La mayoría de los términos enumerados en los glosarios de Wikipedia ya están definidos y explicados en la propia Wikipedia. Sin embargo, glosarios como este son útiles para buscar, comparar y revisar un gran número de términos juntos. Puede ayudar a mejorar esta página agregando nuevos términos o escribiendo definiciones para los existentes.
Este glosario de términos de ingeniería es una lista de definiciones sobre los principales conceptos de ingeniería . Consulte la parte inferior de la página para ver los glosarios de campos específicos de la ingeniería.
A
- Potencial de electrodo absoluto
- En electroquímica , según una definición de la IUPAC , [1] es el potencial de electrodo de un metal medido con respecto a un sistema de referencia universal (sin ninguna interfaz adicional metal-solución).
- Presión absoluta
- Tiene una referencia cero contra un vacío perfecto, utilizando una escala absoluta , por lo que es igual a la presión manométrica más la presión atmosférica.
- Cero absoluto
- Es el límite inferior de la escala de temperatura termodinámica , un estado en el que la entalpía y la entropía de un gas ideal enfriado alcanzan su valor mínimo, tomado como 0. El cero absoluto es el punto en el que las partículas fundamentales de la naturaleza tienen un movimiento vibratorio mínimo, reteniendo sólo movimiento de partículas inducido por energía de punto cero de mecánica cuántica . La temperatura teórica se determina extrapolando la ley de los gases ideales ; por acuerdo internacional, el cero absoluto se toma como -273.15 ° en la escala Celsius ( Sistema Internacional de Unidades ), [2] [3] que equivale a -459.67 ° en la escala Fahrenheit ( unidades usuales de los Estados Unidos o unidades imperiales ). [4] Las escalas de temperatura correspondientes de Kelvin y Rankine establecen sus puntos cero en cero absoluto por definición.
- Absorbancia
- La absorbancia o absorbancia decádica es el logaritmo común de la relación entre la energía radiante incidente y la transmitida a través de un material, y la absorbancia espectral o la absorbancia decádica espectral es el logaritmo común de la relación entre la energía radiante incidente y la transmitida a través de un material. [5]
- alimentación de CA
- Energía eléctrica entregada por corriente alterna; La energía doméstica común es CA.
- Aceleración
- La tasa a la que cambia la velocidad de un cuerpo con el tiempo y la dirección en la que actúa ese cambio.
- Ácido
- Una molécula o ion capaz de donar un hydron (protón o ion hidrógeno H + ), o, alternativamente, capaz de formar un enlace covalente con un par de electrones (un ácido de Lewis). [6]
- Reacción ácido-base
- Una reacción química que ocurre entre un ácido y una base, que puede usarse para determinar el pH.
- Fuerza ácida
- En los ácidos fuertes, la mayoría de las moléculas ceden un ión de hidrógeno y se ionizan.
- Acústica
- El estudio científico del sonido.
- Lodo activado
- Tipo de proceso de tratamiento de aguas residuales para el tratamiento de aguas residuales o aguas residuales industriales mediante aireación y un flóculo biológico compuesto por bacterias y protozoos.
- Modelo de lodos activados
- Un nombre genérico para un grupo de métodos matemáticos para modelar sistemas de lodos activados.
- Transporte activo
- En biología celular, el transporte activo es el movimiento de moléculas a través de una membrana desde una región de menor concentración a una región de mayor concentración, contra el gradiente de concentración. El transporte activo requiere energía celular para lograr este movimiento. Hay dos tipos de transporte activo: transporte activo primario que usa ATP y transporte activo secundario que usa un gradiente electroquímico. Un ejemplo de transporte activo en fisiología humana es la captación de glucosa en los intestinos .
- Solenoide
- Un dispositivo que acepta 2 entradas (señal de control, fuente de energía) y emite energía cinética en forma de movimiento físico (lineal, rotatorio u oscilatorio). La entrada de la señal de control especifica qué movimiento debe tomarse. La entrada de la fuente de energía suele ser una corriente eléctrica, una presión hidráulica o una presión neumática. Un actuador puede ser el elemento final de un bucle de control.
- Trifosfato de adenosina
- Una sustancia química orgánica compleja que proporciona energía para impulsar muchos procesos en las células vivas , por ejemplo, contracción muscular, propagación de impulsos nerviosos, síntesis química. Encontrado en todas las formas de vida, el ATP a menudo se conoce como la "unidad molecular de moneda " de la transferencia de energía intracelular . [7]
- Adhesión
- La tendencia de partículas o superficies diferentes a adherirse entre sí (la cohesión se refiere a la tendencia de partículas / superficies similares o idénticas a adherirse entre sí).
- Proceso adiabático
- Un proceso en el que no se pierde energía térmica en el espacio exterior.
- Muro adiabático
- Una barrera a través de la cual no puede pasar la energía térmica.
- Digestión aeróbica
- Un proceso en el tratamiento de aguas residuales diseñado para reducir el volumen de lodos de depuradora y hacerlo apto [8] para su uso posterior. [9]
- Aerodinámica
- El estudio del movimiento del aire, en particular su interacción con un objeto sólido, como el ala de un avión. Es un subcampo de dinámica de fluidos y dinámica de gases, y muchos aspectos de la teoría de la aerodinámica son comunes a estos campos.
- Ingeniería Aeroespacial
- Es el campo principal de la ingeniería que se ocupa del desarrollo de aeronaves y naves espaciales . [10] Tiene dos ramas principales y superpuestas: la ingeniería aeronáutica y la ingeniería astronáutica. La ingeniería de aviónica es similar, pero se ocupa del lado electrónico de la ingeniería aeroespacial.
- Sistema Afocal
- Un sistema óptico que no produce convergencia o divergencia neta del haz, es decir, tiene una distancia focal efectiva infinita . [11]
- Ingeniería Agricola
- La profesión de diseñar maquinaria, procesos y sistemas para su uso en agricultura.
- Albedo
- Una medida de la fracción de luz reflejada por un cuerpo astronómico u otro objeto.
- Alcano
- Un alcano, o parafina (un nombre histórico que también tiene otros significados ), es un hidrocarburo saturado acíclico . En otras palabras, un alcano consta de átomos de hidrógeno y carbono dispuestos en una estructura de árbol en la que todos los enlaces carbono-carbono son simples . [12]
- Alqueno
- Un hidrocarburo insaturado que contiene al menos un carbono -carbono doble enlace . [13] Las palabras alqueno y olefina a menudo se usan indistintamente.
- Alquino
- Es un hidrocarburo insaturado que contiene al menos un triple enlace carbono-carbono . [14] Los alquinos acíclicos más simples con un solo triple enlace y ningún otro grupo funcional forman una serie homóloga con la fórmula química general C n H 2 n -2 .
- Aleación
- es una combinación de metales o de un metal y otro elemento . Las aleaciones se definen por un carácter de unión metálica . [15]
- Partícula alfa
- Alpha partículas consisten en dos protones y dos neutrones unidos en una partícula idéntica a una de helio-4 núcleo . Generalmente se producen en el proceso de desintegración alfa , pero también se pueden producir de otras formas. Las partículas alfa reciben el nombre de la primera letra del alfabeto griego , α .
- Corriente alterna
- Corriente eléctrica que invierte regularmente la dirección.
- Hipótesis alternativa
- En la prueba de hipótesis estadística , la hipótesis alternativa (o mantenido hipótesis o investigación hipótesis ) y la hipótesis nula son las dos hipótesis rivales que se comparan por una prueba de hipótesis estadística . En el dominio de la ciencia se pueden comparar dos hipótesis rivales por el poder explicativo y el poder predictivo .
- Amperímetro
- Un instrumento que mide la corriente.
- Aminoácidos
- Son compuestos orgánicos que contienen grupos funcionales amina (-NH 2 ) y carboxilo (-COOH) , junto con una cadena lateral (grupo R) específico para cada aminoácido. [16] [17] [18] Los elementos clave de un aminoácido son carbono (C), hidrógeno (H), oxígeno (O) y nitrógeno (N), aunque otros elementos se encuentran en las cadenas laterales de ciertos aminoácidos. ácidos. Se conocen alrededor de 500 aminoácidos naturales (aunque solo 20 aparecen en el código genético ) y se pueden clasificar de muchas maneras. [19]
- Sólido amorfo
- Un sólido amorfo (del griego a, sin morphé, forma, forma) o no cristalino es un sólido que carece del orden de largo alcance que es característico de un cristal.
- Amperio
- La unidad SI de flujo de corriente, un culombio por segundo.
- Anfoterismo
- En química, un compuesto anfótero es una molécula o ión que puede reaccionar tanto como ácido como como base . [20] Muchos metales (como cobre , zinc , estaño , plomo , aluminio y berilio ) forman óxidos o hidróxidos anfóteros. El anfoterismo depende de los estados de oxidación del óxido. Al 2 O 3 es un ejemplo de óxido anfótero.
- Amplificador
- Un dispositivo que replica una señal con mayor potencia.
- Amplitud
- La amplitud de una variable periódica es una medida de su cambio durante un solo período (como el tiempo o el período espacial ). Existen varias definiciones de amplitud, que son todas funciones de la magnitud de la diferencia entre los valores extremos de la variable . En textos más antiguos, la fase a veces se llama amplitud. [21]
- Digestión anaeróbica
- Es un conjunto de procesos mediante los cuales los microorganismos descomponen el material biodegradable en ausencia de oxígeno . [22] El proceso se utiliza con fines industriales o domésticos para gestionar residuos o producir combustibles. Gran parte de la fermentación utilizada industrialmente para producir alimentos y bebidas, así como la fermentación casera, utiliza digestión anaeróbica.
- Aceleración angular
- Es la tasa de cambio de la velocidad angular . En tres dimensiones, es un pseudovector . En unidades SI , se mide en radianes por segundo al cuadrado (rad / s 2 ) y generalmente se denota con la letra griega alfa ( α ). [23]
- Momento angular
- En física , el momento angular (raramente, momento de momento o momento de rotación ) es el equivalente rotacional del momento lineal . Es una cantidad importante en física porque es una cantidad conservada: el momento angular total de un sistema permanece constante a menos que actúe sobre él un par externo .
- Velocidad angular
- En física , la velocidad angular de una partícula es la tasa a la que gira alrededor de un punto central elegido: es decir, la tasa de cambio en el tiempo de su desplazamiento angular con respecto al origen (es decir, en términos simples: qué tan rápido gira un objeto algo durante un período de tiempo, por ejemplo, qué tan rápido la tierra orbita alrededor del sol). Se mide en ángulo por unidad de tiempo, radianes por segundo en unidades SI , y generalmente se representa con el símbolo omega ( ω , a veces Ω ). Por convención, la velocidad angular positiva indica una rotación en sentido antihorario, mientras que la negativa es en el sentido de las agujas del reloj.
- Anión
- Es un ion con más electrones que protones, lo que le da una carga neta negativa (ya que los electrones tienen carga negativa y los protones tienen carga positiva). [24]
- Recocido (metalurgia)
- Un proceso de tratamiento térmico que alivia las tensiones internas.
