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"Fries" redirects here. For other uses, see Fries (disambiguation).

French fries
French fries on a paper plate
Alternative namesChips, finger chips, fries, frites, hot chips, steak fries, potato wedges, wedges
CourseSide dish or snack, rarely as a main dish
Place of originBelgium or France (disputed)
Region or stateWestern Europe
Serving temperatureHot
Main ingredients
VariationsCurly fries, shoestring fries, steak fries, sweet potato fries, Chili cheese fries, poutine
Other informationOften served with salt and a side of ketchup, mayonnaise, vinegar, barbecue sauce, or other sauce

French fries, or simply fries (North American English), chips (British and Commonwealth English, Hiberno-English),[1] finger chips (Indian English),[2] or French-fried potatoes, are batonnet or allumette-cut deep-fried potatoes.

French fries are served hot, either soft or crispy, and are generally eaten as part of lunch or dinner or by themselves as a snack, and they commonly appear on the menus of diners, fast food restaurants, pubs, and bars. They are usually salted and, depending on the country, may be served with ketchup, vinegar, mayonnaise, tomato sauce, or other local specialties. Fries can be topped more heavily, as in the dishes of poutine or chili cheese fries. Chips can be made from sweet potatoes instead of potatoes. A baked variant, oven chips, uses less oil or no oil.[3]

Preparation

Pommes frites with a mayonnaise packet
A hamburger with crispy fries

French fries are prepared by first cutting the potato (peeled or unpeeled) into even strips, which are then wiped off or soaked in cold water to remove the surface starch, and thoroughly dried.[4][5] They may then be fried in one or two stages. Chefs generally agree that the two-bath technique produces better results.[4][6][7] Potatoes fresh out of the ground can have too high a water content—resulting in soggy fries—so preference is for those that have been stored for a while.[8]

In the two-stage or two-bath method, the first bath, sometimes called blanching, is in hot fat (around 160 °C/320 °F) to cook them through. This step can be done in advance.[4] Then they are more briefly fried in very hot fat (190 °C/375 °F) to crisp the exterior. They are then placed in a colander or on a cloth to drain, salted, and served. The exact times of the two baths depend on the size of the potatoes. For example, for 2–3 mm strips, the first bath takes about 3 minutes, and the second bath takes only seconds.[4] One can cook french fries using several techniques. Deep frying submerges food in hot fat, most commonly oil. Vacuum fryers are suitable to process low-quality potatoes with higher sugar levels than normal, as they frequently have to be processed in spring and early summer before the potatoes from the new harvest become available. In the UK, a chip pan is a deep-sided cooking pan used for deep-frying. Chip pans are named for their traditional use in frying chips.

Most french fries are produced from frozen potatoes which have been blanched or at least air-dried industrially.[9] Most chains that sell fresh cut fries use the Idaho Russet Burbank variety of potatoes. It has been the standard for french fries in the United States.[8] The usual fat for making french fries is vegetable oil. In the past, beef suet was recommended as superior,[4] with vegetable shortening as an alternative. In fact, McDonald's used a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil until 1990, when they switched to vegetable oil with beef flavoring.[10][11] Starting in the 1960s, more fast food restaurants have been using frozen french fries.[8]

Chemical and physical changes

French fries are fried in a two step process: the first time is to cook the starch throughout the entire cut at a low heat, and the second time is to create the golden crispy exterior of the fry at a higher temperature. This is necessary because if the potato cuts are only fried once, the temperature would either be too hot, causing only the exterior to be cooked and not the inside, or not hot enough where the entire fry is cooked, but its crispy exterior will not develop. Although the potato cuts may be baked or steamed as a preparation method, this section will only focus on french fries made using frying oil. During the initial frying process (approximately 150 °C), water on the surface of the cuts evaporates off the surface and the water inside the cuts gets absorbed by the starch granules, causing them to swell and produce the fluffy interior of the fry.[12] The starch granules are able to retain the water and expand due to gelatinization. The water and heat break the glycosidic linkages between amylopectin and amylose strands, allowing a new gel matrix to form via hydrogen bonds which aid in water retention. The moisture that gets trapped in between the gel matrix is responsible for the fluffy interior of the fry. The gelatinized starch molecules move towards the surface of the fries "forming a thick layer of gelatinised starch" and this layer of pre-gelatinized starch will turn into the crispy exterior after the potato cuts are fried for a second time.[13] During the second frying process (approximately 180 °C), the remaining water on the surface of the cuts will evaporate and the gelatinized starch molecules that collected towards the potato surface are cooked again, forming the crispy exterior. The golden-brown color of the fry will develop when the amino acids and glucose on the exterior participate in a Maillard browning reaction.[12]

