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Castillo de la Doncella en 1935. El castro de la Edad del Hierro se construyó por primera vez en el 600 a. C.
Castillo San Felipe de Barajas , Colombia. La ciudad colonial amurallada y la fortaleza de Cartagena fueron declaradas Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO.
Fotografía aérea de principios del siglo XX de las fortificaciones de La Valeta , Malta, que fueron construidas en los siglos XVI y XVII.
Fotografía aérea de Fort Vossegat, Utrecht , Países Bajos.

Una fortificación es una construcción o edificio militar diseñado para la defensa de territorios en guerra , y también se usa para establecer el gobierno en una región durante tiempos de paz. El término se deriva del latín fortis ("fuerte") y facere ("hacer").

Desde los inicios de la historia hasta los tiempos modernos, las murallas defensivas a menudo han sido necesarias para que las ciudades sobrevivieran en un mundo de invasión y conquista en constante cambio. Algunos asentamientos de la civilización del valle del Indo fueron las primeras ciudades pequeñas en ser fortificadas. En la antigua Grecia , se habían construido grandes muros de piedra en la Grecia micénica , como el antiguo sitio de Micenas (famoso por los enormes bloques de piedra de sus muros " ciclópeos "). Un phrourion griego era una colección fortificada de edificios utilizados como guarnición militar , y es el equivalente del castellum romano o inglésfortaleza. Estas construcciones servían principalmente como torre de vigilancia, para proteger ciertos caminos, pasos y fronteras. Aunque más pequeños que una fortaleza real, actuaron como guardias fronterizos en lugar de como un verdadero punto fuerte para vigilar y mantener la frontera.

El arte de establecer un campamento militar o construir una fortificación se ha denominado tradicionalmente " castrametación " desde la época de las legiones romanas . La fortificación generalmente se divide en dos ramas: fortificación permanente y fortificación de campo. También hay una rama intermedia conocida como fortificación semipermanente. Los castillos son fortificaciones que se consideran distintas del fuerte o fortaleza genérica en el sentido de que son la residencia de un monarca o noble y dominan un territorio defensivo específico.

Los fuertes romanos y los castros de las colinas fueron los principales antecedentes de los castillos en Europa , que surgieron en el siglo IX en el Imperio carolingio . La Alta Edad Media vio la creación de algunas ciudades construidas alrededor de castillos.

Las fortificaciones de estilo medieval quedaron obsoletas en gran medida por la llegada de los cañones en el siglo XIV. Las fortificaciones en la era de la pólvora se convirtieron en estructuras mucho más bajas con un mayor uso de zanjas y murallas de tierra que absorberían y dispersarían la energía del fuego de los cañones. Las paredes expuestas al fuego directo de los cañones eran muy vulnerables, por lo que las paredes se hundieron en zanjas con pendientes de tierra para mejorar la protección.

La llegada de los proyectiles explosivos en el siglo XIX condujo a otra etapa en la evolución de la fortificación. A los fuertes estelares no les fue bien contra los efectos de los explosivos de alta potencia, y las intrincadas disposiciones de los bastiones, las baterías de flanqueo y las líneas de fuego cuidadosamente construidas para el cañón defensor podrían verse rápidamente interrumpidas por proyectiles explosivos. Las fortificaciones de acero y hormigón fueron comunes durante el siglo XIX y principios del XX. Los avances en la guerra moderna desde la Primera Guerra Mundial han hecho obsoletas las fortificaciones a gran escala en la mayoría de las situaciones.

Nomenclatura [ editar ]

Pequeño fuerte chino
Gran fuerte chino

Muchas instalaciones del ejército de los Estados Unidos se conocen como fuertes , aunque no siempre están fortificadas. De hecho, durante la era pionera de América del Norte, muchos puestos de avanzada en las fronteras, incluso puestos de avanzada no militares, se conocían genéricamente como fuertes . Las instalaciones militares más grandes pueden llamarse fortalezas ; los más pequeños alguna vez fueron conocidos como fortalices . La palabra fortificación también puede referirse a la práctica de mejorar la defensa de un área con obras defensivas. Las murallas de la ciudad son fortificaciones, pero no necesariamente se las llama fortalezas .

El arte de establecer un campamento militar o construir una fortificación se ha denominado tradicionalmente castrametación desde la época de las legiones romanas . El arte / ciencia de poner cerco a una fortificación y de destruir se le llama comúnmente Siegecraft o la guerra de sitio y es conocido formalmente como poliorcetics . En algunos textos, este último término también se aplica al arte de construir una fortificación.

La fortificación generalmente se divide en dos ramas: fortificación permanente y fortificación de campo. Las fortificaciones permanentes se erigen a placer, con todos los recursos que un estado puede proporcionar de habilidad constructiva y mecánica , y se construyen con materiales duraderos. Las fortificaciones de campo, por ejemplo, parapetos, y a menudo conocidas como trabajos de campo o movimientos de tierra , son improvisadas por tropas en el campo, quizás con la ayuda de mano de obra y herramientas locales que se puedan obtener y con materiales que no requieren mucha preparación, como tierra , matorrales y madera ligera o sacos de arena (ver sangar ). Un ejemplo de fortificación de campo [1]fue la construcción de Fort Necessity por George Washington en 1754.

También hay una rama intermedia conocida como fortificación semipermanente . [2] Esto se emplea cuando en el curso de una campaña se hace deseable proteger alguna localidad con la mejor imitación de defensas permanentes que se pueden hacer en poco tiempo, disponiendo de amplios recursos y mano de obra civil calificada. Un ejemplo de ello es la construcción de fortalezas romanas en Inglaterra y en otros territorios romanos donde se instalaron campamentos con la intención de permanecer algún tiempo, pero no de forma permanente.