- Aniquilación
- En física de partículas , la aniquilación es el proceso que ocurre cuando una partícula subatómica choca con su respectiva antipartícula para producir otras partículas, como un electrón que choca con un positrón para producir dos fotones . [25] La energía total y el momento del par inicial se conservan en el proceso y se distribuyen entre un conjunto de otras partículas en el estado final. Las antipartículas tienen números cuánticos aditivos exactamente opuestos de las partículas, por lo que las sumas de todos los números cuánticos de ese par original son cero. Por tanto, puede producirse cualquier conjunto de partículas cuyos números cuánticos totales sean también cero siempre que se respeten la conservación de la energía y la conservación del momento . [26]
- Ánodo
- El electrodo en el que la corriente ingresa a un dispositivo, como una celda electroquímica o un tubo de vacío.
- ANSI
- El American National Standards Institute es una organización privada sin fines de lucro que supervisa el desarrollo de estándares voluntarios de consenso para productos, servicios, procesos, sistemas y personal en los Estados Unidos. [27] La organización también coordina los estándares estadounidenses con los estándares internacionales para que los productos estadounidenses se puedan utilizar en todo el mundo.
- Anti gravedad
- La antigravedad (también conocida como campo no gravitacional ) es una teoría de la creación de un lugar u objeto que está libre de la fuerza de la gravedad . No se refiere a la falta de peso bajo la gravedad experimentada en caída libre u órbita , ni al equilibrio de la fuerza de la gravedad con alguna otra fuerza, como el electromagnetismo o la sustentación aerodinámica.
- Ingenieria aplicada
- Es el campo que se ocupa de la aplicación de habilidades de gestión, diseño y técnicas para el diseño e integración de sistemas, la ejecución de nuevos diseños de productos , la mejora de los procesos de fabricación y la gestión y dirección de las funciones físicas y / o técnicas de un empresa u organización. Los programas de grado en ingeniería aplicada generalmente incluyen instrucción en principios básicos de ingeniería, administración de proyectos , procesos industriales, administración de producción y operaciones, integración y control de sistemas, control de calidad y estadísticas. [28]
- Matemáticas Aplicadas
- Las matemáticas se utilizan para la solución de problemas prácticos, a diferencia de las matemáticas puras.
- Longitud de arco
- La determinación de la longitud de un segmento de arco irregular también se denomina rectificación de una curva . Históricamente, se utilizaron muchos métodos para curvas específicas. El advenimiento del cálculo infinitesimal condujo a una fórmula general que proporciona soluciones de forma cerrada en algunos casos.
- Principio de Arquimedes
- El principio de Arquímedes establece que la fuerza de flotación hacia arriba que se ejerce sobre un cuerpo sumergido en un fluido , ya sea total o parcialmente sumergido, es igual al peso del fluido que el cuerpo desplaza y actúa en dirección ascendente en el centro de masa de el fluido desplazado. [29] El principio de Arquímedes es una ley de la física fundamental para la mecánica de fluidos. Fue formulado por Arquímedes de Siracusa . [30]
- Momento de inercia del área
- El segundo momento de área , también conocido como momento de inercia del área del plano , el área de momento de inercia , o momento segunda zona , es una propiedad geométrica de un área que refleja cómo se distribuyen sus puntos con respecto a un eje arbitrario. El segundo momento del área se denota típicamente con un para un eje que se encuentra en el plano o con un para un eje perpendicular al plano. En ambos casos, se calcula con una integral múltiple sobre el objeto en cuestión. Su dimensión es L (longitud) a la cuarta potencia. Su unidad de dimensión cuando se trabaja con el Sistema Internacional de Unidades es metros a la cuarta potencia, m 4 .
- Significado aritmetico
- En matemáticas y estadística , la media aritmética o simplemente la media o el promedio cuando el contexto es claro, es la suma de una colección de números dividida por la cantidad de números de la colección. [31]
- Progresión aritmética
- En matemáticas , una progresión aritmética (AP) o secuencia aritmética es una secuencia de números tal que la diferencia entre los términos consecutivos es constante. La diferencia aquí significa el segundo menos el primero. Por ejemplo, la secuencia 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15,. . . es una progresión aritmética con diferencia común de 2.
- Hidrocarburo aromático
- Un hidrocarburo aromático o areno [32] (o algunas veces un hidrocarburo de arilo ) [33] es un hidrocarburo con enlaces sigma y electrones pi deslocalizados entre los átomos de carbono que forman un círculo. Por el contrario, los hidrocarburos alifáticos carecen de esta deslocalización. El término "aromático" se asignó antes de que se descubriera el mecanismo físico que determina la aromaticidad ; el término se acuñó como tal simplemente porque muchos de los compuestos tienen un olor dulce o agradable. La configuración de seis átomos de carbono en compuestos aromáticos se conoce como anillo de benceno, después del hidrocarburo más simple posible, el benceno . Los hidrocarburos aromáticos pueden ser monocíclicos (MAH) o policíclicos (PAH).
- Ecuación de Arrhenius
- La ecuación de Arrhenius es una fórmula para la dependencia de la temperatura de las velocidades de reacción . La ecuación fue propuesta por Svante Arrhenius en 1889, basada en el trabajo del químico holandés Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, quien había observado en 1884 que la ecuación de Van' t Hoff para la dependencia de la temperatura de las constantes de equilibrio sugiere tal fórmula para las tasas de ambos reacciones hacia adelante y hacia atrás. Esta ecuación tiene una vasta e importante aplicación para determinar la velocidad de las reacciones químicas y para el cálculo de la energía de activación. Arrhenius proporcionó una justificación física e interpretación para la fórmula. [34] [35] [36] Actualmente, se ve mejor como una relación empírica . [37] : 188 Se puede utilizar para modelar la variación de temperatura de los coeficientes de difusión, la población de vacantes de cristal, las tasas de fluencia y muchos otros procesos / reacciones inducidos térmicamente. La ecuación de Eyring , desarrollada en 1935, también expresa la relación entre velocidad y energía.
- Inteligencia artificial
- (AI), es la inteligencia demostrada por las máquinas , a diferencia de la inteligencia natural que muestran los humanos y los animales . Los principales libros de texto de IA definen el campo como el estudio de los " agentes inteligentes ": cualquier dispositivo que perciba su entorno y lleve a cabo acciones que maximicen sus posibilidades de lograr sus objetivos con éxito. [40] Coloquialmente, el término "inteligencia artificial" se usa a menudo para describir máquinas (o computadoras) que imitan funciones "cognitivas" que los humanos asocian con la mente humana , como "aprendizaje" y "resolución de problemas". [41]
- Lenguaje ensamblador
- Un lenguaje de programación de computadoras donde la mayoría de las declaraciones corresponden a uno o algunos códigos de operación de la máquina.
- Orbital atómico
- En teoría atómica y mecánica cuántica , un orbital atómico es una función matemática que describe el comportamiento ondulatorio de un electrón o de un par de electrones en un átomo . [42] Esta función se puede utilizar para calcular la probabilidad de encontrar cualquier electrón de un átomo en cualquier región específica alrededor del núcleo del átomo . El término orbital atómico también puede referirse a la región o espacio físico donde se puede calcular que el electrón está presente, como se define por la forma matemática particular del orbital. [43]
- Factor de empaquetamiento atómico
- El porcentaje del volumen lleno de masa atómica en una formación de cristales.
- Frecuencia de audio
- Una frecuencia de audio (abreviatura: AF ) o frecuencia audible se caracteriza como una vibración periódica cuya frecuencia es audible para el ser humano promedio. La unidad SI de audiofrecuencia es el hercio (Hz). Es la propiedad del sonido la que más determina el tono . [44]
- Austenitización
- Austenitización significa calentar el hierro, el metal a base de hierro o el acero a una temperatura a la que cambia la estructura cristalina de ferrita a austenita. [45] La estructura más abierta de la austenita es capaz de absorber carbono de los carburos de hierro en el acero al carbono. Una austenitización inicial incompleta puede dejar carburos sin disolver en la matriz. [46] Para algunos hierros, metales a base de hierro y aceros, la presencia de carburos puede ocurrir durante el paso de austenitización. El término comúnmente utilizado para esto es austenitización en dos fases . [47]
- Automatización
- Es la tecnología mediante la cual se realiza un proceso o procedimiento con la mínima asistencia humana. [48] Automatización [49] o control automático es el uso de varios sistemas de control para operar equipos tales como maquinaria, procesos en fábricas, calderas y hornos de tratamiento térmico, conmutación de redes telefónicas, gobierno y estabilización de barcos, aeronaves y otras aplicaciones y vehículos con mínima o reducida intervención humana. Algunos procesos se han automatizado por completo.
- Vehículo autónomo
- Un vehículo capaz de conducir de un punto a otro sin la intervención de un operador humano.
- Número cuántico azimutal
- El número cuántico azimutal es un número cuántico para un orbital atómico que determina su momento angular orbital y describe la forma del orbital. El número cuántico azimutal es el segundo de un conjunto de números cuánticos que describen el estado cuántico único de un electrón (los otros son el número cuántico principal , siguiendo la notación espectroscópica , el número cuántico magnético y el número cuántico de espín ). También se conoce como número cuántico de momento angular orbital , número cuántico orbital o segundo número cuántico , y se simboliza como ℓ .
B
- Barómetro
- Un dispositivo para medir la presión.
- Batería
- Células electroquímicas que transforman la energía química en electricidad.
- Base
- En química , las bases son sustancias que, en solución acuosa , liberan iones de hidróxido (OH - ), son resbaladizas al tacto, pueden tener un sabor amargo si es un álcali, [50] cambian el color de los indicadores (p. Ej., Tornan azul el papel tornasol rojo ) , reaccionan con ácidos para formar sales , promueven ciertas reacciones químicas ( catálisis básica ), aceptan protones de cualquier donante de protones y / o contienen iones OH - total o parcialmente desplazables .
- Baudios
- Tasa a la que se transfieren los datos en símbolos / segundo; un símbolo puede representar uno o más bits.
- Haz
- Un elemento estructural cuya longitud es significativamente mayor que su ancho o alto.
- Ley de Beer-Lambert
- La ley de Beer-Lambert , también conocida como ley de Beer , la ley de Lambert-Beer , o la ley de Beer-Lambert-Bouguer relaciona la atenuación de la luz a las propiedades del material a través del cual viaja la luz. La ley se aplica comúnmente a las mediciones de análisis químico y se usa para comprender la atenuación en la óptica física , para fotones , neutrones o gases enrarecidos. En física matemática , esta ley surge como una solución de la ecuación BGK .
- Cinturón
- Un circuito cerrado de material flexible que se utiliza para transmitir potencia mecánica de una polea a otra.
- Fricción de la correa
- Es un término que describe las fuerzas de fricción entre un cinturón y una superficie, como un cinturón enrollado alrededor de un bolardo . Cuando se tira de un extremo de la correa, solo parte de esta fuerza se transmite al otro extremo envuelto alrededor de una superficie. La fuerza de fricción aumenta con la cantidad de envoltura sobre una superficie y hace que la tensión en la correa pueda ser diferente en ambos extremos de la correa. La fricción de la correa se puede modelar mediante la ecuación de fricción de la correa . [51]
- Doblado
- En mecánica aplicada , la flexión (también conocida como flexión ) caracteriza el comportamiento de un elemento estructural esbelto sometido a una carga externa aplicada perpendicularmente a un eje longitudinal del elemento. Se supone que el elemento estructural es tal que al menos una de sus dimensiones es una pequeña fracción, típicamente 1/10 o menos, de las otras dos. [52]
- Momento de flexión
- En mecánica de sólidos , un momento flector es la reacción inducida en un elemento estructural cuando se aplica una fuerza o momento externo al elemento, lo que hace que el elemento se doble . [53] [54] El elemento estructural más común o más simple sometido a momentos flectores es la viga .