Etymology

In the United States and most of Canada, the term french fries, sometimes capitalized as French fries, or shortened to fries, refers to all dishes of fried elongated pieces of potatoes. Variations in shape and size may have names such as curly fries, shoestring fries, etc.[14] (see § Variants). In the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand, the term chips is generally used instead, though thinly cut fried potatoes are usually called french fries, skinny fries, or pommes frites (from French), to distinguish them from chips, which are cut thicker. A person from the US or Canada might instead refer to these more thickly-cut chips as steak fries, depending on the shape, as the word chips is more often used to refer to potato chips, known in the UK and Ireland as crisps.

Thomas Jefferson had "potatoes served in the French manner" at a White House dinner in 1802.[15][16] The expression "french fried potatoes" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by E. Warren: "French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little salt; fry both sides of a light golden brown colour; drain."[17] This account referred to thin, shallow-fried slices of potato (French cut) – it is not clear where or when the now familiar deep-fried batons or fingers of potato were first prepared. In the early 20th century, the term "french fried" was being used in the sense of "deep-fried" for foods like onion rings or chicken.[18][19]

By country or region

Latin America

Fries are a common side dish in Latin American cuisine or part of larger preparations like the salchipapas in Peru or chorrillana in Chile.

Belgium and the Netherlands

A patatje speciaal, with frietsaus, curry ketchup or tomato ketchup, and chopped raw onions, is popular in the Netherlands.
A Belgian frites shop

The French and Belgians have an ongoing dispute about where fries were invented, with both countries claiming ownership.[20] From the Belgian standpoint the popularity of the term "french fries" is explained as a "French gastronomic hegemony" into which the cuisine of Belgium was assimilated because of a lack of understanding coupled with a shared language and geographic proximity of the countries.[20]

Belgian journalist Jo Gérard claims that a 1781 family manuscript recounts that potatoes were deep-fried prior to 1680 in the Meuse valley, in what was then the Spanish Netherlands (present-day Belgium): "The inhabitants of Namur, Andenne, and Dinant had the custom of fishing in the Meuse for small fish and frying, especially among the poor, but when the river was frozen and fishing became hazardous, they cut potatoes in the form of small fish and put them in a fryer like those here."[21][22] Gérard has not produced the manuscript that supports this claim due to the fact that it is unrelated to the later history of the French fry, as the potato did not arrive in the region until around 1735. Also, given 18th century economic conditions: "It is absolutely unthinkable that a peasant could have dedicated large quantities of fat for cooking potatoes. At most they were sautéed in a pan ...".[23]

At least one source says that "french fries" for deep-fried potato batons was also introduced when American, Canadian, and British soldiers arrived in Belgium during World War I. The Belgians had previously been catering to the British soldiers' love of chips and continued to serve them to the other troops when they took over the western end of the front.[24] The Belgians served them, and since French was the language of the Belgian Army, the name "French" was associated with the food. However, other sources disagree.[21] Since a Frenchman (Parmentier) first made the potato popular, it is not surprising that the first reference to fried potatoes appears to come from France: in 1775, investigators there found fried potatoes in a dish. Through the nineteenth century, fried potatoes became common enough that songs and engravings took the "Fried Potato Vendor" as a popular subject. But at first, these were cut in rounds. In 1865, Gogué, in France, wrote to cut them either round or "in long and squared pieces"; in 1870, Cauderlier, in Belgium, also offered both options. Given the lag between practice and print, one cannot say that the five years’ difference is significant; the most likely hypothesis is that the practice grew up spontaneously and spread across both countries.[25] Some other sources refer to the old-English verb to french, meaning to cut lengthwise, as the origin of the name. At that time, the term "french fries" was growing in popularity – the term was already used in the United States as early as 1899 – although it is not clear whether this referred to batons (chips) or slices of potato e.g. in an item in Good Housekeeping which specifically references "Kitchen Economy in France": "The perfection of french fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used".[26]