Los castillos son fortificaciones que se consideran distintas de la fortaleza o fortaleza genérica porque describe la residencia de un monarca o noble y domina un territorio defensivo específico. Un ejemplo de esto es el enorme castillo medieval de Carcassonne .

Historia [ editar ]

Ladrillo de la tumba de la dinastía Han mostrando torres de puerta
Ladrillo de la tumba de la dinastía Han mostrando torres de vigilancia

Europa neolítica [ editar ]

Desde los inicios de la historia hasta los tiempos modernos, los muros han sido una necesidad para muchas ciudades. En Bulgaria , cerca de la ciudad de Provadia, un asentamiento fortificado amurallado hoy llamado Solnitsata a partir del 4700 a. C. tenía un diámetro de unos 100 metros (300 pies), albergaba a 350 personas que vivían en casas de dos pisos y estaba rodeado por una muralla fortificada. . Los enormes muros alrededor del asentamiento, que fueron construidos muy altos y con bloques de piedra de 6 pies (2 metros) de alto y 4,5 pies (1,5 metros) de espesor, lo convierten en uno de los primeros asentamientos amurallados de Europa [3] [4] pero es más joven que la ciudad amurallada de Sesklo en Grecia del 6800 a. C. [5][6] Uruk en la antigua Sumer ( Mesopotamia ) es una de las ciudades amuralladas más antiguas del mundo. Los antiguos egipcios también construyeron fortalezas en las fronteras del valle del Nilo para protegerse de los invasores de los territorios vecinos, así como muros de adobe en forma de círculo alrededor de sus ciudades. Muchas de las fortificaciones del mundo antiguo se construyeron con ladrillos de barro, y a menudo no dejan más que montículos de tierra para los arqueólogos de hoy.

Un enorme muro de piedra prehistórico rodeaba el antiguo templo de Ness de Brodgar 3200 a . C. en Escocia . Llamada la "Gran Muralla de Brodgar", tenía cuatro metros de espesor y cuatro metros de alto. El muro tenía alguna función simbólica o ritual. [7] [8] Los asirios desplegaron una gran fuerza laboral para construir nuevos palacios , templos y murallas defensivas . [9]

Valle del Indo neolítico [ editar ]

También se fortificaron algunos asentamientos en la civilización del valle del Indo . Alrededor del 3500 a. C., cientos de pequeñas aldeas agrícolas salpicaban la llanura aluvial del Indo . Muchos de estos asentamientos tenían fortificaciones y calles planificadas. Las casas de piedra y adobe de Kot Diji estaban agrupadas detrás de enormes diques de piedra y muros defensivos, ya que las comunidades vecinas discutían constantemente sobre el control de las principales tierras agrícolas. [10] Mundigak (c. 2500 aC) en el actual sureste de Afganistán tiene muros defensivos y bastiones cuadrados de ladrillos secados al sol. [11] Toda la ciudad de Kerma en Nubiaestaba rodeado por murallas fortificadas rodeadas por una zanja. La arqueología ha revelado varios bastiones y cimientos de la Edad del Bronce construidos con piedra junto con ladrillo cocido o sin cocer. [12]

Restos de una aldea fortificada, Borġ in-Nadur , Malta . Borġ in-Nadur es un ejemplo notable de fortificaciones de la Edad del Bronce .

Europa de la Edad de Bronce [ editar ]

En la Malta de la Edad del Bronce , algunos asentamientos también comenzaron a fortificarse. El ejemplo sobreviviente más notable es Borġ in-Nadur , donde se encontró un bastión construido alrededor del 1500 a. C. Babilonia fue una de las ciudades más famosas del mundo antiguo, especialmente como resultado del programa de construcción de Nabucodonosor , quien expandió las murallas y construyó la Puerta de Ishtar . Las excepciones fueron pocas, en particular, la antigua Esparta y la antigua Roma.no tuvo muros durante mucho tiempo, optando por confiar en sus ejércitos para la defensa. Inicialmente, estas fortificaciones eran simples construcciones de madera y tierra, que luego fueron reemplazadas por construcciones mixtas de piedras apiladas unas sobre otras sin mortero . En la antigua Grecia , se habían construido grandes muros de piedra en la Grecia micénica , como el antiguo sitio de Micenas (famoso por los enormes bloques de piedra de sus muros " ciclópeos "). En la Grecia clásica , la ciudad de Atenas construyó dos muros de piedra paralelos, llamados los Muros Largos , que llegaban a su puerto fortificado en El Pireo. a unas pocas millas de distancia.

En Europa Central , los celtas construyeron grandes asentamientos fortificados conocidos como oppida , cuyas murallas parecen parcialmente influenciadas por las construidas en el Mediterráneo . Las fortificaciones se ampliaron y mejoraron continuamente. Alrededor del 600 a. C., en Heuneburg , Alemania, se construyeron fuertes con una base de piedra caliza sostenida por un muro de adobe de aproximadamente 4 metros de altura, probablemente coronado por una pasarela techada, alcanzando así una altura total de 6 metros. La pared se revistió con yeso de cal, renovado periódicamente. De él sobresalían torres. [13] [14]

Muros reconstruidos de Bibracte , un oppidum galo , que muestra la técnica de construcción conocida como murus gallicus . Oppida eran grandes asentamientos fortificados utilizados durante la Edad del Hierro .

El Oppidum de Manching (en alemán: Oppidum von Manching) era un gran asentamiento celta protourbano o similar a una ciudad en la actual Manching (cerca de Ingolstadt), Baviera (Alemania). El asentamiento fue fundado en el siglo III a. C. y existió hasta c. 50-30 a. C. Alcanzó su mayor extensión a finales del período de La Tène (finales del siglo II a.C.), cuando tenía una extensión de 380 hectáreas. En ese momento, de 5.000 a 10.000 personas vivían dentro de sus muros de 7,2 km de largo. El oppidum de Bibracte es otro ejemplo de asentamiento fortificado galo.

