior a otras interpretaciones del cosmos y la historia" y que sirve como un "maestro clave para responder a todas las preguntas de la humanidad ". [62] En consecuencia, creía que los grupos esotéricos ponían un gran énfasis en el secreto, no porque estuvieran inherentemente arraigados en grupos de élite, sino porque la idea de secretos ocultos que pueden ser revelados era fundamental para su discurso. [63] Al examinar los medios para acceder a un conocimiento superior, destacó dos temas que, según él, podrían encontrarse dentro del esoterismo, el de la mediación a través del contacto con entidades no humanas y la experiencia individual. [64] En consecuencia, para Von Stuckrad, el esoterismo podría entenderse mejor como "un elemento estructural de la cultura occidental" en lugar de como una selección de diferentes escuelas de pensamiento. [8]
El esoterismo occidental como "conocimiento rechazado"
Hanegraaff propuso una definición adicional, y sostiene que el "esoterismo occidental" es una categoría que representa "el basurero de conocimiento rechazado de la academia". [22] A este respecto, contiene todas las teorías y visiones del mundo que han sido rechazadas por la comunidad intelectual dominante porque no concuerdan con las "concepciones normativas de religión, racionalidad y ciencia". [22] Su enfoque tiene sus raíces en el campo de la historia de las ideas y destaca el papel del cambio y la transformación a lo largo del tiempo. [sesenta y cinco]
Goodrick-Clarke fue crítico con este enfoque, creyendo que relegaba al esoterismo occidental a la posición de "una víctima de las perspectivas positivistas y materialistas en el siglo XIX" y así refuerza la idea de que las tradiciones esotéricas occidentales tenían poca importancia histórica. [66] Bogdan expresó de manera similar su preocupación con respecto a la definición de Hanegraaff, creyendo que hacía que la categoría de esoterismo occidental fuera "todo incluido" y, por lo tanto, analíticamente inútil. [67]
Historia
Antigüedad tardía
Los orígenes del esoterismo occidental se encuentran en el Mediterráneo oriental helenístico, entonces parte del Imperio Romano , durante la Antigüedad Tardía , un período que abarca los primeros siglos de la Era Común . [68] Este era un entorno en el que había una mezcla de tradiciones religiosas e intelectuales de Grecia, Egipto, el Levante, Babilonia y Persia, y en el que la globalización , la urbanización y el multiculturalismo estaban provocando cambios socioculturales. [69]
Un componente de esto fue el hermetismo , una escuela de pensamiento helenística egipcia que toma su nombre del legendario sabio egipcio, Hermes Trismegistus . [70] En los siglos II y III d.C., aparecieron varios textos atribuidos a Hermes Trismegistus, incluidos el Corpus Hermeticum , Asclepio y El discurso del octavo y el noveno . [71] Aunque todavía se debate si el hermetismo fue un fenómeno puramente literario, o si hubo comunidades de practicantes que actuaron sobre estas ideas, se ha establecido que estos textos discuten la verdadera naturaleza de Dios , enfatizando que los humanos deben trascender pensamiento racional y deseos mundanos para encontrar la salvación y renacer en un cuerpo espiritual de luz inmaterial, logrando así la unidad espiritual con la divinidad. [71]
Otra tradición del pensamiento esotérico en la Antigüedad tardía fue el gnosticismo , que tenía una relación compleja con el cristianismo . Existían varias sectas gnósticas, y en general creían que la luz divina había sido aprisionada dentro del mundo material por una entidad malévola conocida como el Demiurgo , que era servida por ayudantes demoníacos, los Arcontes . Era la creencia gnóstica de que los humanos, que estaban imbuidos de la luz divina, debían buscar alcanzar la gnosis y así escapar del mundo de la materia y reunirse con la fuente divina. [72]
A third form of esotericism in Late Antiquity was Neoplatonism, a school of thought influenced by the ideas of the philosopher Plato. Advocated by such figures as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus, Neoplatonism held that the human soul had fallen from its divine origins into the material world, but that it could progress, through a number of hierarchical spheres of being, to return to its divine origins once more.[73] The later Neoplatonists performed theurgy, a ritual practice attested in such sources as the Chaldean Oracles. Scholars are still unsure of precisely what theurgy involved, although it is known that it involved a practice designed to make gods appear, who could then raise the theurgist's mind to the reality of the divine.[74]
Middle Ages
After the fall of Rome, alchemy[75] and philosophy and other aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab and Near Eastern world and reintroduced into Western Europe by Jews[76] and by the cultural contact between Christians and Muslims in Sicily and southern Italy. The 12th century saw the development of the Kabbalah in southern Italy and medieval Spain.[77]
The medieval period also saw the publication of grimoires, which offered often elaborate formulas for theurgy and thaumaturgy. Many of the grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures in alchemy from this period seem to also have authored or used grimoires.