"Pommes frites" or just "frites" (French), "frieten" (a word used in Flanders and the southern provinces of the Netherlands) or "patat" (used in the north and central parts of the Netherlands) became the national snack and a substantial part of several national dishes, such as Moules-frites or Steak-frites.[27] Fries are very popular in Belgium, where they are known as frieten (in Dutch) or frites (in French), and the Netherlands, where among the working classes they are known as patat in the north and, in the south, friet(en).[28] In Belgium, fries are sold in shops called friteries (French), frietkot/frituur (Belgian Dutch), snackbar (Dutch in The Netherlands) or Fritüre/Frittüre (German). They are served with a large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks. Traditionally fries are served in a cornet de frites (French), patatzak[29] /frietzak/fritzak (Dutch/Flemish), or Frittentüte (German), a white cardboard cone, then wrapped in paper, with a spoonful of sauce (often mayonnaise) on top.

Friteries and other fast food establishments tend to offer a number of different sauces for the fries and meats. In addition to ketchup and mayonnaise, popular options include:[30] aioli, sauce andalouse, sauce Americaine, joppiesaus, Bicky Dressing (Gele Bicky-sauce), curry mayonnaise, mammoet-sauce, peanut sauce, samurai sauce, sauce "Pickles", pepper-sauce, tartar sauce, zigeuner sauce, and à la zingara.

Spain

In Spain, fried potatoes are called patatas fritas or papas fritas. Another common form, involving larger irregular cuts, is patatas bravas. The potatoes are cut into big chunks, partially boiled and then fried. They are usually seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce, and the dish is one of the most preferred tapas by Spaniards.[31] Fries may have been invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared from the New World colonies, and assume fries' first appearance to have been as an accompaniment to fish dishes in Galicia, from which it spread to the rest of the country and then further away, to the "Spanish Netherlands", which became Belgium more than a century later. Professor Paul Ilegems, curator of the Frietmuseum in Bruges, Belgium, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila of Spain cooked the first french fries, and refers also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine as evidence.[22][32]

France

Steak frites in Fontainebleau, France

In France and other French-speaking countries, fried potatoes are formally pommes de terre frites, but more commonly pommes frites, patates frites, or simply frites. The words aiguillettes ("needle-ettes") or allumettes ("matchsticks") are used when the french fries are very small and thin. One enduring origin story holds that french fries were invented by street vendors on the Pont Neuf bridge in Paris in 1789, just before the outbreak of the French Revolution.[33] However, a reference exists in France from 1775 to "a few pieces of fried potato" and to "fried potatoes".[34]

Eating potatoes for sustenance was promoted in France by Antoine-Augustin Parmentier, but he did not mention fried potatoes in particular. Many Americans attribute the dish to France and offer as evidence a notation by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson: "Pommes de terre frites à cru, en petites tranches" ("Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices") in a manuscript in Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801–1809) and the recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien.[15] In addition, from 1813[35] on, recipes for what can be described as "french fries" occur in popular American cookbooks. By the late 1850s, a cookbook was published that used the term French Fried Potatoes.[36] The thick-cut fries are called Pommes Pont-Neuf [4] or simply pommes frites (about 10 mm); thinner variants are pommes allumettes (matchstick potatoes; about 7 mm), and pommes paille (potato straws; 3–4 mm). (Roughly 0.4, 0.3 and 0.15 inch respectively.) Pommes gaufrettes are waffle fries. A popular dish in France is steak frites, which is steak accompanied by thin french fries.

Canada

A popular Québécois dish is poutine, such as this one from La Banquise restaurant in Montreal. It is made with french fries, cheese curds and gravy.

The town of Florenceville-Bristol, New Brunswick, headquarters of McCain Foods, calls itself "the French fry capital of the world" and also hosts a museum about potatoes called "Potato World".[37] It is also one of the world's largest manufacturers of frozen french fries and other potato specialties.[38]

French fries are the main ingredient in the Canadian/Québécois dish known (in both Canadian English and Canadian French) as poutine, a dish consisting of fried potatoes covered with cheese curds and brown gravy. Poutine has a growing number of variations, but it is generally considered to have been developed in rural Québec sometime in the 1950s, although precisely where in the province it first appeared is a matter of contention.[39][40][41] Canada is also responsible for providing 22% of China's french fries.[42][43]