- Análisis de costo-beneficio
- El análisis de costo-beneficio ( CBA ), a veces llamado análisis de costo-beneficio ( BCA ), es un enfoque sistemático para estimar las fortalezas y debilidades de las alternativas (por ejemplo, en transacciones, actividades, requisitos comerciales funcionales); se utiliza para determinar las opciones que brindan el mejor enfoque para lograr beneficios y al mismo tiempo preservar los ahorros. [55] Puede utilizarse para comparar cursos de acción potenciales (o completados); o estimar (o evaluar) el valor frente a los costos de una sola decisión, proyecto o política.
- Ecuación diferencial de Bernoulli
- En matemáticas , una ecuación diferencial ordinaria de la forma:
- Ecuación de Bernoulli
- Una ecuación para relacionar varias mediciones dentro de un flujo de fluido, como velocidad, presión y energía potencial.
- El principio de Bernoulli
- En dinámica de fluidos , el principio de Bernoulli estados que un aumento en la velocidad de un fluido se produce simultáneamente con una disminución en la presión o una disminución en el fluido 's energía potencial . [57] ( Ch.3 ) [58] ( § 3.5 ) El principio lleva el nombre de Daniel Bernoulli, quien lo publicó en su libro Hydrodynamica en 1738. [59] Aunque Bernoulli dedujo que la presión disminuye cuando aumenta la velocidad del flujo, fue Leonhard Euler quien derivó la ecuación de Bernoulli en su forma habitual en 1752. [60] [61] El principio solo es aplicable para flujos isentrópicos : cuando los efectos de procesos irreversibles (como turbulencia ) y procesos no adiabáticos (por ejemplo, radiación de calor ) son pequeños y puede descuidarse.
- Partícula beta
- También llamado rayo beta o radiación beta (símbolo β ), es un electrón o positrón de alta energía y alta velocidad emitido por la desintegración radiactiva de un núcleo atómico durante el proceso de desintegración beta . Hay dos formas de desintegración beta, desintegración β y desintegración β + , que producen electrones y positrones respectivamente. [62]
- Distribución binomial
- En teoría de la probabilidad y estadística , la distribución binomial con parámetros n y p es la distribución de probabilidad discreta del número de éxitos en una secuencia de n independientes experimentos , preguntando a cada una si-no de interrogación , y cada uno con su propia booleano -valued resultado : una variable aleatoria que contiene un solo bit de información: éxito / sí / verdadero / uno (con probabilidad p ) o fracaso / no / falso / cero (con probabilidad q = 1 - p ). Un solo experimento de éxito / fracaso también se denomina ensayo de Bernoulli o experimento de Bernoulli y una secuencia de resultados se denomina proceso de Bernoulli ; para un solo ensayo, es decir, n = 1, la distribución binomial es una distribución de Bernoulli . La distribución binomial es la base de la popular prueba binomial de significación estadística .
- Biocatálisis
- La biocatálisis se refiere al uso de sistemas vivos (biológicos) o sus partes para acelerar ( catalizar ) reacciones químicas. En los procesos biocatalíticos, los catalizadores naturales, como las enzimas , realizan transformaciones químicas en compuestos orgánicos . Para esta tarea se emplean tanto enzimas que han sido más o menos aisladas como enzimas que aún residen en el interior de las células vivas . [63] [64] [65] El uso moderno de enzimas producidas biotecnológicamente y posiblemente modificadas para la síntesis orgánica se denomina síntesis quimioenzimática ; las reacciones realizadas son reacciones quimioenzimáticas .
- Ingeniería Biomédica
- La Ingeniería Biomédica ( BME ) o Ingeniería Médica es la aplicación de principios de ingeniería y conceptos de diseño a la medicina y la biología con fines sanitarios (por ejemplo, diagnóstico o terapéutico). Este campo busca cerrar la brecha entre la ingeniería y la medicina , combinando el diseño y las habilidades de resolución de problemas de la ingeniería con las ciencias biológicas médicas para avanzar en el tratamiento de la atención médica, incluido el diagnóstico , el monitoreo y la terapia . [66]
- Biomimético
- La biomimética o biomimetismo es la imitación de los modelos, sistemas y elementos de la naturaleza con el propósito de resolver problemas humanos complejos . [67]
- Biónica
- La aplicación de métodos biológicos a sistemas de ingeniería.
- Biofísica
- Es una ciencia interdisciplinaria que aplica enfoques y métodos tradicionalmente utilizados en física para estudiar los fenómenos biológicos . [68] [69] [70] La biofísica cubre todas las escalas de organización biológica , desde la molecular hasta la orgánica y las poblaciones . La investigación biofísica comparte una superposición significativa con la bioquímica , biología molecular , química física , fisiología , nanotecnología , bioingeniería , biología computacional , biomecánica y biología de sistemas .
- Número de biot
- El número de Biot ( Bi ) es una cantidad adimensional que se utiliza en los cálculos de transferencia de calor. Lleva el nombre del físico francés del siglo XVIII Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774-1862) y proporciona un índice simple de la relación de las resistencias de transferencia de calor dentro y en la superficie de un cuerpo. Esta relación determina si las temperaturas dentro de un cuerpo variarán significativamente en el espacio, mientras que el cuerpo se calienta o enfría con el tiempo, a partir de un gradiente térmico aplicado a su superficie.
- Bloquear y derribar
- Un sistema de poleas y una cuerda enhebrada entre ellas, que se utiliza para levantar o tirar de cargas pesadas.
- Fuerza corporal
- Es una fuerza que actúa en todo el volumen de un cuerpo. Las fuerzas debidas a la gravedad , los campos eléctricos y los campos magnéticos son ejemplos de fuerzas corporales. Las fuerzas corporales contrastan con las fuerzas de contacto o las fuerzas superficiales que se ejercen sobre la superficie de un objeto.
- Caldera
- Es un recipiente cerrado en el que se calienta un fluido (generalmente agua). El líquido no necesariamente hierve . El fluido calentado o vaporizado sale de la caldera para su uso en varios procesos o aplicaciones de calefacción, [71] [72] incluyendo calentamiento de agua , calefacción central , generación de energía basada en calderas , cocina y saneamiento .
- Punto de ebullición
- Estado en el que una sustancia se vuelve gaseosa.
- Elevación del punto de ebullición
- La elevación del punto de ebullición describe el fenómeno de que el punto de ebullición de un líquido (un solvente ) será más alto cuando se agrega otro compuesto, lo que significa que una solución tiene un punto de ebullición más alto que un solvente puro. Esto sucede siempre que se añade un soluto no volátil, como una sal, a un disolvente puro, como el agua. El punto de ebullición se puede medir con precisión utilizando un ebullioscopio .
- Constante de Boltzmann
- La constante de Boltzmann ( k B o k ) es una constante física que relaciona la energía cinética promedio de las partículas en un gas con la temperatura del gas [73] y ocurre en la ley de Planck de radiación de cuerpo negro y en la fórmula de entropía de Boltzmann . Fue introducido por Max Planck , pero el nombre de Ludwig Boltzmann . Es la constante de gas R dividida por la constante de Avogadro N A :
- .
C
- Cálculo
- Las matemáticas del cambio.
- Capacidad
- La capacidad de un cuerpo para almacenar carga eléctrica.
- Reactancia capacitiva
- La impedancia de un condensador en un circuito de corriente alterna, la oposición al flujo de corriente.
- Condensador
- Componente eléctrico que almacena energía en un campo eléctrico.
- Acción capilar
- La acción capilar (a veces capilaridad , movimiento capilar , efecto capilar o mecha ) es la capacidad de un líquido de fluir en espacios estrechos sin la ayuda de, o incluso en oposición a, fuerzas externas como la gravedad . El efecto se puede ver en la extracción de líquidos entre los pelos de una brocha, en un tubo delgado, en materiales porosos como papel y yeso, en algunos materiales no porosos como arena y fibra de carbono licuada , o en Una célula. Ocurre debido a fuerzas intermoleculares entre el líquido y las superficies sólidas circundantes. Si el diámetro del tubo es suficientemente pequeño, entonces la combinación de tensión superficial (que es causada por la cohesión dentro del líquido) y las fuerzas adhesivas entre el líquido y la pared del recipiente actúan para impulsar el líquido. [94]
- Carbonato
- Cualquier mineral con dióxido de carbono ligado.
- Ciclo de Carnot
- Un ciclo termodinámico hipotético para una máquina térmica; Ningún ciclo termodinámico puede ser más eficiente que un ciclo de Carnot que opera entre los mismos dos límites de temperatura.
- Coordenadas cartesianas
- Coordenadas dentro de un plano cartesiano rectangular.
- El método de Castigliano
- El nombre de Carlo Alberto Castigliano , es un método para determinar los desplazamientos de un sistema lineal-elástico basado en las derivadas parciales de la energía . Es conocido por sus dos teoremas. El concepto básico puede ser fácil de entender si se recuerda que un cambio de energía es igual a la fuerza causante multiplicada por el desplazamiento resultante. Por lo tanto, la fuerza causante es igual al cambio de energía dividido por el desplazamiento resultante. Alternativamente, el desplazamiento resultante es igual al cambio de energía dividido por la fuerza causante. Se necesitan derivadas parciales para relacionar las fuerzas causantes y los desplazamientos resultantes con el cambio de energía.
- Fundición
- Formación de un objeto vertiendo metal fundido (u otras sustancias) en un molde.
- Cátodo
- El terminal de un dispositivo por el que sale la corriente.
- Rayo catódico
- La corriente de electrones emitidos por un electrodo negativo calentado y atraídos por un electrodo positivo.
- Membrana celular
- La membrana celular (también conocida como membrana plasmática o membrana citoplasmática, e históricamente conocida como plasmalema ) es una membrana biológica que separa el interior de todas las células del entorno exterior (el espacio extracelular) que protege a la célula de su entorno [ 95] [96] que consta de una bicapa lipídica con proteínas incrustadas .
- Nucleo celular
- En la biología celular , el núcleo (pl. Núcleos ; de América núcleo o nuculeus , lo que significa kernel o semilla ) es una membrana con cerramiento orgánulo encontrado en eucariotas células . Los eucariotas suelen tener un solo núcleo, pero algunos tipos de células, como los glóbulos rojos de los mamíferos, no tienen núcleo , y algunos otros, incluidos los osteoclastos, tienen muchos .
- Teoría celular
- En biología , la teoría celular es la teoría científica histórica , ahora universalmente aceptada, de que los organismos vivos están formados por células , que son la unidad estructural / organizativa básica de todos los organismos y que todas las células provienen de células preexistentes. Las células son la unidad básica de estructura en todos los organismos y también la unidad básica de reproducción.
- Centro de gravedad
- El centro de masa de un objeto, su punto de equilibrio.
- Centro de masa
- El centro ponderado de un objeto; una fuerza aplicada a través del centro de masa no causará la rotación del objeto.