Renaissance and Early Modern period
During the Renaissance, a number of European thinkers began to synthesize "pagan" (that is, not Christian) philosophies, which were then being made available through Arabic translations, with Christian thought and the Jewish kabbalah.[78] The earliest of these individuals was the Byzantine philosopher Plethon (1355/60–1452?), who argued that the Chaldean Oracles represented an example of a superior religion of ancient humanity which had been passed down by the Platonists.[79]
Plethon's ideas interested the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de Medici, who employed Florentine thinker Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) to translate Plato's works into Latin. Ficino went on to translate and publish the works of various Platonic figures, arguing that their philosophies were compatible with Christianity, and allowing for the emergence of a wider movement in Renaissance Platonism, or Platonic Orientalism.[80] Ficino also translated part of the Corpus Hermeticum, although the rest would be translated by his contemporary, Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500).[81]
Another core figure in this intellectual milieu was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), who achieved notability in 1486 by inviting scholars from across Europe to come and debate with him 900 theses that he had written. Pico della Mirandola argued that all of these philosophies reflected a grand universal wisdom. However, Pope Innocent VIII condemned these ideas, criticising him for attempting to mix pagan and Jewish ideas with Christianity.[82]
Pico della Mirandola's increased interest in Jewish kabbalah led to his development of a distinct form of Christian Kabbalah. His work was built on by the German Johannes Reuchlin (1455–1522) who authored a prominent text on the subject, De Arte Cabbalistica.[83] Christian Kabbalah was expanded in the work of the German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535/36), who used it as a framework through which to explore the philosophical and scientific traditions of Antiquity in his work De occulta philosophia libri tres.[84] The work of Agrippa and other esoteric philosophers had been based in a pre-Copernican worldview, but following the arguments of Copernicus, a more accurate understanding of the cosmos was established. Copernicus' theories were adopted into esoteric strains of thought by Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), whose ideas would be deemed heresy by the Roman Catholic Church, eventually resulting in his public execution.[85]
A distinct strain of esoteric thought developed in Germany, where it came to be known as Naturphilosophie; although influenced by traditions from Late Antiquity and Medieval Kabbalah, it only acknowledged two main sources of authority: Biblical scripture and the natural world.[86] The primary exponent of this approach was Paracelsus (1493/94–1541), who took inspiration from alchemy and folk magic to argue against the mainstream medical establishment of his time which, as in Antiquity, still based its approach on the ideas of the second-century physician and philosopher, Galen, a Greek in the Roman Empire. Instead, Paracelsus urged doctors to learn medicine through an observation of the natural world, although in later work he also began to focus on overtly religious questions. His work would gain significant support in both areas over the following centuries.[87]
One of those influenced by Paracelsus was the German cobbler Jacob Böhme (1575–1624), who sparked the Christian theosophy movement through his attempts to solve the problem of evil. Böhme argued that God had been created out of an unfathomable mystery, the Ungrund, and that God himself was composed of a wrathful core, surrounded by the forces of light and love.[88] Although condemned by Germany's Lutheran authorities, Böhme's ideas spread and formed the basis for a number of small religious communities, such as Johann Georg Gichtel's Angelic Brethren in Amsterdam, and John Pordage and Jane Leade's Philadelphian Society in England.[89]
From 1614 to 1616, the three Rosicrucian Manifestos were published in Germany; these texts purported to represent a secret, initiatory brotherhood which had been founded centuries before by a German adept named Christian Rosenkreutz. There is no evidence that Rosenkreutz was a genuine historical figure, nor that a Rosicrucian Order had ever existed up to that point. Instead, the manifestos are likely literary creations of Lutheran theologian Johann Valentin Andreae (1586–1654). However, they inspired much public interest, with various individuals coming to describe themselves as "Rosicrucian" and claiming that they had access to secret, esoteric knowledge as a result.[90]
A real initiatory brotherhood was established in late 16th-century Scotland through the transformation of Medieval stonemason guilds to include non-craftsman: Freemasonry. Soon spreading into other parts of Europe, in England it largely rejected its esoteric character and embraced humanism and rationalism, while in France it embraced new esoteric concepts, particularly those from Christian theosophy.[91]
18th, 19th and early 20th centuries