Germany and Austria

Currywurst and fries, Germany

French fries migrated to the German-speaking countries during the 19th century. In Germany, they are usually known by the French words pommes frites, or only Pommes or Fritten (derived from the French words, but pronounced as German words).[44] Often served with ketchup or mayonnaise, they are popular as a side dish in restaurants, or as a street-food snack purchased at an Imbissstand (snack stand). Since the 1950s, currywurst has become a widely-popular dish that is commonly offered with fries. Currywurst is a sausage (often bratwurst or bockwurst) in a spiced ketchup-based sauce, dusted with curry powder.[45]

South Africa

Whilst eating 'regular' crispy french fries is common in South Africa, a regional favorite, particularly in Cape Town, is a soft soggy version doused in white vinegar called "slap-chips" (pronounced "slup-chips" in English or "slaptjips" in Afrikaans).[46][47][48] These chips are typically thicker and fried at a lower temperature for a longer period of time than regular french fries.[46] Slap-chips are an important component of a Gatsby sandwich, also a common Cape Town delicacy.[46] Slap-chips are also commonly served with deep fried fish which are also served with the same white vinegar.

United Kingdom and Ireland

Fish and chips

The standard deep-fried cut potatoes in the United Kingdom are called chips, and are cut into pieces between 10 and 15 mm (0.39 and 0.59 in) wide. They are occasionally made from unpeeled potatoes (skins showing). British chips are not the same thing as potato chips (an American term); those are called "crisps" in Britain. In the UK, chips are part of the popular, and now international, fast food dish fish and chips. In the UK, chips are considered a separate item to french fries. Chips are a thicker cut than french fries, they are generally cooked only once and at a lower temperature.[49][50][51]

The first commercially available chips in the UK were sold by Mrs. 'Granny' Duce in one of the West Riding towns in 1854.[52] A blue plaque in Oldham marks the origin of the fish-and-chip shop, and thus the start of the fast food industry in Britain.[citation needed] In Scotland, chips were first sold in Dundee: "in the 1870s, that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city's Greenmarket".[53] In Ireland the first chip shop was "opened by Giuseppe Cervi", an Italian immigrant, "who arrived there in the 1880s".[54] It is estimated that in the UK, 80% of households buy frozen chips each year.[55]

United States

French fry production with thermostatic temperature control, at a restaurant

Although french fries were a popular dish in most British Commonwealth countries, the "thin style" french fries have been popularized worldwide in large part by the large American fast food chains such as McDonald's, Burger King, and Wendy's.[56] In the United States, the J. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercializing french fries in frozen form during the 1940s. Subsequently, in 1967, Ray Kroc of McDonald's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries, replacing fresh-cut potatoes. In 2004, 29% of the United States' potato crop was used to make frozen fries – 90% consumed by the food services sector and 10% by retail.[57] The United States is also known for supplying China with most of their french fries as 70% of China's french fries are imported.[58][43]

Pre-made french fries have been available for home cooking since the 1960s, having been pre-fried (or sometimes baked), frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag.[59] Some varieties of french fries that appeared later have been battered and breaded, and many fast food chains in the U.S. dust the potatoes with kashi, dextrin, and other flavor coatings for crispier fries with particular tastes.[60] French fries are one of the most popular dishes in the United States, commonly being served as a side dish to entrees and being seen in fast food restaurants. The average American eats around 30 pounds of french fries a year.[61][62]

Variants

A child holding tornado fries

French fries come in multiple variations. A partial list, in alphabetical order:

  • Carne asada fries – fries covered with carne asada, guacamole, sour cream and cheese.[63]
  • Cheese fries – fries covered with cheese.[64]
  • Chile fries – (not to be confused with chili fries) fries topped with green chile peppers, common in the US state of New Mexico.
  • Chili fries – (not to be confused with chile fries) fries covered with chili con carne.
  • Chili cheese fries – fries covered with chili and cheese.[65]
  • Chorrillana – a Chilean dish consisting of a plate of french fries topped with different types of sliced meat, sausages and other ingredients.
  • Crinkle-cut fries – also known as "wavy fries", these are cut in a corrugated, ridged fashion.[14]
  • Curly fries – characterized by their helical shape, cut from whole potatoes using a specialized spiral slicer[14]
  • Curry chips – fries covered in curry sauce, a popular item served by chip shops in Ireland and Northern England.
  • French fry sandwich[66] – such as the chip butty and the Mitraillette.
  • Oven fries – fries that are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation (having been coated with oil during preparation at the factory), often sold frozen.
  • Potato wedges – Thick-cut, elongated wedge-shaped fries[14] with the skin left on.
  • Poutine – a dish consisting of fries topped with cheese curds and gravy and principally associated with the Canadian province of Québec.
  • Salchipapas – a Peruvian dish consisting of a plate of french fries topped with fried sausage slices.
  • Shoestring fries – thin-cut fries.[14]
  • Slap-chips – thick-cut elongated fries doused in white vinegar principally associated with the Western Cape province of South Africa.
  • Steak fries – thick-cut fries.[14]
  • Sweet potato fries – fries made with sweet potatoes instead of traditional white potatoes.
  • Tornado fries – spiral-cut potatoes that are placed on a skewer and then deep fried.[14]
  • Triple-cooked chips — fries that are simmered, cooled and drained using a low-temp-long-time (LTLT) cooking technique; they are then deep fried at just 130 °C, cooled and finally deep fried at 180 °C.
  • Waffle fries – lattice-shaped fries[14] obtained by quarter-turning the potato before each next slide over a grater and deep-frying just once.