- Centro de presión
- Es el punto donde la suma total de un campo de presión actúa sobre un cuerpo, provocando que una fuerza actúe a través de ese punto. El vector de fuerza total que actúa en el centro de presión es el valor del campo de presión vectorial integrado. La fuerza resultante y la ubicación del centro de presión producen una fuerza y un momento equivalentes en el cuerpo como el campo de presión original.
- Movimiento de fuerza central
- .
- Teorema del límite central
- En la teoría de la probabilidad , el teorema del límite central ( CLT ) establece que, en algunas situaciones, cuando se agregan variables aleatorias independientes , su suma correctamente normalizada tiende hacia una distribución normal (informalmente una " curva de campana ") incluso si las variables originales en sí mismas no son Normalmente distribuido. El teorema es un concepto clave en la teoría de la probabilidad porque implica que los métodos probabilísticos y estadísticos que funcionan para distribuciones normales pueden ser aplicables a muchos problemas que involucran otros tipos de distribuciones.
- Unidad Central de procesamiento
- Una unidad central de procesamiento ( CPU ) es el circuito electrónico dentro de una computadora que lleva a cabo las instrucciones de un programa de computadora al realizar las operaciones básicas de aritmética , lógica, control y entrada / salida (E / S) especificadas por las instrucciones. La industria de la computación ha utilizado el término "unidad central de procesamiento" al menos desde principios de la década de 1960. [97] Tradicionalmente, el término "CPU" se refiere a un procesador , más específicamente a su unidad de procesamiento y unidad de control (CU), distinguiendo estos elementos centrales de una computadora de los componentes externos como la memoria principal y los circuitos de E / S. [98]
- Aceleración centrípeta
- .
- Fuerza centrípeta
- Fuerza que actúa contra la aceleración rotacional.
- Centroide
- El punto medio de volumen de un objeto.
- Centrosoma
- En biología celular , el centrosoma es un orgánulo que actúa como el principal centro organizador de microtúbulos (MTOC) de la célula animal , así como como regulador de la progresión del ciclo celular . Se cree que el centrosoma ha evolucionado solo en el linaje metazoario de células eucariotas . [99] Los hongos y las plantas carecen de centrosomas y, por lo tanto, utilizan estructuras distintas de los MTOC para organizar sus microtúbulos. [100] [101]
- Reacción en cadena
- Es una secuencia de reacciones en las que un producto o subproducto reactivo provoca reacciones adicionales. En una reacción en cadena, la retroalimentación positiva conduce a una cadena de eventos que se autoamplifica .
- Cambio de regla base
- .
- Ley de Charles
- La ley de Charles (también conocida como ley de los volúmenes ) es una ley experimental de los gases que describe cómo los gases tienden a expandirse cuando se calientan . Una declaración moderna de la ley de Charles es: cuando la presión sobre una muestra de un gas seco se mantiene constante, la temperatura Kelvin y el volumen estarán en proporción directa. [102]
- Enlace químico
- Es una atracción duradera entre átomos , iones o moléculas que permite la formación de compuestos químicos . El enlace puede resultar de la fuerza de atracción electrostática entre iones con carga opuesta, como en los enlaces iónicos, o mediante el intercambio de electrones, como en los enlaces covalentes . La fuerza de los enlaces químicos varía considerablemente; hay "enlaces fuertes" o "enlaces primarios" como los enlaces covalentes, iónicos y metálicos , y "enlaces débiles" o "enlaces secundarios" como las interacciones dipolo-dipolo , la fuerza de dispersión de London y los enlaces de hidrógeno .
- Compuesto químico
- Es una sustancia química compuesta por muchas moléculas idénticas (o entidades moleculares ) compuestas por átomos de más de un elemento unidos por enlaces químicos . Un elemento químico unido a un elemento químico idéntico no es un compuesto químico ya que solo está involucrado un elemento, no dos elementos diferentes.
- Equilibrio químico
- En una reacción química , el equilibrio químico es el estado en el que tanto los reactivos como los productos están presentes en concentraciones que no tienen más tendencia a cambiar con el tiempo, de modo que no hay ningún cambio observable en las propiedades del sistema. [103] Por lo general, este estado se produce cuando la reacción directa avanza a la misma velocidad que la reacción inversa . Las velocidades de reacción de las reacciones hacia adelante y hacia atrás generalmente no son cero, sino iguales. Por lo tanto, no hay cambios netos en las concentraciones de los reactivos y productos. Tal estado se conoce como equilibrio dinámico . [104] [105]
- Cinética química
- La cinética química , también conocida como cinética de reacción , es el estudio de las velocidades de los procesos químicos . La cinética química incluye investigaciones sobre cómo diferentes condiciones experimentales pueden influir en la velocidad de una reacción química y producir información sobre el mecanismo de la reacción y los estados de transición , así como la construcción de modelos matemáticos que pueden describir las características de una reacción química.
- Reacción química
- Una reacción química es un proceso que conduce a la transformación química de un conjunto de sustancias químicas en otro. [106] Clásicamente, las reacciones químicas abarcan cambios que solo involucran las posiciones de los electrones en la formación y ruptura de enlaces químicos entre átomos , sin cambios en los núcleos (sin cambios en los elementos presentes), y a menudo pueden ser descritos por un químico ecuación . La química nuclear es una subdisciplina de la química que involucra las reacciones químicas de elementos inestables y radiactivos donde pueden ocurrir cambios tanto electrónicos como nucleares.
- Química
- Es la disciplina científica involucrada con elementos y compuestos compuestos por átomos , moléculas e iones : su composición, estructura, propiedades, comportamiento y los cambios que experimentan durante una reacción con otras sustancias . [107] [108] [109] [110]
- Cloruro
- Cualquier compuesto químico que contenga el elemento cloro.
- Cromato
- Las sales de cromato contienen el anión cromato, CrO2−
4. Las sales de dicromato contienen el anión dicromato, Cr
2O2-
7. Son oxoaniones de cromo en estado de oxidación 6+ . Son agentes oxidantes moderadamente fuertes . En una solución acuosa , los iones cromato y dicromato pueden ser interconvertibles. - Movimiento circular
- En física , el movimiento circular es el movimiento de un objeto a lo largo de la circunferencia de un círculo o la rotación a lo largo de una trayectoria circular. Puede ser uniforme, con una tasa de rotación angular constante y una velocidad constante, o no uniforme con una tasa de rotación cambiante. La rotación alrededor de un eje fijo de un cuerpo tridimensional implica el movimiento circular de sus partes. Las ecuaciones de movimiento describen el movimiento del centro de masa de un cuerpo.
- Ingeniería civil
- Profesión que se ocupa del diseño y construcción de estructuras u otras obras fijas.
- Relación Clausius-Clapeyron
- La relación Clausius-Clapeyron , que lleva el nombre de Rudolf Clausius [111] y Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron , [112] es una forma de caracterizar una transición de fase discontinua entre dos fases de la materia de un solo constituyente. En un diagrama de presión - temperatura (P – T), la línea que separa las dos fases se conoce como curva de coexistencia. La relación de Clausius-Clapeyron da la pendiente de las tangentes a esta curva. Matemáticamente,
- Desigualdad de Clausius
- .
- Teorema de clausius
- El teorema de Clausius (1855) establece que un sistema que intercambia calor con depósitos externos y se somete a un proceso cíclico, es uno que finalmente devuelve un sistema a su estado original,
- Coeficiente de rendimiento
- El coeficiente de rendimiento o COP (a veces CP o CoP ) de una bomba de calor, un frigorífico o un sistema de aire acondicionado es una relación entre la calefacción o la refrigeración útil proporcionada y el trabajo requerido. [117] [118] COP más altos equivalen a costos operativos más bajos. El COP generalmente excede 1, especialmente en bombas de calor, porque, en lugar de simplemente convertir el trabajo en calor (que, si es 100% eficiente, sería un COP_hp de 1), bombea calor adicional desde una fuente de calor a donde se requiere el calor. . Para sistemas completos, los cálculos de COP deben incluir el consumo de energía de todos los auxiliares que consumen energía. El COP depende en gran medida de las condiciones de funcionamiento, especialmente la temperatura absoluta y la temperatura relativa entre el sumidero y el sistema, y a menudo se representa gráficamente o se promedia contra las condiciones esperadas. [119]
- Coeficiente de variación
- En teoría y estadística de probabilidad , el coeficiente de variación ( CV ), también conocido como desviación estándar relativa ( RSD ), es una medida estandarizada de dispersión de una distribución de probabilidad o distribución de frecuencia . A menudo se expresa como un porcentaje y se define como la relación de la desviación estándara la media(o su valor absoluto , ).
- Coherencia
- En física , dos fuentes de ondas son perfectamente coherentes si tienen una diferencia de fase constante , la misma frecuencia y la misma forma de onda . La coherencia es una propiedad ideal de las ondas que permite la interferencia estacionaria (es decir, temporal y espacialmente constante) . Contiene varios conceptos distintos, que son casos límite que nunca ocurren del todo en la realidad, pero que permiten comprender la física de las ondas, y se ha convertido en un concepto muy importante en la física cuántica. De manera más general, la coherencia describe todas las propiedades de la correlación entre cantidades físicas de una sola onda o entre varias ondas o paquetes de ondas.
- Cohesión
- O atracción cohesiva o fuerza cohesiva es la acción o propiedad de moléculas similares que se unen, siendo mutuamente atractivas . Es una propiedad intrínseca de una sustancia que es causada por la forma y estructura de sus moléculas, lo que hace que la distribución de los electrones en órbita sea irregular cuando las moléculas se acercan entre sí, creando una atracción eléctrica que puede mantener una estructura microscópica como una gota de agua. . En otras palabras, la cohesión permite la tensión superficial , creando un estado "similar a un sólido" sobre el cual se pueden colocar materiales ligeros o de baja densidad.
- Formación en frío
- O trabajo en frío , cualquier procedimiento de trabajo de metales (como martilleo, laminado, cizallamiento, plegado, fresado, etc.) realizado por debajo de la temperatura de recristalización del metal.
- Combustión
- O quemar , [120] es una reacción química redox exotérmica a alta temperatura entre un combustible (el reductor) y un oxidante , generalmente oxígeno atmosférico , que produce productos oxidados, a menudo gaseosos, en una mezcla denominada humo .
- Compensación
- Está planificando efectos secundarios u otros problemas no deseados en un diseño . En un término más simple, es un plan de "contraprocedimiento" sobre el efecto secundario esperado realizado para producir resultados más eficientes y útiles. El diseño de una invención también puede compensar algún otro problema o excepción existente .
- Compilador
- Un programa de computadora que traduce un lenguaje de alto nivel a lenguaje de máquina.
- Fuerza compresiva
- La resistencia a la compresión o resistencia a la compresión es la capacidad de un material o estructura para soportar cargas que tienden a reducir el tamaño, en contraposición a la resistencia a la tracción , que soporta cargas que tienden a alargarse. En otras palabras, la resistencia a la compresión resiste la compresión (se junta), mientras que la resistencia a la tracción resiste la tensión (se separa). En el estudio de la resistencia de los materiales , la resistencia a la tracción, la resistencia a la compresión y la resistencia al corte se pueden analizar de forma independiente.