The Age of Enlightenment witnessed a process of increasing secularisation of European governments and an embrace of modern science and rationality within intellectual circles. In turn, a "modernist occult" emerged that reflected varied ways in which esoteric thinkers came to terms with these developments.[92] One of the most prominent esotericists of this period was the Swedish naturalist Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who attempted to reconcile science and religion after experiencing a vision of Jesus Christ. His writings focused on his visionary travels to heaven and hell and his communications with angels, claiming that the visible, materialist world parallels an invisible spiritual world, with correspondences between the two that do not reflect causal relations. Following his death, followers would found the Swedenborgian New Church, although his writings would influence a far wider array of esoteric philosophies.[93] Another major figure within the esoteric movement of this period was the German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1814), who developed the theory of Animal Magnetism, which later came to be known more commonly as "Mesmerism". Mesmer claimed that a universal life force permeated everything, including the human body, and that illnesses were caused by a disturbance or block in this force's flow; he developed techniques which he claimed cleansed such blockages and restored the patient to full health.[94] One of Mesmer's followers, the Marquis de Puységur, discovered that mesmeric treatment could induce a state of somnumbulic trance in which they claimed to enter visionary states and communicate with spirit beings.[95]
These somnambulic trance-states would heavily influence the esoteric religion of Spiritualism, which emerged in the United States in the 1840s and spread throughout North America and Europe. Spiritualism was based on the concept that individuals could communicate with spirits of the deceased during séances.[96] Although most forms of Spiritualism had little theoretical depth, being largely practical affairs, full theological worldviews based on the movement would be articulated by Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910) and Allan Kardec (1804–1869).[95] Scientific interest in the claims of Spiritualism resulted in the development of the field of psychical research.[95] Somnambulism also exerted a strong influence on the early disciplines of psychology and psychiatry; esoteric ideas pervade the work of many early figures in this field, most notably Carl Gustav Jung, although with the rise of psychoanalysis and behaviourism in the 20th century, these disciplines distanced themselves from esotericism.[97] Also influenced by artificial somnambulism was the religion of New Thought, founded by the American Mesmerist Phineas P. Quimby (1802–1866) and which revolved around the concept of "mind over matter", believing that illness and other negative conditions could be cured through the power of belief.[98]
In Europe, a movement usually termed "occultism" emerged as various figures attempted to find a "third way" between Christianity and positivist science while building on the ancient, medieval, and Renaissance traditions of esoteric thought.[98] In France, following the social upheaval of the 1789 Revolution, various figures emerged in this occultist milieu who were heavily influenced by traditional Catholicism, the most notable of whom were Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875) and Papus (1865–1916).[99] Also significant was René Guénon (1886–1951), whose concern with tradition led him to develop an occult viewpoint termed Traditionalism; it espoused the idea of an original, universal tradition, and thus a rejection of modernity.[100] His Traditionalist ideas would have a strong influence on later esotericists like Julius Evola (1898–1974) and Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998).[100]
In the Anglophone world, the burgeoning occult movement owed more to Enlightenment libertines, and thus was more often of an anti-Christian bent that saw wisdom as emanating from the pre-Christian pagan religions of Europe.[100] Various Spiritualist mediums came to be disillusioned with the esoteric thought available, and sought inspiration in pre-Swedenborgian currents; the most prominent of these were Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–1899) and Helena Blavatsky (1831–1891), the latter of whom called for the revival of the "occult science" of the ancients, which could be found in both the East and West. Authoring the influential Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888), she co-founded the Theosophical Society in 1875.[101] Subsequent leaders of the Society, namely Annie Besant (1847–1933) and Charles Webster Leadbeater (1854–1934) interpreted modern theosophy as a form of ecumenical esoteric Christianity, resulting in their proclamation of Indian Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) as world messiah.[102] In rejection of this was the breakaway Anthroposophical Society founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925).[102]
New esoteric understandings of magic also developed in the latter part of the 19th century. One of the pioneers of this was American Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825–1875), who argued that sexual energy and psychoactive drugs could be used for magical purposes.[102] In England,[103] the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an initiatory order devoted to magic which based itself on an understanding of kabbalah, was founded in the latter years of the century.[104] One of the most prominent members of that order was Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), who went on to proclaim the religion of Thelema and become a prominent member of the Ordo Templi Orientis.[105] Some of their contemporaries developed esoteric schools of thought that did not entail magic, namely the Greco-Armenian teacher George Gurdjieff (1866–1949) and his Russian pupil P.D. Ouspensky (1878–1947).[106]