  • Chili fries

  • Chili cheese fries

  • Crinkle-cut fries

  • Curly fries

  • Curry chips

  • Dirty fries

  • Shoestring fries with blue cheese dressing

  • Sweet potato fries

  • Waffle fries

Accompaniments

Main article: List of accompaniments to french fries

Fries tend to be served with a variety of accompaniments, such as salt and vinegar (malt, balsamic or white), pepper, Cajun seasoning, grated cheese, melted cheese, mushy peas, heated curry sauce, curry ketchup (mildly spiced mix of the former), hot sauce, relish, mustard, mayonnaise, bearnaise sauce, tartar sauce, chili, tzatziki, feta cheese, garlic sauce, fry sauce, butter, sour cream, ranch dressing, barbecue sauce, gravy, honey, aioli, brown sauce, ketchup, lemon juice, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, pickled gherkins, pickled onions or pickled eggs.[67]

Health aspects

Fries frying in oil
Oven-baked fries

French fries primarily contain carbohydrates (mostly in the form of starch) and protein from the potato, and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process. Salt, which contains sodium, is almost always applied as a surface seasoning. For example, a large serving of french fries at McDonald's in the United States is 154 grams. The 510 calories come from 66 g of carbohydrates, 24 g of fat, 7 g of protein and 350 mg of sodium.[68]

Experts have criticized french fries for being very unhealthy. According to Jonathan Bonnet, MD, in a TIME magazine article, "fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud" because they "involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found."[69] Kristin Kirkpatrick, RD, calls french fries "... an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all."[69] David Katz, MD states that "French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo."[69]

Frying french fries in beef tallow, lard, or other animal fats adds saturated fat to the diet. Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils, such as palm oil, simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. For many years partially hydrogenated vegetable oils were used as a means of avoiding cholesterol and reducing saturated fatty acid content, but in time the trans fat content of these oils was perceived as contributing to cardiovascular disease.[70] Starting in 2008, many restaurant chains and manufacturers of pre-cooked frozen french fries for home reheating phased out trans fat containing vegetable oils.[71][72]

French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health.[73][74] According to the American Cancer Society, it is not clear as of 2013 whether acrylamide consumption affects people's risk of getting cancer.[73] A meta-analysis indicated that dietary acrylamide is not related to the risk of most common cancers, but could not exclude a modest association for kidney, endometrial or ovarian cancers.[74] A lower-fat method for producing a French fry-like product is to coat "Frenched" or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavoring before baking them. The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, which also reduces acrylamide formation.[75]

Legal issues

In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated french fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act. This was primarily for trade reasons; french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a processed food.[76][77] This classification, referred to as the "French fry rule", was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit case Fleming Companies, Inc. v. USDA.[78][79]

In the United States, in 2002, the McDonald's Corporation agreed to donate to Hindus and other groups to settle lawsuits filed against the chain for mislabeling french fries and hash browns as vegetarian even though beef extract flavoring was added in their production.[11]

See also

  • Avocado fries
  • Freedom fries
  • French fry vending machine
  • German fries
  • List of deep fried foods
  • Mitraillette
  • Pommes dauphine
  • Pommes duchesse
  • Pommes soufflées