Roma antigua [ editar ]

Las Mura aureliane son una línea de murallas construidas entre el 271 d.C. y el 275 d.C. en Roma , Italia , durante el reinado de los emperadores romanos Aureliano y Probo . Las murallas encerraban las siete colinas de Roma más el Campus Martius y, en la margen derecha del Tíber , el Trastevere.distrito. Las orillas del río dentro de los límites de la ciudad parecen no haber sido fortificadas, aunque fueron fortificadas a lo largo del Campus Martius. El circuito completo se extendió por 19 kilómetros (12 millas) rodeando un área de 13,7 kilómetros cuadrados (5,3 millas cuadradas). Los muros fueron construidos en hormigón revestido de ladrillo, de 3,5 metros (11 pies) de espesor y 8 metros (26 pies) de alto, con una torre cuadrada cada 100 pies romanos (29,6 metros (97 pies)). En el siglo V, la remodelación duplicó la altura de las paredes a 16 metros (52 pies). Hacia el año 500 d.C., el circuito poseía 383 torres, 7.020 almenas , 18 puertas principales, 5 puertas de entrada , 116 letrinas y 2.066 grandes ventanales exteriores. [15]

Los romanos fortificaron sus ciudades con enormes muros de piedra con argamasa. Los más famosos de ellos son los Muros Aurelianos de Roma y los Muros Teodosianos de Constantinopla , que se conservan en gran parte, junto con restos parciales en otros lugares. En su mayoría son puertas de la ciudad, como la Porta Nigra en Trier o Newport Arch en Lincoln . El Muro de Adriano fue construido por el Imperio Romano a lo ancho de lo que ahora es el norte de Inglaterra, luego de una visita del emperador romano Adriano (76-138 d. C.) en 122 d. C.

India [ editar ]

Muralla defensiva de la antigua ciudad de Dholavira , Gujarat 2600 a. C.

En la India se pueden encontrar varios fuertes que datan de la Edad de Piedra tardía hasta el Raj británico . "Fuerte" es la palabra que se usa en India para todas las antiguas fortificaciones. Numerosos sitios de la civilización del valle del Indo exhiben evidencias de fortificaciones. Mientras que Dholavira tiene muros de fortificación de piedra, Harrapa está fortificado con ladrillos horneados; sitios como Kalibangan exhiben fortificaciones de adobe con bastiones y Lothal tiene un diseño fortificado cuadrangular. La evidencia también sugirió fortificaciones en Mohenjo-daro. Incluso una pequeña ciudad, por ejemplo, Kotada Bhadli, que exhibe sofisticados bastiones parecidos a una fortificación, muestra que casi todas las ciudades principales y menores de la civilización del valle del Indo estaban fortificadas. [16] Los fuertes también aparecieron en las ciudades urbanas del valle del Ganges durante el segundo período de urbanización entre el 600 y el 200 a. C., y los arqueólogos han identificado hasta 15 sitios de fortificación en todo el valle del Ganges, como Kaushambi , Mahasthangarh , Pataliputra , Mathura. , Ahichchhatra , Rajgir y Lauria Nandangarh. La fortificación de ladrillo védica más antigua se produce en uno de los montículos de estupa de Lauria Nandangarh, que tiene 1,6 km de perímetro y una planta ovalada y encierra un área de habitación. [17] India tiene actualmente más de 180 fuertes, y el estado de Maharashtra solo tiene más de 70, que también se conocen como durg , [18] [19] [20] muchos de ellos construidos por Shivaji , fundador del estado de Maratha . La gran mayoría de los fuertes de la India se encuentran en el norte de la India. Los fuertes más notables son el Fuerte Rojo en Delhi , el Fuerte Rojo en Agra , el Fuerte Chittor yMehrangarh Fort en Rajasthan , la fortaleza de Ranthambhor , Amer Fort y Fuerte de Jaisalmer también en Rajasthan y la fortaleza de Gwalior en Madhya Pradesh . [19]

China [ editar ]

La Gran Muralla China cerca de Jinshanling . La Gran Muralla fue una serie de fortificaciones construidas a lo largo de las históricas fronteras del norte de China.

En la antigua China se construyeron grandes muros de tierra templada (es decir, tierra apisonada ) desde la dinastía Shang (c. 1600-1050 aC); la capital en la antigua Ao tenía enormes muros construidos de esta manera (ver asedio para más información). Aunque los muros de piedra se construyeron en China durante los Estados Combatientes (481-221 a. C.), la conversión masiva a la arquitectura de piedra no comenzó en serio hasta la dinastía Tang (618-907 d. C.). La Gran Muralla China se había construido desde la dinastía Qin (221-207 a. C.), aunque su forma actual era principalmente una hazaña de ingeniería y remodelación de la dinastía Ming (1368-1644 d. C.).

Además de la Gran Muralla, varias ciudades chinas también emplearon el uso de murallas defensivas para defender sus ciudades. Las murallas chinas notables incluyen las murallas de Hangzhou , Nanjing , la Ciudad Vieja de Shanghai , Suzhou , Xi'an y las aldeas amuralladas de Hong Kong . Las famosas murallas de la Ciudad Prohibida en Beijing fueron establecidas a principios del siglo XV por el Emperador Yongle . La Ciudad Prohibida constituía la parte interior de las fortificaciones de la ciudad de Beijing .