Emergent occult and esoteric systems found increasing popularity in the early 20th century, especially in Western Europe. Occult lodges and secret societies flowered among European intellectuals of this era who had largely abandoned traditional forms of Christianity. The spreading of secret teachings and magic practices found enthusiastic adherents in the chaos of Germany during the interwar years. Notable writers such as Guido von List spread neo-pagan, nationalist ideas, based on Wotanism and the Kabbalah. Many influential and wealthy Germans were drawn to secret societies such as the Thule Society. Thule Society activist Karl Harrer was one of the founders of the German Workers' Party,[107] which later became the Nazi Party; some Nazi Party members like Alfred Rosenberg and Rudolf Hess were listed as "guests" of the Thule Society, as was Adolf Hitler's mentor Dietrich Eckart.[108] After their rise to power, the Nazis persecuted occultists.[109] While many Nazi Party leaders like Hitler and Joseph Goebbels were hostile to occultism, Heinrich Himmler used Karl Maria Wiligut as a clairvoyant "and was regularly consulting for help in setting up the symbolic and ceremonial aspects of the SS" but not for important political decisions. By 1939, Wiligut was "forcibly retired from the SS" due to being institutionalised for insanity.[110] On the other hand, the German hermetic magic order Fraternitas Saturni was founded on Easter 1928 and it is one of the oldest continuously running magical groups in Germany.[111] In 1936, the Fraternitas Saturni was prohibited by the Nazi regime. The leaders of the lodge emigrated in order to avoid imprisonment, but in the course of the war Eugen Grosche, one of their main leaders, was arrested for a year by the Nazi government. After World War II they reformed the Fraternitas Saturni.[112]
Several religious scholars such as Hugh Urban and Donald Westbrook have classified Scientology as being a modern form of Western Esotericism.[113][114][115][116]
Later 20th century
In the 1960s and 1970s, esotericism came to be increasingly associated with the growing counter-culture in the West, whose adherents understood themselves in participating in a spiritual revolution that would mark the Age of Aquarius.[117] By the 1980s, these currents of millenarian currents had come to be widely known as the New Age movement, and it became increasingly commercialised as business entrepreneurs exploited a growth in the spiritual market.[117] Conversely, other forms of esoteric thought retained the anti-commercial and counter-cultural sentiment of the 1960s and 1970s, namely the techno-shamanic movement promoted by figures such as Terence McKenna and Daniel Pinchbeck which built on the work of anthropologist Carlos Castaneda.[117]
This trend was accompanied by the increased growth of modern Paganism, a movement initially dominated by Wicca, the religion propagated by Gerald Gardner.[118] Wicca was adopted by members of the second-wave feminist movement, most notably Starhawk, and developing into the Goddess movement.[118] Wicca also greatly influenced the development of Pagan neo-druidry and other forms of Celtic revivalism.[118] In response to Wicca there has also appeared literature and groups who label themselves followers of traditional witchcraft in opposition to the growing visibility of Wicca and these claim older roots than the system proposed by Gerald Gardner.[119] Other trends which emerged in western occultism in the later 20th century were satanism as exposed by groups such as the Church of Satan and Temple of Set,[120] as well as chaos magick through the Illuminates of Thanateros group.[121][122]
Additionally, since the start of the 1990’s, countries inside of the former Iron Curtain have undergone a radiative and varied religious revival, with a large number of occult and New Religious Movements gaining popularity.[123] Gnostic revivalists, New Age organizations, and Scientology splinter groups[124] have found their way into much of the former Soviet bloc since the cultural and political shift resulting from the dissolution of the USSR.[125] In Hungary, a significant number of citizens (relative to the size of the country’s population and compared to its neighbors) practice and/or adhere to new currents of Western Esotericism.[126] In April 1997, the Fifth Esoteric Spiritual Forum was held for two days in the country and was attended at-capacity; In August of the same year, the International Shaman Expo began, being broadcast on live TV and ultimately taking place for 2 months wherein various neo-Shamanist, Millenarian, mystic, neo-Pagan, and even UFO religionist congregations and figures were among the attendees.[127]
Cultura popular
In 2013, Asprem and Granholm highlighted that "contemporary esotericism is intimately, and increasingly, connected with popular culture and new media."[128]
Granholm noted that esoteric ideas and images could be found in many aspects of Western popular media, citing such examples as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Avatar, Hellblazer, and His Dark Materials.[129] Granholm has argued that there are problems with the field in that it draws a distinction between esotericism and non-esoteric elements of culture which draw upon esotericism; citing the example of extreme metal, he noted that it was extremely difficult to differentiate between artists who were "properly occult" and those who referenced occult themes and aesthetics in "a superficial way".[130]
Writers interested in occult themes have adopted three different strategies for dealing with the subject: those who are knowledgeable on the subject including attractive images of the occult and occultists in their work, those who disguise occultism within "a web of intertextuality", and those who oppose it and seek to deconstruct it.[131]