- Dinámica de fluidos computacional
- La solución numérica de ecuaciones de flujo en problemas prácticos como el diseño de aeronaves o estructuras hidráulicas.
- Ordenador
- Una computadora es un dispositivo que puede recibir instrucciones para realizar secuencias de operaciones aritméticas o lógicas automáticamente a través de la programación de la computadora . Las computadoras modernas tienen la capacidad de seguir conjuntos de operaciones generalizados, llamados programas . Estos programas permiten a las computadoras realizar una amplia gama de tareas.
- Diseño asistido por ordenador
- El diseño asistido por computadora ( CAD ) es el uso de sistemas informáticos (o estaciones de trabajo ) para ayudar en la creación, modificación, análisis u optimización de un diseño. [121] El software CAD se utiliza para aumentar la productividad del diseñador, mejorar la calidad del diseño, mejorar las comunicaciones a través de la documentación y crear una base de datos para la fabricación. [122] Los resultados CAD suelen presentarse en forma de archivos electrónicos para impresión, mecanizado u otras operaciones de fabricación. También seutiliza eltérmino CADD(paradiseño y dibujo asistidopor computadora). [123]
- Ingenieria asistida por computadora
- La ingeniería asistida por computadora ( CAE ) es el amplio uso de software de computadora para ayudar en las tareas de análisis de ingeniería . Incluye análisis de elementos finitos (FEA) , dinámica de fluidos computacional (CFD) , dinámica multicuerpo (MBD) , durabilidad y optimización .
- Fabricación asistida por ordenador
- La fabricación asistida por ordenador ( CAM ) es el uso de software para controlar máquinas herramienta y otras relacionadas en la fabricación de piezas de trabajo. [124] [125] [126] [127] [128] Esta no es la única definición de CAM, pero es la más común; [124] CAM también puede referirse al uso de una computadora para ayudar en todas las operaciones de una planta de fabricación, incluida la planificación, la gestión, el transporte y el almacenamiento. [129] [130]
- Ingeniería Informática
- La ingeniería informática es una disciplina que integra varios campos de la informática y la ingeniería electrónica necesarios para desarrollar hardware y software informáticos . [131]
- Ciencias de la Computación
- Es la teoría, la experimentación y la ingeniería que forman la base para el diseño y uso de las computadoras . Implica el estudio de algoritmos que procesan, almacenan y comunican información digital . Un científico de la computación se especializa en la teoría de la computación y el diseño de sistemas computacionales. [132]
- Lente cóncava
- Las lentes se clasifican por la curvatura de las dos superficies ópticas. Una lente es biconvexa (o doble convexa , o simplemente convexa ) si ambas superficies son convexas . Si ambas superficies tienen el mismo radio de curvatura, la lente es equiconvexa . Una lente con dos superficies cóncavas es bicóncava (o simplemente cóncava ). Si una de las superficies es plana, la lente es plano-convexa o plano-cóncava dependiendo de la curvatura de la otra superficie. Una lente con un lado convexo y otro cóncavo es convexo-cóncavo o menisco .
- Física de la Materia Condensada
- Es el campo de la física que se ocupa de las propiedades físicas macroscópicas y microscópicas de la materia. En particular, se ocupa de las fases "condensadas" que aparecen siempre que el número de constituyentes en un sistema es extremadamente grande y las interacciones entre los constituyentes son fuertes.
- Intervalo de confianza
- En estadística , un intervalo de confianza o intervalo de compatibilidad ( IC ) es un tipo de estimación de intervalo , calculada a partir de las estadísticas de los datos observados, que puede contener el valor real de un parámetro de población desconocido . El intervalo tiene un nivel de confianza asociado que, en términos generales, cuantifica el nivel de confianza de que el parámetro se encuentra en el intervalo. Hablando más estrictamente, el nivel de confianza representa la frecuencia (es decir, la proporción) de posibles intervalos de confianza que contienen el valor real del parámetro de población desconocido. En otras palabras, si los intervalos de confianza se construyen utilizando un nivel de confianza dado de un número infinito de estadísticas de muestra independientes, la proporción de esos intervalos que contienen el valor verdadero del parámetro será igual al nivel de confianza. [133] [134] [135]
- Ácido conjugado
- Un ácido conjugado , dentro de la teoría ácido-base de Brønsted-Lowry , es una especie formada por la recepción de un protón ( H + ) por una base; en otras palabras, es una base a la que se le añade un ión de hidrógeno . Por otro lado, una base conjugada es lo que queda después de que un ácido ha donado un protón durante una reacción química. Por tanto, una base conjugada es una especie formada por la eliminación de un protón de un ácido. [136] Debido a que algunos ácidos son capaces de liberar múltiples protones, la base conjugada de un ácido puede ser ácida.
- Base conjugada
- Un ácido conjugado , dentro de la teoría ácido-base de Brønsted-Lowry , es una especie formada por la recepción de un protón ( H + ) por una base; en otras palabras, es una base a la que se le añade un ión de hidrógeno . Por otro lado, una base conjugada es lo que queda después de que un ácido ha donado un protón durante una reacción química. Por tanto, una base conjugada es una especie formada por la eliminación de un protón de un ácido. [136] Debido a que algunos ácidos son capaces de liberar múltiples protones, la base conjugada de un ácido puede ser ácida.
- Conservacion de energia
- En física y química, la ley de conservación de la energía establece que la energía total de un sistema aislado permanece constante; se dice que se conserva con el tiempo. [137] Esta ley significa que la energía no se puede crear ni destruir; más bien, solo se puede transformar o transferir de una forma a otra.
- Conservación de la masa
- La ley de conservación de la masa o el principio de conservación de la masa establece que para cualquier sistema cerrado a todas las transferencias de materia y energía , la masa del sistema debe permanecer constante en el tiempo, ya que la masa del sistema no puede cambiar, por lo que la cantidad no se puede agregar ni eliminar. Por tanto, la cantidad de masa se conserva con el tiempo.
- Ecuación de continuidad
- Una ecuación de continuidad en física es una ecuación que describe el transporte de alguna cantidad. Es particularmente simple y poderoso cuando se aplica a una cantidad conservada , pero puede generalizarse para aplicarse a cualquier cantidad extensiva . Dado que la masa , la energía , el momento , la carga eléctrica y otras cantidades naturales se conservan en sus respectivas condiciones apropiadas, se pueden describir una variedad de fenómenos físicos utilizando ecuaciones de continuidad.
- Mecánica de Medios Continuos
- Es una rama de la mecánica que se ocupa del comportamiento mecánico de los materiales modelados como una masa continua en lugar de como partículas discretas. El matemático francés Augustin-Louis Cauchy fue el primero en formular tales modelos en el siglo XIX.
- Ingeniería de control
- La ingeniería de control o la ingeniería de sistemas de control es una disciplina de ingeniería que aplica la teoría del control automático para diseñar sistemas con comportamientos deseados en entornos de control . [138] La disciplina de los controles se superpone y generalmente se enseña junto con la ingeniería eléctrica en muchas instituciones de todo el mundo. [138] .
- Lentes convexas
- Las lentes se clasifican por la curvatura de las dos superficies ópticas. Una lente es biconvexa (o doble convexa , o simplemente convexa ) si ambas superficies son convexas . Si ambas superficies tienen el mismo radio de curvatura, la lente es equiconvexa . Una lente con dos superficies cóncavas es bicóncava (o simplemente cóncava ). Si una de las superficies es plana, la lente es plano-convexa o plano-cóncava dependiendo de la curvatura de la otra superficie. Una lente con un lado convexo y otro cóncavo es convexo-cóncavo o menisco .
- Corrosión
- Es un proceso natural que convierte un metal refinado en una forma más estable químicamente, como su óxido , hidróxido o sulfuro . Es la destrucción gradual de materiales (generalmente metales ) por reacción química y / o electroquímica con su entorno. La ingeniería de corrosión es el campo dedicado a controlar y detener la corrosión.
- Rayos cósmicos
- Los rayos cósmicos son radiaciones de alta energía , que se originan principalmente fuera del Sistema Solar . [139]
- Culombio
- El culombio (símbolo: C) es la unidad de carga eléctrica del Sistema Internacional de Unidades (SI) . Es la carga (símbolo: Q o q ) transportada por una corriente constante de un amperio en un segundo :
- ley de Coulomb
- La ley de Coulomb , o ley del cuadrado inverso de Coulomb , es una ley de la física para cuantificar la fuerza de Coulomb, o fuerza electrostática. La fuerza electrostática es la cantidad de fuerza con la que las partículas estacionarias cargadas eléctricamente se repelen o se atraen entre sí. Esta fuerza y la ley para cuantificarla, representan una de las formas de fuerza más básicas utilizadas en las ciencias físicas, y fueron una base esencial para el estudio y desarrollo de la teoría y el campo del electromagnetismo clásico . La ley fue publicada por primera vez en 1785 por el físico francés Charles-Augustin de Coulomb . [141] En su forma escalar , la ley es:
- ,
- Enlace covalente
- Un enlace covalente , también llamado enlace molecular , es un enlace químico que implica el intercambio de pares de electrones entre átomos .
- Tubo de Crookes
- Tipo de tubo de vacío que muestra los rayos catódicos.
- Criogenia
- La ciencia de las bajas temperaturas.
- Cristalización
- La cristalización es el proceso (natural o artificial) mediante el cual se forma un sólido, donde los átomos o moléculas están altamente organizados en una estructura conocida como cristal . Algunas de las formas en que se forman los cristales son la precipitación de una solución , la congelación o, más raramente, la deposición directamente de un gas . Los atributos del cristal resultante dependen en gran medida de factores como la temperatura, la presión del aire y, en el caso de los cristales líquidos, el tiempo de evaporación del fluido.
- Cristalografía
- El estudio de los cristales.
- Movimiento curvilíneo
- Describe el movimiento de una partícula en movimiento que se ajusta a una curva conocida o fija. El estudio de tal movimiento implica el uso de dos sistemas de coordenadas, el primero es un movimiento plano y el último es un movimiento cilíndrico.
- Ciclotrón
- Un ciclotrón es un tipo de acelerador de partículas inventado por Ernest O. Lawrence en 1929-1930 en la Universidad de California, Berkeley , [142] [143] y patentado en 1932. [144] [145] Un ciclotrón acelera partículas cargadas hacia afuera desde el centro a lo largo de un camino en espiral. [146] [147] Las partículas se mantienen en una trayectoria en espiral por un campo magnético estático y aceleradas por un campo eléctrico que varía rápidamente ( radiofrecuencia ). Lawrence recibió el premio Nobel de física de 1939 por esta invención. [147] [148]
D
- Ley de Dalton
- En química y física , la ley de Dalton (también llamada ley de presiones parciales de Dalton ) establece que en una mezcla de gases que no reaccionan, la presión total ejercida es igual a la suma de las presiones parciales de los gases individuales. [149]
- Vibración amortiguada
- Cualquier vibración con una fuerza que actúe en su contra para disminuir la vibración con el tiempo.
- Ecuación de Darcy-Weisbach
- Ecuación utilizada en mecánica de fluidos para encontrar el cambio de presión causado por la fricción dentro de una tubería o conducto.
- motor de corriente continua
- Un motor eléctrico impulsado por corriente continua.