Filipinas [ editar ]

Fortificaciones coloniales españolas [ editar ]

Durante la época española se construyeron varios fuertes y puestos de avanzada en todo el archipiélago. Lo más notable es Intramuros , la antigua ciudad amurallada de Manila ubicada a lo largo de la orilla sur del río Pasig . [21] La ciudad histórica albergó iglesias, escuelas, conventos, edificios gubernamentales y residencias centenarias, la mejor colección de arquitectura colonial española antes de que gran parte de ella fuera destruida por las bombas de la Segunda Guerra Mundial . De todos los edificios dentro de la ciudad de 67 acres, solo un edificio, la Iglesia de San Agustín, sobrevivió a la guerra.

Listado parcial de fuertes españoles:

  1. Intramuros , Manila
  2. Cuartel de Santo Domingo , Santa Rosa, Laguna
  3. Fuerza de Cuyo , Cuyo, Palawan
  4. Fuerza de Cagayancillo , Cagayancillo , Palawan
  5. Real Fuerza de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza , Ciudad Zamboanga
  6. Fuerza de San Felipe , Ciudad Cavite
  7. Fuerza de San Pedro , Cebú
  8. Fuerte dela Concepcion y del Triunfo , Ozamiz , Misamis Occidental
  9. Fuerza de San Antonio Abad , Manila
  10. Fuerza de Pikit , Pikit, Cotabato
  11. Fuerza de Santiago , Romblon, Romblon
  12. Fuerza de Jolo , Jolo, Sulu
  13. Fuerza de Masbate , Masbate
  14. Fuerza de Bongabong , Bongabong, Mindoro Oriental
  15. Cotta de Dapitan , Dapitan , Zamboanga del Norte
  16. Fuerte de Alfonso XII , Tukuran, Zamboanga del Sur
  17. Fuerza de Bacolod , Bacolod, Lanao del Norte
  18. Atalaya de Guinsiliban , Guinsiliban, Camiguin
  19. Atalaya de Laguindingan , Laguindingan, Misamis Oriental
  20. Kutang San Diego , Gumaca, Quezón
  21. Baluarte Luna , Luna, La Unión

Local fortifications[edit]

The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes built their so-called idjang on hills and elevated areas[22] to protect themselves during times of war. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived.

An American flag raised at the Fort Santiago, 1898. Fort Santiago was a citadel that was a part of the Intramuros, a walled city within Manilla.

The Igorots built forts made of stone walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times the width in height around 2000 BC.[23]

The Muslim Filipinos of the south built strong fortresses called kota or moong to protect their communities. Usually, many of the occupants of these kotas are entire families rather than just warriors. Lords often had their own kotas to assert their right to rule, it served not only as a military installation but as a palace for the local Lord. It is said that at the height of the Maguindanao Sultanate's power, they blanketed the areas around Western Mindanao with Kotas and other fortifications to block the Spanish advance into the region. These kotas were usually made of stone and bamboo or other light materials and surrounded by trench networks. As a result, some of these kotas were burned easily of destroyed. With further Spanish campaigns in the region, the Sultanate was subdued and majority of Kotas dismantled or destroyed. Kotas were not only used by the Muslims as defense against Spaniards and other foreigners, renegades and rebels also built fortifications in defiance of other chiefs in the area.[24] During the American occupation, rebels built strongholds and the Datus, Rajahs or Sultans often built and reinforced their kotas in a desperate bid to maintain rule over their subjects and their land.[25] Many of these forts were also destroyed by American expeditions, as a result, very very few kotas still stand to this day.

Notable Kotas:

  • Kota Selurong: an outpost of the Bruneian Empire in Luzon, later became the City of Manila.
  • Kuta Wato/Kota Bato: Literally translates to "stone fort" the first known stone fortification in the country, its ruins exist as the "Kutawato Cave Complex"[26]
  • Kota Sug/Jolo: The capital and seat of the Sultanate of Sulu. When it was occupied by the Spaniards in the 1870s they converted the kota into the world's smallest walled city.

Pre-Islamic Arabia[edit]

During Muhammad's lifetime[edit]

Map of the defences available during the Battle of the Trench, 627. Muslim defenders repelled the Confederates using Medina's natural fortifications and makeshift trenches.

During Muhammad's era in Arabia, many tribes made use of fortifications. In the Battle of the Trench, the largely outnumbered defenders of Medina, mainly Muslims led by Islamic prophet Muhammad, dug a trench, which together with Medina's natural fortifications, rendered the confederate cavalry (consisting of horses and camels) useless, locking the two sides in a stalemate. Hoping to make several attacks at once, the confederates persuaded the Medina-allied Banu Qurayza to attack the city from the south. However, Muhammad's diplomacy derailed the negotiations, and broke up the confederacy against him. The well-organized defenders, the sinking of confederate morale, and poor weather conditions caused the siege to end in a fiasco.[27]

During the Siege of Ta'if in January 630,[28] Muhammad ordered his followers to attack enemies who fled from the Battle of Hunayn and sought refuge in the fortress of Taif.[29]

Islamic world[edit]

Africa[edit]

The walls of Benin are described as the world's second longest man-made structure, as well as the most extensive earthwork in the world, by the Guinness Book of Records, 1974.[30][31] The walls may have been constructed between the thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE[32] or, during the first millennium CE.[32][33]Strong citadels were also built other in areas of Africa. Yorubaland for example had several sites surrounded by the full range of earthworks and ramparts seen elsewhere, and sited on ground. This improved defensive potential- such as hills and ridges. Yoruba fortifications were often protected with a double wall of trenches and ramparts, and in the Congo forests concealed ditches and paths, along with the main works, often bristled with rows of sharpened stakes. Inner defenses were laid out to blunt an enemy penetration with a maze of defensive walls allowing for entrapment and crossfire on opposing forces.[34]

A military tactic of the Ashanti was to create powerful log stockades at key points. This was employed in later wars against the British to block British advances. Some of these fortifications were over a hundred yard long, with heavy parallel tree trunks. They were impervious to destruction by artillery fire. Behind these stockades numerous Ashanti soldiers were mobilized to check enemy movement. While formidable in construction, many of these strongpoints failed because Ashanti guns, gunpowder and bullets were poor, and provided little sustained killing power in defense. Time and time again British troops overcame or bypassed the stockades by mounting old-fashioned bayonet charges, after laying down some covering fire.[35]

Defensive works were of importance in the tropical African Kingdoms. In the Kingdom of Kongo field fortifications were charactarized by trenches and low earthen embankments. Such strongpoints ironically, sometimes held up much better against European cannon than taller, more imposing structures.[36]

Medieval defensive walls and towers in Szprotawa, Poland, made of field stone and bog iron.