Estudio academico
The academic study of Western esotericism was pioneered in the early 20th century by historians of the ancient world and the European Renaissance, who came to recognise that – although it had been ignored by previous scholarship – the effect which pre-Christian and non-rational schools of thought had exerted on European society and culture was worthy of academic attention.[66] One of the key centres for this was the Warburg Institute in London, where scholars like Frances Yates, Edgar Wind, Ernst Cassirer, and D. P. Walker began arguing that esoteric thought had had a greater effect on Renaissance culture than had been previously accepted.[132] The work of Yates in particular, most notably her 1964 book Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, has been cited as "an important starting-point for modern scholarship on esotericism", succeeding "at one fell swoop in bringing scholarship onto a new track" by bringing wider awareness of the effect that esoteric ideas had on modern science.[133]
At the instigation of the scholar Henry Corbin, in 1965 the world's first academic post in the study of esotericism was established at the École pratique des hautes études in the Sorbonne, Paris; named the chair in the History of Christian Esotericism, its first holder was François Secret, a specialist in the Christian Kabbalah, although he had little interest in developing the wider study of esotericism as a field of research.[134] In 1979 Faivre assumed Secret's chair at the Sorbonne, which was renamed the "History of Esoteric and Mystical Currents in Modern and Contemporary Europe".[135] Faivre has since been cited as being responsible for developing the study of Western esotericism into a formalised field,[136] with his 1992 work L'ésotérisme having been cited as marking "the beginning of the study of Western esotericism as an academic field of research".[137] He remained in the chair until 2002, when he was succeeded by Jean-Pierre Brach.[133]
Faivre noted that there were two significant obstacles to establishing the field. One was that there was an engrained prejudice towards esotericism within academia, resulting in the widespread perception that the history of esotericism was not worthy of academic research.[138] The second was that esotericism is a trans-disciplinary field, the study of which did not fit clearly within any particular discipline.[139] As Hanegraaff noted, Western esotericism had to be studied as a separate field to religion, philosophy, science, and the arts, because while it "participates in all these fields" it does not squarely fit into any of them.[140] Elsewhere, he noted that there was "probably no other domain in the humanities that has been so seriously neglected" as Western esotericism.[141]
In 1980, the U.S.-based Hermetic Academy was founded by Robert A. McDermott as an outlet for American scholars interested in Western esotericism.[142] From 1986 to 1990 members of the Hermetic Academy participated in panels at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religion under the rubric of the "Esotericism and Perennialism Group".[142] By 1994, Faivre could comment that the academic study of Western esotericism had taken off in France, Italy, England, and the United States, but he lamented the fact that it had not done so in Germany.[138]
In 1999, the University of Amsterdam established a chair in the "History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents", which was occupied by Hanegraaff,[143] while in 2005 the University of Exeter created a chair in "Western Esotericism", which was taken by Goodrick-Clarke, who headed the Exeter Center for the Study of Esotericism.[144] Thus, by 2008 there were three dedicated university chairs in the subject, with Amsterdam and Exeter also offering master's degree programs in it.[145] Several conferences on the subject were held at the quintennial meetings of the International Association for the History of Religions,[146] while a peer-reviewed journal, Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism began publication in 2001.[146] 2001 also saw the foundation of the North American Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE), with the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE) being established shortly after.[147] Within a few years, Michael Bergunder expressed the view that it had become an established field within religious studies,[148] with Asprem and Granholm observing that scholars within other sub-disciplines of religious studies had begun to take an interest in the work of scholars of esotericism.[149]
Asprem and Granholm noted that the study of esotericism had been dominated by historians and thus lacked the perspective of social scientists examining contemporary forms of esotericism, a situation that they were attempting to correct through building links with scholars operating in Pagan studies and the study of new religious movements.[150] On the basis of the fact that "English culture and literature have been traditional strongholds of Western esotericism", in 2011 Pia Brînzeu and György Szönyi urged that English studies also have a role in this interdisciplinary field.[151]
Emic and etic divisions
Emic and etic refer to two kinds of field research done and viewpoints obtained, emic, from within the social group (from the perspective of the subject) and etic, from outside (from the perspective of the observer). Wouter Hanegraaff follows a distinction between an emic and an etic approach to religious studies.