- Decibel
- Unidad logarítmica de razones.
- Integral definida
- La integral de una función entre un límite superior e inferior . [150]
- Desviación
- Es el grado en que un elemento estructural se desplaza bajo una carga . Puede referirse a un ángulo o una distancia.
- Deformación (ingeniería)
- En la ciencia de los materiales , la deformación se refiere a cualquier cambio en la forma o tamaño de un objeto debido a
- una fuerza aplicada (la energía de deformación en este caso se transfiere a través del trabajo) o
- un cambio de temperatura (la energía de deformación en este caso se transfiere a través del calor).
- Deformación (mecánica)
- La deformación en la mecánica del continuo es la transformación de un cuerpo de una configuración de referencia a una configuración actual . [153] Una configuración es un conjunto que contiene las posiciones de todas las partículas del cuerpo. Una deformación puede ser causada por cargas externas , [154] fuerzas corporales (como la gravedad o fuerzas electromagnéticas ) o cambios en la temperatura, contenido de humedad o reacciones químicas, etc.
- Grados de libertad
- El número de parámetros necesarios para definir el movimiento de un sistema dinámico.
- Robot delta
- Un enlace de trípode, utilizado para construir manipuladores de acción rápida con un amplio rango de movimiento.
- Transformador delta-estrella
- Tipo de transformador que se utiliza en sistemas eléctricos trifásicos.
- Teorema de De Moivre-Laplace
- En la teoría de la probabilidad , el teorema de Moivre-Laplace , que es un caso especial del teorema del límite central , establece que la distribución normal puede usarse como una aproximación a la distribución binomial bajo ciertas condiciones. En particular, el teorema muestra que la función de masa de probabilidad del número aleatorio de "éxitos" observados en una serie de ensayos de Bernoulli independientes , cada uno con probabilidad de éxito (una distribución binomial con ensayos), converge a la función de densidad de probabilidad de la distribución normal con media y desviación estándar , como crece grande, asumiendo no es o .
- Densidad
- La densidad , o más precisamente, la densidad de masa volumétrica , de una sustancia es su masa por unidad de volumen . El símbolo que se usa con más frecuencia para la densidad es ρ (la letra griega minúscula rho ), aunque también se puede usar la letra latina D. Matemáticamente, la densidad se define como masa dividida por volumen: [155]
- Derivado
- La derivada de una función de una variable real mide la sensibilidad al cambio del valor de la función (valor de salida) con respecto a un cambio en su argumento (valor de entrada). Las derivadas son una herramienta fundamental del cálculo . Por ejemplo, la derivada de la posición de un objeto en movimiento con respecto al tiempo es la velocidad del objeto : esto mide qué tan rápido cambia la posición del objeto cuando avanza el tiempo.
- Ingeniería de diseño
- .
- punto de rocío
- La presión y temperatura a las que el aire mantiene la máxima humedad posible.
- Diamagnetismo
- Los materiales diamagnéticos son repelidos por un campo magnético ; un campo magnético aplicado crea un campo magnético inducido en ellos en la dirección opuesta, provocando una fuerza repulsiva. Por el contrario, los materiales paramagnéticos y ferromagnéticos son atraídos por un campo magnético. El diamagnetismo es un efecto mecánico cuántico que ocurre en todos los materiales; cuando es la única contribución al magnetismo, el material se llama diamagnético. En las sustancias paramagnéticas y ferromagnéticas, la fuerza diamagnética débil es superada por la fuerza de atracción de los dipolos magnéticos en el material. La permeabilidad magnética de los materiales diamagnéticos es menor que μ 0 , la permeabilidad del vacío. En la mayoría de los materiales, el diamagnetismo es un efecto débil que solo puede ser detectado por instrumentos de laboratorio sensibles, pero un superconductor actúa como un diamagnet fuerte porque repele un campo magnético por completo desde su interior.
- Dieléctrico
- Un aislante, un material que no permite el libre flujo de electricidad.
- Presión diferencial
- .
- Polea diferencial
- Una polea diferencial , también llamada polea diferencial Weston , o coloquialmente caída de cadena , se usa para levantar manualmente objetos muy pesados como motores de automóviles . Se opera tirando de la sección floja de una cadena continua que envuelve poleas. El tamaño relativo de dos poleas conectadas determina el peso máximo que se puede levantar con la mano. La carga permanecerá en su lugar (y no bajará bajo la fuerza de la gravedad ) hasta que se tire de la cadena. [157]
- Señalización diferencial
- Es un método para transmitir información eléctricamente utilizando dos señales complementarias .
- Difusión
- Es el movimiento neto de moléculas o átomos desde una región de mayor concentración (o alto potencial químico) a una región de menor concentración (o bajo potencial químico).
- Análisis dimensional
- es el análisis de las relaciones entre diferentes cantidades físicas identificando sus cantidades base (como longitud , masa , tiempo y carga eléctrica ) y unidades de medida (como millas frente a kilómetros, o libras frente a kilogramos) y rastreando estas dimensiones a medida que se realizan cálculos o comparaciones. La conversión de unidades de una unidad dimensional a otra suele ser algo compleja. El análisis dimensional, o más específicamente el método de etiqueta de factor , también conocido como método de factor unitario , es una técnica ampliamente utilizada para tales conversiones utilizando las reglas del álgebra . [158] [159] [160]
- Integración directa de una viga
- La integración directa es un método de análisis estructural para medir el cortante interno, el momento interno, la rotación y la deflexión de una viga. Para una viga con un peso aplicado , tomando hacia abajo como positivo, el esfuerzo cortante interno se obtiene tomando la integral negativa del peso:
- =
- .
mi
- Ciencias económicas
- El estudio científico de la producción, distribución y consumo de bienes.
- Efusión
- En física y química, la efusión es el proceso en el que un gas escapa de un recipiente a través de un orificio de diámetro considerablemente menor que el camino libre medio de las moléculas. [169]
- Modulos elasticos
- La cantidad que se deformará un material por unidad de fuerza.
- Elasticidad
- En física , la elasticidad es la capacidad de un cuerpo para resistir una influencia distorsionante y volver a su tamaño y forma originales cuando se elimina esa influencia o fuerza. Los objetos sólidos se deformarán cuando se les apliquen las fuerzas adecuadas . Si el material es elástico, el objeto volverá a su forma y tamaño iniciales cuando se eliminen estas fuerzas.
- Carga eléctrica
- es la propiedad física de la materia que hace que experimente una fuerza cuando se coloca en un campo electromagnético . Hay dos tipos de cargas eléctricas; positivo y negativo (comúnmente transportado por protones y electrones respectivamente). Las cargas iguales se repelen y las distintas se atraen. Un objeto con ausencia de carga neta se denomina neutral . El conocimiento temprano de cómo interactúan las sustancias cargadas ahora se denomina electrodinámica clásicay sigue siendo preciso para problemas que no requieren la consideración de efectos cuánticos.
- Circuito electrico
- Es una red eléctrica que consta de un circuito cerrado, dando un camino de retorno para la corriente.
- Corriente eléctrica
- Es un flujo de carga eléctrica . [170] : 2 En los circuitos eléctricos, esta carga a menudo se transporta moviendo electrones en un cable . También puede ser transportado por iones en un electrolito , o por iones y electrones, como en un gas ionizado ( plasma ). [171] La unidad SI para medir una corriente eléctrica es el amperio , que es el flujo de carga eléctrica a través de una superficie a razón de un culombio por segundo. La corriente eléctrica se mide mediante un dispositivo llamado amperímetro . [172]
- Campo de desplazamiento eléctrico
- En física , el campo de desplazamiento eléctrico , denotado por D , es un campo vectorial que aparece en las ecuaciones de Maxwell . Tiene en cuenta los efectos de la carga gratuita y consolidada dentro de los materiales. " D " significa "desplazamiento", como en el concepto relacionado de corriente de desplazamiento en dieléctricos . En el espacio libre , el campo de desplazamiento eléctrico es equivalente a la densidad de flujo , un concepto que ayuda a comprender la ley de Gauss . En el Sistema Internacional de Unidades (SI), se expresa en unidades de culombio por metro cuadrado (C⋅m −2 ).
- Generador eléctrico
- En la generación de electricidad , un generador , también llamado generador eléctrico , generador eléctrico , y el generador electromagnético . es un dispositivo que convierte la fuerza motriz ( energía mecánica ) en energía eléctrica para su uso en un circuito externo . Las fuentes de energía mecánica incluyen turbinas de vapor , turbinas de gas , turbinas de agua , motores de combustión interna e incluso manivelas .
- Campo eléctrico
- Rodea una carga eléctrica y ejerce fuerza sobre otras cargas en el campo, atrayéndolas o repeliéndolas. [173] [174] El campo eléctrico se abrevia a veces como E-campo .
- Gradiente de campo eléctrico
- En física atómica , molecular y de estado sólido , el gradiente de campo eléctrico ( EFG ) mide la tasa de cambio del campo eléctrico en un núcleo atómico generado por la distribución de carga electrónica y los otros núcleos.
- Motor eléctrico
- Es una máquina eléctrica que convierte la energía eléctrica en energía mecánica . La mayoría de los motores eléctricos funcionan mediante la interacción entre el campo magnético del motor y las corrientes de los devanados para generar fuerza en forma de rotación . Los motores eléctricos pueden ser alimentados por fuentes de corriente continua (CC), como baterías, vehículos de motor o rectificadores, o por fuentes de corriente alterna (CA), como una red eléctrica, inversores o generadores eléctricos. Un generador eléctrico es mecánicamente idéntico a un motor eléctrico, pero funciona en la dirección inversa, aceptando energía mecánica (como la del agua que fluye) y convirtiendo esta energía mecánica en energía eléctrica.
- Potencial eléctrico
- (También llamado potencial de campo eléctrico , caída de potencial o potencial electrostático ) es la cantidad de trabajo necesario para mover una unidad de carga positiva desde un punto de referencia a un punto específico dentro del campo sin producir una aceleración. Normalmente, el punto de referencia es la Tierra o un punto en el infinito , aunque se puede utilizar cualquier punto más allá de la influencia de la carga del campo eléctrico.
- Energía potencial eléctrica
- La energía potencial eléctrica, o energía potencial electrostática, es una energía potencial (medida en julios ) que resulta de las fuerzas conservadoras de Coulomb y está asociada con la configuración de un conjunto particular de cargas puntuales dentro de un sistema definido . Un objeto puede tener energía potencial eléctrica en virtud de dos elementos clave: su propia carga eléctrica y su posición relativa a otros objetos cargados eléctricamente . El término "energía potencial eléctrica" se utiliza para describir la energía potencial en sistemas con tiempo variante campos eléctricos , mientras que el término "energía potencial electrostático" se utiliza para describir la energía potencial en los sistemas con invariantes en el tiempo los campos eléctricos.
- Energia electrica
- Es la tasa, por unidad de tiempo, a la que un circuito eléctrico transfiere energía eléctrica . La unidad de potencia del SI es el vatio , un julio por segundo .
- Ingenieria Eléctrica
- Es una disciplina técnica que se ocupa del estudio, diseño y aplicación de equipos, dispositivos y sistemas que utilizan electricidad , electrónica y electromagnetismo . Surgió como una actividad identificada en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX luego de la comercialización del telégrafo eléctrico , el teléfono y la generación, distribución y uso de energía eléctrica . .