Medieval Europe[edit]

Roman forts and hill forts were the main antecedents of castles in Europe, which emerged in the 9th century in the Carolingian Empire. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, which very often obtained the right of fortification soon afterwards.

The founding of urban centres was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in eastern Europe, were founded precisely for this purpose during the period of Eastern Colonisation. These cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces. The fortifications of these settlements were continuously improved to reflect the current level of military development. During the Renaissance era, the Venetian Republic raised great walls around cities, and the finest examples, among others, are in Nicosia (Cyprus), Rocca di Manerba del Garda (Lombardy) and Palmanova (Italy), or Dubrovnik (Croatia), which proved to be futile against attacks but still stand to this day. Unlike Venetians the Ottomans used to built smaller fortifications but in greater numbers, and only rarely fortified entire settlements such as Počitelj, Vratnik and Jajce in Bosnia.

Development after introduction of firearms[edit]

Medieval-style fortifications were largely made obsolete by the arrival of cannons on the 14th century battlefield. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb and disperse the energy of cannon fire. Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes.

This placed a heavy emphasis on the geometry of the fortification to allow defensive cannonry interlocking fields of fire to cover all approaches to the lower and thus more vulnerable walls.

Table of a typical bastion fort, 1728. The development of bastion forts resulted from the increased use of cannons and firearms in the 14th century.

The evolution of this new style of fortification can be seen in transitional forts such as Sarzanello[37] in North West Italy which was built between 1492 and 1502. Sarzanello consists of both crenellated walls with towers typical of the medieval period but also has a ravelin like angular gun platform screening one of the curtain walls which is protected from flanking fire from the towers of the main part of the fort. Another example are the fortifications of Rhodes which were frozen at 1522 so that Rhodes is the only European walled town that still shows the transition between the classical medieval fortification and the modern ones.[38]

Fortifications also extended in depth, with protected batteries for defensive cannonry, to allow them to engage attacking cannon to keep them at a distance and prevent them bearing directly on the vulnerable walls.

Suomenlinna, a sea fortress from 18th century in Helsinki, Finland

The result was star shaped fortifications with tier upon tier of hornworks and bastions, of which Fort Bourtange is an excellent example. There are also extensive fortifications from this era in the Nordic states and in Britain, the fortifications of Berwick-upon-Tweed and the harbour archipelago of Suomenlinna at Helsinki being fine examples.

19th century[edit]

The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification. Star forts did not fare well against the effects of high explosive and the intricate arrangements of bastions, flanking batteries and the carefully constructed lines of fire for the defending cannon could be rapidly disrupted by explosive shells.

The ditch and counter scarp of Fort Delimara. Built in 1878, Delimara was built as a typical polygonal fort ditches and counter scarps made to be very deep, vertically sided, and cut directly into the rocks.

Worse, the large open ditches surrounding forts of this type were an integral part of the defensive scheme, as was the covered way at the edge of the counter scarp. The ditch was extremely vulnerable to bombardment with explosive shells.

In response, military engineers evolved the polygonal style of fortification. The ditch became deep and vertically sided, cut directly into the native rock or soil, laid out as a series of straight lines creating the central fortified area that gives this style of fortification its name.

Wide enough to be an impassable barrier for attacking troops, but narrow enough to be a difficult target for enemy shellfire, the ditch was swept by fire from defensive blockhouses set in the ditch as well as firing positions cut into the outer face of the ditch itself.

The profile of the fort became very low indeed, surrounded outside the ditch covered by caponiers by a gently sloping open area so as to eliminate possible cover for enemy forces, while the fort itself provided a minimal target for enemy fire. The entrypoint became a sunken gatehouse in the inner face of the ditch, reached by a curving ramp that gave access to the gate via a rolling bridge that could be withdrawn into the gatehouse.

The tunnels of Fort de Mutzig, German fortifications built in 1893. By the 19th century, tunnels were used to connect blockhouses and firing points in the ditch to the fort.

Much of the fort moved underground. Deep passages and tunnels now connected the blockhouses and firing points in the ditch to the fort proper, with magazines and machine rooms deep under the surface. The guns, however, were often mounted in open emplacements and protected only by a parapet; both in order to keep a lower profile and also because experience with guns in closed casemates had seen them put out of action by rubble as their own casemates were collapsed around them.

Gone were citadels surrounding towns: forts were to be moved to the outside of the cities some 12 km to keep the enemy at a distance so their artillery could not bombard the city center. From now on a ring of forts were to be built at a spacing that would allow them to effectively cover the intervals between them.

The new forts abandoned the principle of the bastion, which had also been made obsolete by advances in arms. The outline was a much simplified polygon, surrounded by a ditch. These forts, built in masonry and shaped stone, were designed to shelter their garrison against bombardment. One organizing feature of the new system involved the construction of two defensive curtains: an outer line of forts, backed by an inner ring or line at critical points of terrain or junctions (see, for example, Séré de Rivières system in France).