The emic approach is that of the alchemist or theosopher. The etic approach is that of the scholar as an historian, a researcher, with a critical view. An empirical study of esotericism needs "emic material and etic interpretation":
Emic denotes the believer’s point of view. On the part of the researcher, the reconstruction of this emic perspective requires an attitude of empathy which excludes personal biases as far as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion, on the other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars may introduce their own terminology and make theoretical distinctions which are different from those of the believers themselves.[152]
Arthur Versluis proposes approaching esotericism through an "imaginative participation":
Esotericism, given all its varied forms and its inherently multidimensional nature, cannot be conveyed without going beyond purely historical information: at minimum, the study of esotericism, and in particular mysticism, requires some degree of imaginative participation in what one is studying.[153]
Many scholars of esotericism have come to be regarded as respected intellectual authorities by practitioners of various esoteric traditions.[154] Although many scholars of esotericism have sought to emphasise that "esotericism" is not a single object, practitioners who are reading this scholarship have begun to regard it and think of it as a singular object, with which they affiliate themselves.[155] Thus, Asprem and Granholm noted that the use of the term "esotericism" among scholars "significantly contributes to the reification of the category for the general audience – despite the explicated contrary intentions of most scholars in the field."[156]
Ver también
- Age of Enlightenment
- Chaldean Oracles
- Counterculture of the 1960s
- Gnosis
- Involution (esoterism)
- Magic (supernatural)
- Medieval European magic
- Medieval Inquisition
- Metaphysics of presence
- Renaissance magic
- White magic & Black magic
- Witch trials in the early modern period
Referencias
Footnotes
- ^ Brian Morris, Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 298.
- ^ Eddy, Glenys. "The Ritual Dimension of Western Esotericism: The Rebirth Motif and the Transformation of Human Consciousness". Sydney Studies in Religion. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3, "What is Western esotericism?". "The adjective 'esoteric' first appeared in the second century CE [...]."
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 80; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 2.
- ^ a b Hanegraaff 1996, p. 384.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3, "What is Western esotericism?". "The adjective 'esoteric' first appeared in the second century CE, but the substantive is of relatively recent date: it seems to have been coined in German (Esoterik) in 1792, migrated to French scholarship (l'estoterisme) by 1828 and appeared in English in 1883. [...] In short, 'Western esotericism' is a modern scholarly construct, not an autonomous tradition that already existed out there and merely needed to be discovered by historians."
- ^ a b c Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 80.
- ^ Strube 2016a; Strube 2016b.
- ^ a b Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385.
- ^ a b Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 88; Bogdan 2007, p. 6; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2012, p. 78.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2012, p. 107.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2012, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2012, p. 230.
- ^ a b Hanegraaff 2012, p. 221.
- ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385, "14.1.A - 'Esotericism' as Technical Terminology". "[...] in [the] usage [of Lévi (1810-1875)], the two terms ['esotericism' (French: l'esotérisme) and 'occultism' (French: l'occultisme)] roughly covered the traditional 'occult sciences' and a wide range of religious phenomena connected or loosely associated with it [sic]. Thus, he provided useful generic labels for a large and complicated group of historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an air de famille [...]."
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 17.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 6; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Asprem 2014, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 13.
- ^ Bogdan 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Bogdan 2013, p. 177.
- ^ Granholm 2013a, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Asprem 2014, p. 5. "Why can we not have a comparative study of esotericism on a truly global rather than a narrowly conceived 'Western' scale?"
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 3.
- ^ Faivre & Voss 1995, pp. 48–49.
- ^ a b Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 79.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 10–12.
- ^ a b c d e Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 11.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 10.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2012, p. 251.
- ^ a b Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 178.
- ^ a b Versluis 2007, p. 1.
- ^ Versluis 2007, p. 2.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 12.
- ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81.
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 5.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 7.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Bogdan 2007, p. 10; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 10; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Bergunder 2010, p. 14; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 10; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 398; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 11; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 398; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 12; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 398–399; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 13; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 399–340; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 14; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 8.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 14–15; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 8.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 7–10.
- ^ Bogdan 2007, p. 10.
- ^ Granholm 2013b, p. 8.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 5; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 5.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 83.
- ^ Bogdan 2007, p. 5.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 93.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 88.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 89.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005b, pp. 91–92.
- ^ Bergunder 2010, p. 18.
- ^ a b Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 4.
- ^ Bogdan 2007, p. 15.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 3, 15; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 18.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 13; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 18.
- ^ Versluis 2007, p. 24; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 16–20; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 19.
- ^ a b Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 16–20; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 19.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 53; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 27–29; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 52; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 20–27.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 25; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Calian, Florin George (2010). "Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy". Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. 16: 166–190.
- ^ Langermann, Tzvi Y. (2013). "An Alchemical Treatise Attributed to Joseph Solomon Delmedigo". Aleph. 13 (1): 77–94. doi:10.2979/aleph.13.1.77. ISSN 1565-1525. JSTOR 10.2979/aleph.13.1.77. S2CID 170564972.