- Conductancia eléctrica
- La resistencia eléctrica de un objeto es una medida de su oposición al flujo de corriente eléctrica. La cantidad inversa es conductancia eléctrica , y es la facilidad con la que pasa una corriente eléctrica. La resistencia eléctrica comparte algunos paralelos conceptuales con la noción de fricción mecánica . La unidad SI de resistencia eléctrica es el ohmio ( Ω ), mientras que la conductancia eléctrica se mide en siemens (S).
- Conductor electrico
- Es un objeto o tipo de material que permite el flujo de carga ( corriente eléctrica ) en una o más direcciones. Los materiales hechos de metal son conductores eléctricos comunes. La corriente eléctrica es generada por el flujo de electrones cargados negativamente, huecos cargados positivamente e iones positivos o negativos en algunos casos.
- Impedancia electrica
- Es la medida de la oposición que presenta un circuito a una corriente cuando se aplica un voltaje . El término impedancia compleja puede usarse indistintamente.
- Aislante eléctrico
- Es un material cuyas cargas eléctricas internas no fluyen libremente; muy poca corriente eléctrica fluirá a través de él bajo la influencia de un campo eléctrico . Esto contrasta con otros materiales, semiconductores y conductores , que conducen la corriente eléctrica con mayor facilidad. La propiedad que distingue a un aislante es su resistividad ; Los aisladores tienen una resistividad más alta que los semiconductores o conductores.
- Red eléctrica
- Es una interconexión de componentes eléctricos (por ejemplo, baterías , resistencias , inductores , condensadores , interruptores , transistores ) o un modelo de dicha interconexión, que consta de elementos eléctricos (por ejemplo, fuentes de voltaje , fuentes de corriente , resistencias , inductancias , capacitancias ). Un circuito eléctrico es una red que consta de un circuito cerrado, que proporciona una ruta de retorno para la corriente. Las redes eléctricas lineales , un tipo especial que consta solo de fuentes (voltaje o corriente), elementos lineales agrupados (resistencias, condensadores, inductores) y elementos lineales distribuidos (líneas de transmisión), tienen la propiedad de que las señales son linealmente superponibles . Por lo tanto, se analizan más fácilmente, utilizando métodos potentes en el dominio de la frecuencia , como las transformadas de Laplace , para determinar la respuesta de CC , la respuesta de CA y la respuesta transitoria .
- Resistencia eléctrica
- La resistencia eléctrica de un objeto es una medida de su oposición al flujo de corriente eléctrica. La cantidad inversa es conductancia eléctrica , y es la facilidad con la que pasa una corriente eléctrica. La resistencia eléctrica comparte algunos paralelos conceptuales con la noción de fricción mecánica . La unidad SI de resistencia eléctrica es el ohmio ( Ω ), mientras que la conductancia eléctrica se mide en siemens (S).
- Electricidad
- Es el conjunto de fenómenos físicos asociados a la presencia y movimiento de materia que tiene una propiedad de carga eléctrica . La electricidad está relacionada con el magnetismo , y ambos forman parte del fenómeno del electromagnetismo , como lo describen las ecuaciones de Maxwell . Varios fenómenos comunes están relacionados con la electricidad, incluidos los rayos , la electricidad estática , el calentamiento eléctrico , las descargas eléctricas y muchos otros.
- Electrodinámica
- En física, los fenómenos asociados con el movimiento de cargas eléctricas y su interacción con campos eléctricos y magnéticos ; el estudio de estos fenómenos. [175]
- Electroimán
- Es un tipo de imán en el que el campo magnético es producido por una corriente eléctrica . Los electroimanes generalmente consisten en alambre enrollado en una bobina . Una corriente a través del cable crea un campo magnético que se concentra en el orificio, denotando el centro de la bobina. El campo magnético desaparece cuando se apaga la corriente. Las vueltas de alambre a menudo se enrollan alrededor de un núcleo magnético hecho de un material ferromagnético o ferrimagnético como el hierro ; el núcleo magnético concentra el flujo magnético y crea un imán más poderoso.
- Electromagnetic field
- An electromagnetic field (also EM field) is a classical (i.e. non-quantum) field produced by accelerating electric charges. [176] It is the field described by classical electrodynamics and is the classical counterpart to the quantized electromagnetic field tensor in quantum electrodynamics. The electromagnetic field propagates at the speed of light (in fact, this field can be identified as light) and interacts with charges and currents. Its quantum counterpart is one of the four fundamental forces of nature (the others are gravitation, weak interaction and strong interaction.)
- Electromagnetic radiation
- In physics, electromagnetic radiation ( EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. [177] It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. [178]
- Electromechanics
- Electromechanics [179][180][181][182] combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering. Electromechanics focuses on the interaction of electrical and mechanical systems as a whole and how the two systems interact with each other. This process is especially prominent in systems such as those of DC or AC rotating electrical machines which can be designed and operated to generate power from a mechanical process ( generator) or used to power a mechanical effect ( motor). Electrical engineering in this context also encompasses electronics engineering.
- Electron
- Is a subatomic particle, symbol
e−
or
β−
, whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge. [183] Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, [184] and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. [185] The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. [186]Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum ( spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, ħ. Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. [184] Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy. - Electronvolt
- In physics, an electronvolt (symbol eV, also written electron-volt and electron volt) is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. When used as a unit of energy, the numerical value of 1 eV in joules (symbol J) is equivalent to the numerical value of the charge of an electron in coulombs (symbol C). Under the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, this sets 1 eV equal to the exact value 1.602176634×10−19 J. [187]
- Electron pair
- In chemistry, an electron pair, or Lewis pair, consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the concepts of both the electron pair and the covalent bond in a landmark paper he published in 1916. [188]
- Electronegativity
- Symbolized as χ, is the measurement of the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density). [189] An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity, the more an atom or a substituent group attracts electrons.
- Electronics
- Comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and matter. [190] It uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification and rectification, which distinguishes it from classical electrical engineering which uses passive effects such as resistance, capacitance and inductance to control current flow.
- Elemental analysis
- Is a process where a sample of some material (e.g., soil, waste or drinking water, bodily fluids, minerals, chemical compounds) is analyzed for its elemental and sometimes isotopic composition. [citation needed] Elemental analysis can be qualitative (determining what elements are present), and it can be quantitative (determining how much of each are present). Elemental analysis falls within the ambit of analytical chemistry, the set of instruments involved in deciphering the chemical nature of our world.
- Endothermic process
- Is any process with an increase in the enthalpyH (or internal energyU) of the system. [191] In such a process, a closed system usually absorbs thermal energy from its surroundings, which is heat transfer into the system. It may be a chemical process, such as dissolving ammonium nitrate in water, or a physical process, such as the melting of ice cubes.
- Energy
- In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. [note 1] Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.
- Engine
- An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. [192][193]Heat engines convert heat into work via various thermodynamic processes. The internal combustion engine is perhaps the most common example of a heat engine, in which heat from the combustion of a fuel causes rapid pressurisation of the gaseous combustion products in the combustion chamber, causing them to expand and drive a piston, which turns a crankshaft. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air, and clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and ultimately motion.
- Engineering
- Is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. [194] The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. The term engineering is derived from the Latiningenium, meaning "cleverness" and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise". [195]
- Engineering economics
- Engineering economics, previously known as engineering economy, is a subset of economics concerned with the use and "...application of economic principles" [196] in the analysis of engineering decisions. [197] As a discipline, it is focused on the branch of economics known as microeconomics in that it studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of limited resources. Thus, it focuses on the decision making process, its context and environment. [196] It is pragmatic by nature, integrating economic theory with engineering practice. [196] But, it is also a simplified application of microeconomic theory in that it assumes elements such as price determination, competition and demand/supply to be fixed inputs from other sources. [196] As a discipline though, it is closely related to others such as statistics, mathematics and cost accounting. [196] It draws upon the logical framework of economics but adds to that the analytical power of mathematics and statistics. [196]
- Engineering ethics
- Is the field of system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and the ethics of technology.
- Environmental engineering
- Is a job type that is a professional engineering discipline and takes from broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment. [198][199] Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering.
- Engineering physics
- Or engineering science, refers to the study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, aerospace, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in engineering. [200][201][202][203]
- Enzyme
- Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts (biocatalysts). Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. [204]:8.1
- Escape velocity
- The minimum velocity at which an object can escape a gravitation field..
- Estimator
- In statistics, an estimator is a rule for calculating an estimate of a given quantity based on observed data: thus the rule (the estimator), the quantity of interest (the estimand) and its result (the estimate) are distinguished. [205] For example, the sample mean is a commonly used estimator of the population mean. There are point and interval estimators. The point estimators yield single-valued results, although this includes the possibility of single vector-valued results and results that can be expressed as a single function. This is in contrast to an interval estimator, where the result would be a range of plausible values (or vectors or functions).
- Euler–Bernoulli beam theory
- Euler–Bernoulli beam theory (also known as engineer's beam theory or classical beam theory) [206] is a simplification of the linear theory of elasticity which provides a means of calculating the load-carrying and deflection characteristics of beams. It covers the case for small deflections of a beam that are subjected to lateral loads only. It is thus a special case of Timoshenko beam theory. It was first enunciated circa 1750, [207] but was not applied on a large scale until the development of the Eiffel Tower and the Ferris wheel in the late 19th century. Following these successful demonstrations, it quickly became a cornerstone of engineering and an enabler of the Second Industrial Revolution. Additional mathematical models have been developed such as plate theory, but the simplicity of beam theory makes it an important tool in the sciences, especially structural and mechanical engineering.
- Exothermic process
- In thermodynamics, the term exothermic process (exo- : "outside") describes a process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its surroundings, usually in the form of heat, but also in a form of light (e.g. a spark, flame, or flash), electricity (e.g. a battery), or sound (e.g. explosion heard when burning hydrogen). Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix έξω (exō, which means "outwards") and the Greek word θερμικός (thermikόs, which means "thermal"). [208]
F
- Factor of safety
- ( FoS), also known as (and used interchangeably with) safety factor ( SF), expresses how much stronger a system is than it needs to be for an intended load.
- Falling bodies
- .
- Farad
- [209] The farad (symbol: F) is the SI derived unit of electrical capacitance, the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. It is named after the English physicist Michael Faraday..
- Faraday constant
- Denoted by the symbol F and sometimes stylized as ℱ, is named after Michael Faraday. In physics and chemistry, this constant represents the magnitude of electric charge per mole of electrons. [210] It has the value
- 96485.33212... C mol −1. [211]
- e = 1.602176634×10−19 C; [212]
- NA = 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. [213]
- Fermat's principle
- In optics, Fermat's principle, or the principle of least time, named after French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, is the principle that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. This principle is sometimes taken as the definition of a ray of light. [214] However, this version of the principle is not general; a more modern statement of the principle is that rays of light traverse the path of stationary optical length with respect to variations of the path. [215] In other words, a ray of light prefers the path such that there are other paths, arbitrarily nearby on either side, along which the ray would take almost exactly the same time to traverse.
- Fick's laws of diffusion
- Describe diffusion and were derived by Adolf Fick in 1855. They can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, D. Fick's first law can be used to derive his second law which in turn is identical to the diffusion equation.