Traditional fortification however continued to be applied by European armies engaged in warfare in colonies established in Africa against lightly armed attackers from amongst the indigenous population. A relatively small number of defenders in a fort impervious to primitive weaponry could hold out against high odds, the only constraint being the supply of ammunition.

20th and 21st centuries[edit]

Gun emplacement in Fort Campbell, built in the 1930s. Due to the threat of aerial warfare, the buildings were placed at a distance from each other, making it difficult to find from the air.

Steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in modern warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. In the 1930s and 1940s, some fortifications were built with designs taking into consideration the new threat of aerial warfare, for example Fort Campbell in Malta.[39] Despite this, only underground bunkers are still able to provide some protection in modern wars. Many historical fortifications were demolished during the modern age, but a considerable number survive as popular tourist destinations and prominent local landmarks today.

The downfall of permanent fortifications had two causes:

  • The ever-escalating power, speed, and reach of artillery and air power meant that almost any target that could be located could be destroyed, if sufficient force were massed against it. As such, the more resources a defender devoted to reinforcing a fortification, the more combat power that fortification justified being devoted to destroying it, if the fortification's destruction was demanded by an attacker's strategy. From World War II, bunker busters were used against fortifications. By 1950, nuclear weapons were capable of destroying entire cities, and produced dangerous radiation. This led to the creation of civilian nuclear air raid shelters.
  • The second weakness of permanent fortification was its very permanency. Because of this it was often easier to go around a fortification and, with the rise of mobile warfare in the beginning of World War II, this became a viable offensive choice. When a defensive line was too extensive to be entirely bypassed, massive offensive might could be massed against one part of the line allowing a breakthrough, after which the rest of the line could be bypassed. Such was the fate of the many defensive lines built before and during World War II, such as the Siegfried Line, the Stalin Line and the Atlantic Wall. This was not the case with the Maginot Line; it was designed to force the Germans to invade other countries (Belgium or Switzerland) to go around it, and was successful in that sense.[40]
A GBU-24 missile hits the ground. The development of bunker busters, bombs designed to penetrate hardened targets buried underground, led to a decline in the use of fortifications.

Instead field fortification rose to dominate defensive action. Unlike the trench warfare which dominated World War I, these defences were more temporary in nature. This was an advantage because since it was less extensive it formed a less obvious target for enemy force to be directed against.

If sufficient power were massed against one point to penetrate it, the forces based there could be withdrawn and the line could be re-established relatively quickly. Instead of a supposedly impenetrable defensive line, such fortifications emphasized defence in depth, so that as defenders were forced to pull back or were overrun, the lines of defenders behind them could take over the defence.

Because the mobile offensives practised by both sides usually focused on avoiding the strongest points of a defensive line, these defences were usually relatively thin and spread along the length of a line. The defence was usually not equally strong throughout however.

The strength of the defensive line in an area varied according to how rapidly an attacking force could progress in the terrain that was being defended—both the terrain the defensive line was built on and the ground behind it that an attacker might hope to break out into. This was both for reasons of the strategic value of the ground, and its defensive value.

This was possible because while offensive tactics were focused on mobility, so were defensive tactics. The dug in defences consisted primarily of infantry and antitank guns. Defending tanks and tank destroyers would be concentrated in mobile brigades behind the defensive line. If a major offensive was launched against a point in the line, mobile reinforcements would be sent to reinforce that part of the line that was in danger of failing.

Thus the defensive line could be relatively thin because the bulk of the fighting power of the defenders was not concentrated in the line itself but rather in the mobile reserves. A notable exception to this rule was seen in the defensive lines at the Battle of Kursk during World War II, where German forces deliberately attacked into the strongest part of the Soviet defences seeking to crush them utterly.

The terrain that was being defended was of primary importance because open terrain that tanks could move over quickly made possible rapid advances into the defenders' rear areas that were very dangerous to the defenders. Thus such terrain had to be defended at all cost.

In addition, since in theory the defensive line only had to hold out long enough for mobile reserves to reinforce it, terrain that did not permit rapid advance could be held more weakly because the enemy's advance into it would be slower, giving the defenders more time to reinforce that point in the line. For example, the battle of the Hurtgen Forest in Germany during the closing stages of World War II is an excellent example of how difficult terrain could be used to the defenders' advantage.

Cheyenne Mountain Complex is an underground bunker used by North American Aerospace Defense Command. Cheyenne Mountain is an example of a mid-20th century fortification built deep in a mountain.

After World War II, ICBMs capable of reaching much of the way around the world were developed, and so speed became an essential characteristic of the strongest militaries and defenses. Missile silos were developed, so missiles could be fired from the middle of a country and hit cities and targets in another country, and airplanes (and air carriers) became major defenses and offensive weapons (leading to an expansion of the use of airports and airstrips as fortifications). Mobile defenses could be had underwater, too, in the form of nuclear submarines capable of firing missiles. Some bunkers in the mid to late 20th century came to be buried deep inside mountains and prominent rocks, such as Gibraltar and the Cheyenne Mountain Complex. On the ground itself, minefields have been used as hidden defences in modern warfare, often remaining long after the wars that produced them have ended.

Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, providing a buffer between potentially hostile militaries.

Military airfields[edit]

Military airfields offer a fixed "target rich" environment for even relatively small enemy forces, using hit-and-run tactics by ground forces, stand-off attacks (mortars and rockets), air attacks, or ballistic missiles. Key targets – aircraft, munitions, fuel, and vital technical personnel – can be protected by fortifications.

Aircraft can be protected by revetments, Hesco barriers, or hardened aircraft shelters which will protect from many types of attack. Larger aircraft types tend to be based outside the operational theatre.