Citations

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  2. ^ Indian English,"finger chip". Cambridge Dictionary Online.
  3. ^ "Chunky oven chips". BBC Good Food. BBC. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Saint-Ange, Evelyn and Aratow, Paul (translator) (2005) [1927]. La Bonne Cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange: The Essential Companion for Authentic French Cooking. Larousse, translation Ten Speed Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-1-58008-605-9.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Fannie Farmer, The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, 1896, s.v.
  6. ^ Blumenthal, Heston (17 April 2012). "How to cook perfect spuds". the age. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
  7. ^ Bocuse, Paul (10 December 1998). La Cuisine du marché (in French). Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 978-2-08-202518-8.
  8. ^ a b c "Russet Burbank". idahopotato.com. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  9. ^ "The Making of French Fries". thespruce.com. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
  10. ^ Schlosser, Eric (2001). Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of All-American Meal. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-97789-4
  11. ^ a b Grace, Francie (5 June 2002). "McDonald's Settles Beef Over Fries". CBS News. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
  12. ^ a b Mal, Julie (26 October 2019). "Science of making perfect fries". Food Crumbles.
  13. ^ Kaushik, Nitisha (11 July 2019). "Ultimate Guide to Crispy French Fries". The Countertop Cook.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h Lingle, B. (2016). Fries!: An Illustrated Guide to the World's Favorite Food. Chronicle Books. pp. 50–53. ISBN 978-1-61689-504-4. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  15. ^ a b Ebeling, Charles (31 October 2005). "French fried: From Monticello to the Moon, A Social, Political and Cultural Appreciation of the French Fry". The Chicago Literary Club. Archived from the original on 3 February 2007. Retrieved 12 January 2007.
  16. ^ Fishwick, Marshall W (1998). "The Savant as Gourmet". The Journal of Popular Culture. 32 (part 1): 51–58. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1998.3201_51.x.
  17. ^ Home: Oxford English Dictionary. Oed.com. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  18. ^ Mackenzie, Catherine (7 April 1935). "Food the City Likes Best". The New York Times Magazine: SM18. Retrieved 15 April 2007. ... the chef at the Rainbow Room launches into a description of his special steak, its French-fried onion rings, its button mushrooms ...
  19. ^ Rorer, Sarah Tyson (c. 1902). "Page 211". Mrs. Rorer's New Cook Book. Philadelphia: Arnold & Company. p. 211. Retrieved 12 April 2007. French Fried Chicken
  20. ^ a b Schehr, Lawrence R.; Weiss, Allen S. (2001). French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 978-0415936286.
  21. ^ a b (in French) Hugues Henry (16 August 2001) "La Frite est-elle belge?" (in French). Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2012.. Frites.be. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
  22. ^ a b Ilegems, Paul (1993). De Frietkotcultuur (in Dutch). Loempia. ISBN 978-90-6771-325-2.
  23. ^ Leclercq, Pierre (2 February 2010). La véritable histoire de la pomme de terre frite, musee-gourmandise.be, mentioning the work of Fernand Pirotte on the history of the potato
  24. ^ McDonald, George (2007). Frommer's Belgium, Holland & Luxembourg. Wiley Publishing. p. 485. ISBN 978-0-470-06859-5.
  25. ^ Jim Chevallier, A History of the Food of Paris: From Roast Mammoth to Steak Frites, 2018, ISBN 1442272821, pp. 186-187
  26. ^ Handy, Mrs. Moses P. "Kitchen Economy in France", Good Housekeeping, Volumes 28–29 159 Vol XXIX No 1 July 1899 Whole No 249. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
  27. ^ Schehr, Lawrence R.; Weiss, Allen S. (2001). French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 158–9. ISBN 978-0415936286.
  28. ^ See this map indicating where patat/friet/frieten is used in the Low Countries
  29. ^ (in Dutch) Patatzak vouwen – Video – Allerhande – Albert Heijn. Ah.nl. Retrieved on 13 November 2016.
  30. ^ "La Frite se mange-t-elle à toutes les sauces?" (in French). Frites.be. 2011. Archived from the original on 16 November 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
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  32. ^ "Saint Teresa". aleteia.org. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
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General bibliography

  • Lingle, Blake (2016). Fries!: An Illustrated Guide to the World's Favorite Food. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 9781616894580.
  • Tebben, Maryann (2006). "French Fries: France's Culinary Identity from Brillat-Savarin to Barthes (essay)". Convivium Artium. University of Texas at San Antonio. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2009.

External links

  • The dictionary definition of french fries at Wiktionary