- ^ Bubello, Juan Pablo (2015). "Arte separatoria e hijos del arte en las prácticas y representaciones de Diego de Santiago (Sevilla, 1598) y el lugar de España en el Esoterismo Occidental". Anales de historia antigua, medieval y moderna (49): 79–103. ISSN 1514-9927.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 25.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 26.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 58; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 27.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 29.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 30.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 31.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 61–63; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 63–64; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 32.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 64–66; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 36.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 72; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 37.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 76–77; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 37–38.
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 38.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 87; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 38.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 38–39.
- ^ a b Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 39.
- ^ Strube 2016a; Hanegraaff 2013a.
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 40.
- ^ Faivre 1994, pp. 93–94; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 40–41.
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 41.
- ^ Hroncek, Susan (2017). "From Egyptian Science to Victorian Magic: On the Origins of Chemistry in Victorian Histories of Science". Victorian Review. 43 (2): 213–228. doi:10.1353/vcr.2017.0032. ISSN 1923-3280. S2CID 166044943.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. 91; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 41.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 42.
- ^ Hermann Gilbhard: Thule-Gesellschaft.
- ^ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke: The Occult Roots of Nazism. London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2005, p. 149.
- ^ Corinna Treitel: A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2004, p. 220.
- ^ Corinna Treitel: A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2004, pp. 215ff.
- ^ Wouter Hanegraaff: "The most important magical secret lodge of the 20th century in the German-speaking world." "Fraternitas Saturni" at Wouter Hanegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. p. 379
- ^ Stephen E. Flowers. Fire & Ice: The History, Structure and Rituals of Germany's Most Influential Modern Magical Order: The Brotherhood of Saturn. St Paul, MN: Llewellyn, 1994 pp. 23–24
- ^ Currie, Sean E. (2014). "Review of The Church of Scientology: A History of a New Religion". Review of Religious Research. 56 (2): 349–351. ISSN 0034-673X.
- ^ Westbrook, Donald A. (2019). Among the Scientologists : history, theology, and praxis. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-19-066497-8. OCLC 1039621528.
- ^ The gnostic world. G. W. Trompf, Gunner B. Mikkelsen, Jay Johnston, Milad Milani, Jason BeDuhn, Brikha Nasoraia. Abingdon, Oxon. 2019. ISBN 978-1-315-56160-8. OCLC 1056109897.CS1 maint: others (link)
- ^ https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hugh-Urban/publication/293805221_The_Occult_Roots_of_Scientology/links/5911ca4ba6fdcc963e6c82fc/The-Occult-Roots-of-Scientology.pdf?origin=publication_detail
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 43.
- ^ a b c Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 44.
- ^ Robert Cochrane and the Gardnerian Craft: Feuds, Secrets, and Mysteries in Contemporary British Witchcraft Ethan Doyle White. The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies. 2011. pp. 205–206.
- ^ "Satanism" at Wouter Hannegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. p. 1035
- ^ Nevill Drury. Stealing Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Modern Western Magic.Oxford University Press. 2011. p. 251
- ^ Colin Duggan. "Perennialism and iconoclasm. Chaos magick and the legitimacy of innovation". Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (eds). Contemporary esotericism. Equinox Publishing. 2013
- ^ Kurti, Laszlo. "Psychic Phenomena, Neoshamanism, and the Cultic Milieu in Hungary". Nova Religio. 4 (2): 322–350. ISSN 1092-6690.
- ^ https://munin.uit.no/bitstream/handle/10037/8353/thesis.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
- ^ Shterin, Marat (2012-08-30), Hammer, Olav; Rothstein, Mikael (eds.), "New religious movements in changing Russia", The Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 286–302, doi:10.1017/ccol9780521196505.019, ISBN 978-0-521-19650-5, retrieved 2021-05-22
- ^ Kurti, Laszlo. "Psychic Phenomena, Neoshamanism, and the Cultic Milieu in Hungary". Nova Religio. 4 (2): 322–350. ISSN 1092-6690.
- ^ Kurti, Laszlo. "Psychic Phenomena, Neoshamanism, and the Cultic Milieu in Hungary". Nova Religio. 4 (2): 322–350. ISSN 1092-6690.
- ^ Asprem & Granholm 2013, p. 6.
- ^ Granholm 2013a, p. 31.
- ^ Granholm 2013b, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011, p. 185.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 4–5.
- ^ a b Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. ix; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 11.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. x; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 12.
- ^ Versluis 2007, p. 6; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 5.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 179.
- ^ a b Faivre 1994, p. ix.
- ^ Faivre 1994, p. ix; Versluis 2007, p. 6.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 198.
- ^ a b Faivre 1994, p. x; Faivre & Voss 1995, p. 59.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 12–13.