Munition storage follows safety rules which use fortifications (bunkers and bunds) to provide protection against accident and chain reactions (sympathetic detonations). Weapons for rearming aircraft can be stored in small fortified expense stores closer to the aircraft. At Bien Hoa South Vietnam on the morning of 16 May 1965, as aircraft were being re-fuelled and armed, a chain reaction explosion destroyed 13 aircraft, killed 34 personnel, and injured over 100; this, along with damage and losses of aircraft to enemy attack (by both infiltration and stand off attacks), led to the construction of revetments and shelters to protect aircraft throughout South Vietnam.

Aircrew and ground personnel will need protection during enemy attacks and fortifications range from culvert section "duck and cover" shelters to permanent air-raid shelters. Soft locations with high personnel densities such as accommodation and messing facilities can have limited protection by placing prefabricated concrete walls or barriers around them, examples of barriers are Jersey Barriers, T Barriers or Splinter Protection Units (SPUs). Older fortification may prove useful such as the old 'Yugo' pyramid shelters built in the 1980s which were used by US personnel on 8 Jan 2020 when Iran fired 11 ballistic missiles at Ayn al-Asad Airbase in Iraq.

Fuel is volatile and has to comply with rules for storage which provide protection against accident. Fuel in underground bulk fuel installations is well protected though valves and controls are vulnerable to enemy action. Above ground tanks can be susceptible to attack.

Ground support equipment will need to be protected by fortifications to be useable after an enemy attack.

Permanent (concrete) guard fortifications are safer, stronger, last longer and are more cost effective than sandbag fortifications. Prefabricated positions can be made from concrete culvert sections. The British Yarnold Bunker is made from sections of a concrete pipe.

Guard Towers provide increased field of view but a lower level of protection.

Dispersal and camouflage of assets can supplement fortifications against some forms of airfield attack.

Counter-insurgency[edit]

Just as in colonial periods, comparatively obsolete fortifications are still used for low-intensity conflicts. Such fortifications range in size from small patrol bases or forward operating bases up to huge airbases such as Camp Bastion/Leatherneck in Afghanistan. Much like in the 18th and 19th century, because the enemy is not a powerful military force with the heavy weaponry required to destroy fortifications, walls of gabion, sandbag or even simple mud can provide protection against small arms and anti-tank weapons – although such fortifications are still vulnerable to mortar and artillery fire.

Forts[edit]

The Ozama Fortress in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic is recognized by UNESCO for being the oldest military construction of European origin in the Americas.[41]

Forts in modern American usage often refer to space set aside by governments for a permanent military facility; these often do not have any actual fortifications, and can have specializations (military barracks, administration, medical facilities, or intelligence).

However, there are some modern fortifications that are referred to as forts. These are typically small semi permanent fortifications. In urban combat they are built by upgrading existing structures such as houses or public buildings. In field warfare they are often log, sandbag or gabion type construction.

Such forts are typically only used in low level conflict, such as counterinsurgency conflicts or very low level conventional conflicts, such as the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, which saw the use of log forts for use by forward platoons and companies. The reason for this is that static above ground forts can not survive modern direct or indirect fire weapons larger than mortars, RPGs and small arms.

Prisons and others[edit]

Fortifications designed to keep the inhabitants of a facility in rather than out can also be found, in prisons, concentration camps, and other such facilities, with supermaxes having some of the strongest of those. Those are covered in other articles, as most prisons and concentration camps are not primarily military forts (although forts, camps, and garrison towns have been used as prisons and/or concentration camps; such as Theresienstadt, Guantanamo Bay detention camp and the Tower of London for example).

See also[edit]

  • Border fence
  • Castra
  • Cavin
  • Citadel
  • Coastal fortification
  • Defense line
  • Defensive wall
  • Hesco bastion
  • Kuruwa, walls of a Japanese castle
  • List of fortifications
  • List of forts
  • Military camp
  • Slighting

Fort components

  • Abatis
  • Banquette
  • Barbed wire, razor wire, wire entanglement, and wire obstacle
  • Bartizan
  • Bastion
  • Berm
  • Capital
  • Caponier
  • Casemate
  • Castle walls
  • Czech hedgehog
  • Defensive fighting position
  • Ditch
  • Embrasure
  • Glacis
  • Gun turret
  • Keep
  • Lunette
  • Machicolation
  • Outwork
  • Palisade
  • Parapet
  • Pillbox
  • Postern
  • Ravelin
  • Revetment
  • Sandbag
  • Sangar
  • Scarp and Counterscarp
  • Turret
  • Zwinger

Types of forts and fortification

  • Blockhouse
  • Bunker
  • Castle
  • Chinese city wall
  • Compound
  • Defensive wall
  • Diaolou
  • Fire support base
  • Flak tower
  • Fortress church or fortified church
  • Grad, a Slavic wooden fortified settlement
  • Gusuku, fortifications in the Ryukyu Islands
  • Korean fortress
  • Hill fort
  • Land battery
  • Laneh Muri
  • Martello tower
  • Medieval fortification
  • Missile launch facility
  • Pā, a 19th-century Māori fortification
  • Peel tower
  • Polygonal fort
  • Promontory fort
  • Redoubt
  • Stockade
  • Star fort

Fortification and siege warfare

  • Medieval warfare
  • Military engineering
  • Military history
  • Siege
  • Siege engine

Notable experts

  • Henri Alexis Brialmont
  • César Cui
  • Bernard de Gomme
  • Francesco Laparelli
  • Mozi
  • Diades of Pella
  • James of Saint George
  • Fritz Todt
  • Menno van Coehoorn
  • Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban
  • Maximilian von Welsch