- ^ Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 3.
- ^ a b Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81.
- ^ Versluis 2007, p. 6.
- ^ Bergunder 2010, p. 9.
- ^ Asprem & Granholm 2013, p. 1.
- ^ Asprem & Granholm 2013, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011, p. 184.
- ^ Wouter J. Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998, 6.
- ^ Arthur Versluis, “Methods in the Study of Esotericism, Part II: Mysticism and the Study of Esotericism”, in Esoterica, Michigan State University, V, 2003, 27-40.
- ^ Asprem & Granholm 2013b, p. 44.
- ^ Asprem & Granholm 2013b, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Asprem & Granholm 2013b, p. 45.
Sources
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- Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet (2013). "Introduction". Contemporary Esotericism. Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 1–24. ISBN 978-1-317-54357-2.
- Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet (2013b). "Constructing Esotericisms: Sociological, Historical and Critical Approaches to the Invention of Tradition". Contemporary Esotericism. Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 25–48. ISBN 978-1-317-54357-2.
- Bergunder, Michael (2010). Kenneth Fleming (translator). "What is Esotericism? Cultural Studies Approaches and the Problems of Definition in Religious Studies". Method and Theory in the Study of Religion. 22: 9–36. doi:10.1163/094330510X12604383550882.
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- Bogdan, Henrik (2013). "Reception of Occultism in India: The Case of the Holy Order of Krishna". Occultism in a Global Perspective. Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 177–201. ISBN 978-1-84465-716-2.
- Bogdan, Henrik (2007). Western Esotericism and Rituals of Initiation. New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7070-1.
- Brînzeu, Pia; Szönyi, György (2011). "The Esoteric in Postmodernism". European Journal of English Studies. 15 (3): 183–188. doi:10.1080/13825577.2011.626934. S2CID 143913846.
- Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2178-9.
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- Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2008). The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532099-2.
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- Granholm, Kennet (2013b). "Ritual Black Metal: Popular Music as Occult Mediation and Practice" (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism. 1 (1): 5–33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-19.
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- Hanegraaff, Wouter (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19621-5.
- Hanegraaff, Wouter (2013a). Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed. Guides for the Perplexed. London: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-4411-3646-6. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
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- Strube, Julian (2016a). Sozialismus, Katholizismus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts: Die Genealogie der Schriften von Eliphas Lévi. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-047810-5.
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Otras lecturas
- Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism, Leiden: Brill, since 2001.
- Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism, Leiden: Brill, since 2006.
- Esoterica, East Lansing, Michigan State University (MSU). An online resource since 1999. I (1999); VIII (2006); IX (2007)
- Faivre, Antoine (2010). Western Esotericism: A Concise History. Christine Rhone (translator). New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-3377-6.
- Giegerich, Eric (2001). "Antoine Faivre: Studies in Esotericism". The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal. 20 (2): 7–25. doi:10.1525/jung.1.2001.20.2.7.
- Granholm, Kennet (2013). "Esoteric Currents as Discursive Complexes". Religion. 43 (1): 46–69. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2013.742741. S2CID 143944044.
- Hanegraaff, Wouter J., “The Study of Western Esotericism: New Approaches to Christian and Secular Culture”, in Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz and Randi R. Warne, New Approaches to the Study of Religion, vol. I: Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches, Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2004.
- Hanegraaff, Wouter J., ed. (2005). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism I. Leiden / Boston: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14187-1, 2 vols.CS1 maint: postscript (link)
- Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2015). "The Globalization of Esotericism" (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism. 3. pp. 55–91.
- Kelley, James L., Anatomyzing Divinity: Studies in Science, Esotericism and Political Theology, Trine Day, 2011, ISBN 978-1936296279.
- Martin, Pierre, Esoterische Symbolik heute - in Alltag. Sprache und Einweihung. Basel: Edition Oriflamme, 2010, illustrated ISBN 978-3-9523616-1-0.
- Martin, Pierre, Le Symbolisme Esotérique Actuel - au Quotidien, dans le Langage et pour l'Auto-initiation. Basel: Edition Oriflamme, 2011, illustrated ISBN 978-3-9523616-3-4
- Tweed, Thomas A. (2005), "American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History" (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 32 (2): 249–281
- Versluis, Arthur (1993), American Transcendentalism and Asian Religions, Oxford University Press
enlaces externos
- An Esoteric Archive
- Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- The Western Esoteric Tradition Research Site
- Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE)
- European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE)
- University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO)
- Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism
- Esoterica academic journal
- What Is Esotericism?
- The Secret History of Western Esotericism Podcast (SHWEP)
- 13 questions to Wouter Hanegraaff on YouTube