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ "Field fortification | warfare". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-01-23.
  2. ^ Hirst, Paul (1997). "The Defence of Places: Fortifications as Architecture [part 1]". AA Files (33): 13–26. ISSN 0261-6823. JSTOR 29544045.
  3. ^ "Bulgaria claims to find Europe's oldest town". NBC News. 2012-11-01. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
  4. ^ "Europe's oldest prehistoric town unearthed in Bulgaria". BBC News. Bbc.co.uk. 2012-10-31. Archived from the original on 2013-06-11. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
  5. ^ "Organization of neolithic settlements:house construction". Greek-thesaurus.gr. Archived from the original on 2013-07-22. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
  6. ^ "Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism | Sesklo". Odysseus.culture.gr. Archived from the original on 2013-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
  7. ^ The Ness of Brodgar Excavations. "The Ness of Brodgar Excavations – The 'Great Wall of Brodgar'". Orkneyjar.com. Archived from the original on 2013-04-28. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
  8. ^ Alex Whitaker. "The Ness of Brodgar". Ancient-wisdom.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-05-01. Retrieved 2013-05-04.
  9. ^ Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture By Banister Fletcher, Sir, Dan Cruickshank, Dan Cruickhank, Sir Banister Fletcher. 1996 Architectural Press. Architecture. 1696 pages. ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. p. 20
  10. ^ The Encyclopedia of World History: ancient, medieval, and modern, chronologically arranged By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer. Compiled by William L. Langer. Published 2001 Houghton Mifflin Books. History / General History. ISBN 0-395-65237-5. p. 17
  11. ^ Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture By Banister Fletcher, Sir, Dan Cruickshank, Dan Cruickhank, Sir Banister Fletcher. Published 1996. Architectural Press. Architecture. 1696 pages. ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. p. 100
  12. ^ Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004). Daily Life of the Nubians. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-313-32501-4.
  13. ^ Focke, Arne (2006). "Die Heuneburg an der oberen Donau: Die Siedlungsstrukturen". isentosamballerer.de (in German).[dead link]
  14. ^ "Erforschung und Geschichte der Heuneburg". Celtic Museum Heuneburg (in German). Archived from the original on 24 June 2007.
  15. ^ Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide, First, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 59, 332–335. ISBN 0-19-288003-9
  16. ^ "Aggressive architecture, Fortifications of the Indus valley in the Mature Harappan phase" (PDF).
  17. ^ Barba, Federica (2004). "The Fortified Cities of the Ganges Plain in the First Millennium B.C.". East and West. 54 (1/4): 223–250. JSTOR 29757611.
  18. ^ Durga is the Sanskrit word for "inaccessible place", hence "fort"
  19. ^ a b Nossov, Konstantin (2012). Indian Castles 1206–1526: The Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate (second ed.). Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-78096-985-5.
  20. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (1991). The Cult of Draupadī: Mythologies: From Gingee to Kurukserta. 1. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 62. ISBN 978-81-208-1000-6.
  21. ^ Luengo, Pedro. Intramuros: Arquitectura en Manila, 1739–1762. Madrid: Fundacion Universitaria Española, 2012
  22. ^ "15 Most Intense Archaeological Discoveries in Philippine History". FilipiKnow. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  23. ^ Ancient and Pre-Spanish Era of the Philippines Archived 2015-12-10 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed September 04, 2008.
  24. ^ "Sultan of the River: The Rise and Fall of Datu Uto of Buayan". nhcpmanila's Blog. 2010-08-06. Archived from the original on 31 October 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  25. ^ "The Battle of Bayan". Archived from the original on 2015-12-30. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  26. ^ "The Kutawato Caves". Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  27. ^ *Watt, William M. (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0.
  28. ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2005), The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet, Darussalam Publications, p. 481, ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8, archived from the original on 2016-04-19 Note: Shawwal 8AH is January 630AD
  29. ^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 142.
  30. ^ Henry Louis Gates, Anthony Appiah, Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, Basic Civitas Books: 1999, p. 97 ISBN 0195170555
  31. ^ Osadolor, pp. 6–294
  32. ^ a b Ogundiran, Akinwumi (June 2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". Journal of World Prehistory. 19 (2): 133–168. doi:10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y. S2CID 144422848.
  33. ^ MacEachern, Scott. "Two thousand years of West African history". African Archaeology: A Critical Introduction. Academia.
  34. ^ July, pp. 11–39
  35. ^ The Ashanti campaign of 1900, (1908) By Sir Cecil Hamilton Armitage, Arthur Forbes Montanaro, (1901) Sands and Co. pgs 130–131
  36. ^ Thornton, pp. 22–39
  37. ^ Harris, J., "Sarzana and Sarzanello – Transitional Design and Renaissance Designers" Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine, Fort (Fortress Study Group), No. 37, 2009, pp. 50–78
  38. ^ Medieval Town of Rhodes – Restoration Works (1985–2000) – Part One. Rhodes: Ministry of Culture – Works supervision committee for the monuments of the medieval town of Rhodes. 2001.
  39. ^ Mifsud, Simon (14 September 2012). "Fort Campbell". MilitaryArchitecture.com. Archived from the original on 15 November 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  40. ^ [Halter, Marc; History of the Maginot Line, Moselle River, 2011. ISBN 978-2-9523092-5-7]
  41. ^ "Colonial City of Santo Domingo. Outstanding Universal Value". UNESCO World Heritage Centre website.

References[edit]

  •  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fortification and Siegecraft". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 679–725.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Osadolor, Osarhieme Benson, "The Military System of Benin Kingdom 1440–1897]," (UD), Hamburg University: 2001 copy
  • July, Robert Pre-Colonial Africa, Charles Scribner, 1975
  • Thornton, John Kelly Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800, Routledge: 1999 ISBN 1857283937

External links[edit]

  • Fortress Study Group
  • Military Architecture at the Wayback Machine (archived 5 December 2018)
  • ICOFORT