- Finite element method
- (FEM), is the most widely used method for solving problems of engineering and mathematical models. Typical problem areas of interest include the traditional fields of structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic potential. The FEM is a particular numerical method for solving partial differential equations in two or three space variables (i.e., some boundary value problems). To solve a problem, the FEM subdivides a large system into smaller, simpler parts that are called finite elements. This is achieved by a particular space discretization in the space dimensions, which is implemented by the construction of a mesh of the object: the numerical domain for the solution, which has a finite number of points. The finite element method formulation of a boundary value problem finally results in a system of algebraic equations. The method approximates the unknown function over the domain. [216] The simple equations that model these finite elements are then assembled into a larger system of equations that models the entire problem. The FEM then uses variational methods from the calculus of variations to approximate a solution by minimizing an associated error function.
- FIRST
- For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology – is an organization founded by inventor Dean Kamen in 1989 to develop ways to inspire students in engineering and technology fields.
- Fission
- In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei. The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay.
- Flow velocity
- In continuum mechanics the flow velocity in fluid dynamics, also macroscopic velocity [217][218] in statistical mechanics, or drift velocity in electromagnetism, is a vector field used to mathematically describe the motion of a continuum. The length of the flow velocity vector is the flow speed and is a scalar. It is also called velocity field; when evaluated along a line, it is called a velocity profile (as in, e.g., law of the wall).
- Fluid
- In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress, or external force. Fluids are a phase of matter and include liquids, gases and plasmas. They are substances with zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.
- Fluid dynamics
- In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids— liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion).
- Fluid mechanics
- Is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids ( liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. [219] It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology.
- Fluid statics
- Fluid statics, or hydrostatics, is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies " fluids at rest and the pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid on an immersed body". [220]
- Flywheel
- Is a mechanical device specifically designed to use the conservation of angular momentum so as to efficiently store rotational energy; a form of kinetic energy proportional to the product of its moment of inertia and the square of its rotational speed. In particular, if we assume the flywheel's moment of inertia to be constant (i.e., a flywheel with fixed mass and second moment of area revolving about some fixed axis) then the stored (rotational) energy is directly associated with the square of its rotational speed.
- Focus
- In geometrical optics, a focus, also called an image point, is the point where light rays originating from a point on the object converge. [221] Although the focus is conceptually a point, physically the focus has a spatial extent, called the blur circle. This non-ideal focusing may be caused by aberrations of the imaging optics. In the absence of significant aberrations, the smallest possible blur circle is the Airy disc, which is caused by diffraction from the optical system's aperture. Aberrations tend worsen as the aperture diameter increases, while the Airy circle is smallest for large apertures.
- Foot-pound
- The foot-pound force (symbol: ft⋅lbf, [222] ft⋅lb f, [223] or ft⋅lb [224]) is a unit of work or energy in the engineering and gravitational systems in United States customary and imperial units of measure. It is the energy transferred upon applying a force of one pound-force (lbf) through a linear displacement of one foot. The corresponding SI unit is the joule.
- Fracture toughness
- In materials science, fracture toughness is the critical stress intensity factor of a sharp crack where propagation of the crack suddenly becomes rapid and unlimited. A component's thickness affects the constraint conditions at the tip of a crack with thin components having plane stress conditions and thick components having plane strain conditions. Plane strain conditions give the lowest fracture toughness value which is a material property. The critical value of stress intensity factor in mode I loading measured under plane strain conditions is known as the plane strain fracture toughness, denoted . [225] When a test fails to meet the thickness and other test requirements that are in place to ensure plane strain conditions, the fracture toughness value produced is given the designation . Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance to crack propagation and standard values for a given material are generally available.
- Fraunhofer lines
- In physics and optics, the Fraunhofer lines are a set of spectral absorption lines named after the German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer (1787–1826). The lines were originally observed as dark features ( absorption lines) in the optical spectrum of the Sun.
- Free fall
- In Newtonian physics, free fall is any motion of a body where gravity is the only force acting upon it. In the context of general relativity, where gravitation is reduced to a space-time curvature, a body in free fall has no force acting on it.
- Frequency modulation
- Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. The technology is used in telecommunications, radio broadcasting, signal processing, and computing..
- Freezing point
- The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at a standard pressure such as 1 atmosphere or 100 kPa. When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of substances to supercool, the freezing point can easily appear to be below its actual value. When the "characteristic freezing point" of a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice, that is, the melting point. [226]
- Friction
- Is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. [227] There are several types of friction:
- Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known as asperities (see Figure 1).
- Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.[228][229]
- Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.[230][231][232]
- Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
- Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.[229]
- Function
- In mathematics, a function [note 2] is a binary relation between two sets that associates every element of the first set to exactly one element of the second set. Typical examples are functions from integers to integers, or from the real numbers to real numbers.
- Fundamental frequency
- The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In music, the fundamental is the musical pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids, the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum of harmonically related frequencies, or the frequency of the difference between adjacent frequencies. In some contexts, the fundamental is usually abbreviated as f0, indicating the lowest frequency counting from zero. [233][234][235] In other contexts, it is more common to abbreviate it as f1, the first harmonic. [236][237][238][239][240] (The second harmonic is then f2 = 2⋅ f1, etc. In this context, the zeroth harmonic would be 0 Hz.)
- Fundamental interaction
- In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, which produce significant long-range forces whose effects can be seen directly in everyday life, and the strong and weak interactions, which produce forces at minuscule, subatomic distances and govern nuclear interactions. Some scientists hypothesize that a fifth force might exist, but these hypotheses remain speculative. [241][242][243]
- Fundamental theorem of calculus
- Is a theorem that links the concept of differentiating a function with the concept of integrating a function.
- Fundamentals of Engineering Examination (US)
- The Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, also referred to as the Engineer in Training ( EIT) exam, and formerly in some states as the Engineering Intern ( EI) exam, is the first of two examinations that engineers must pass in order to be licensed as a Professional Engineer in the United States. The second examination is Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination. The FE exam is open to anyone with a degree in engineering or a related field, or currently enrolled in the last year of an ABET-accredited engineering degree program. Some state licensure boards permit students to take it prior to their final year, and numerous states allow those who have never attended an approved program to take the exam if they have a state-determined number of years of work experience in engineering. Some states allow those with ABET-accredited "Engineering Technology" or "ETAC" degrees to take the examination. The state of Michigan has no admission pre-requisites for the FE. [244] The exam is administered by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES).
GRAMO
- Galvanic cell
- A galvanic cell or voltaic cell, named after Luigi Galvani or Alessandro Volta, respectively, is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals immersed in electrolytes, or of individual half-cells with different metals and their ions in solution connected by a salt bridge or separated by a porous membrane. Volta was the inventor of the voltaic pile, the first electrical battery. In common usage, the word "battery" has come to include a single galvanic cell, but a battery properly consists of multiple cells. [245]
- Gamma rays
- A gamma ray, or gamma radiation (symbol γ or ), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves and so imparts the highest photon energy.
- Gas
- Is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma). A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture, such as air, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles.
- Gauge pressure
- Is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
- Geiger counter
- Is an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. Also known as a Geiger–Muller counter (or Geiger–Müller counter), it is widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics, and the nuclear industry.
- General relativity
- General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity, is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and refines Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time or four-dimensional spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations.
- Geometric mean
- In mathematics, the geometric mean is a mean or average, which indicates the central tendency or typical value of a set of numbers by using the product of their values (as opposed to the arithmetic mean which uses their sum). The geometric mean is defined as the nth root of the product of n numbers, i.e., for a set of numbers x1, x2, ..., xn, the geometric mean is defined as
- ,
- Rate 1 is the rate of effusion for the first gas. (volume or number of moles per unit time).
- Rate 2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas.
- M1 is the molar mass of gas 1
- M2 is the molar mass of gas 2.
H
- Half-life
- The period at which one-half of a quantity of an unstable isotope has decayed into other elements; the time at which half of a substance has diffused out of or otherwise reacted in a system.
- Haptic
- Tactile feedback technology using the operator's sense of touch. Also sometimes applied to robot manipulators with their own touch sensitivity.
- Hardness
- Is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic deformation induced by either mechanical indentation or abrasion. Some materials (e.g. metals) are harder than others (e.g. plastics, wood). Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity.
- Harmonic mean
- In mathematics, the harmonic mean (sometimes called the subcontrary mean) is one of several kinds of average, and in particular, one of the Pythagorean means. Typically, it is appropriate for situations when the average of rates is desired. The harmonic mean can be expressed as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the given set of observations. As a simple example, the harmonic mean of 1, 4, and 4 is
I
- Ice point
- The freezing point of pure water at one atmosphere; 0°C (32°F). [275]
- Ideal gas
- A model for gases that ignores inter-molecular forces. Most gases are approximately ideal at some high temperature and low pressure.
- Ideal gas constant
- The constant in the gas law that relates pressure, volume and temperature.
- Ideal gas law
- Also called the general gas equation, is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was first stated by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of the empirical Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. [276] The ideal gas law is often written in an empirical form:
- Identity
- In mathematics, an identity is an equality relating one mathematical expression A to another mathematical expression B, such that A and B (which might contain some variables) produce the same value for all values of the variables within a certain range of validity. [279][280] In other words, A = B is an identity if A and B define the same functions, and an identity is an equality between functions that are differently defined. For example, and are identities. [281] Identities are sometimes indicated by the triple bar symbol ≡ instead of =, the equals sign. [282]
- Impedance (electrical)
- In electrical engineering, electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is applied.
- Inclined plane
- Also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid for raising or lowering a load. [283][284][285] The inclined plane is one of the six classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined planes are widely used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles; examples vary from a ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an automobile or railroad train climbing a grade. [285]
- Indefinite integral
- A function whose derivative is a given function; an antiderivative. [286]
- Inductance
- In electromagnetism and electronics, inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric current flowing through it. The flow of electric current creates a magnetic field around the conductor. The field strength depends on the magnitude of the current, and follows any changes in current. From Faraday's law of induction, any change in magnetic field through a circuit induces an electromotive force (EMF) ( voltage) in the conductors, a process known as electromagnetic induction. This induced voltage created by the changing current has the effect of opposing the change in current. This is stated by Lenz's law, and the voltage is called back EMF. Inductance is defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to the rate of change of current causing it. It is a proportionality factor that depends on the geometry of circuit conductors and the magnetic permeability of nearby materials. [287] An electronic component designed to add inductance to a circuit is called an inductor. It typically consists of a coil or helix of wire.
- Inductor
- An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. [288] An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil.
- Industrial engineering
- Is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information and equipment. Industrial engineers use specialized knowledge and skills in the mathematical, physical and social sciences, together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results obtained from systems and processes. [289] From these results, they are able to create new systems, processes or situations for the useful coordination of labour, materials and machines and also improve the quality and productivity of systems, physical or social. [290]
- Inertia
- Is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its velocity. This includes changes to the object's speed, or direction of motion. An aspect of this property is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at a constant speed, when no forces act upon them.
- Infrasound
- Infrasound, sometimes referred to as low-frequency sound, describes sound waves with a frequency below the lower limit of audibility (generally 20 Hz). Hearing becomes gradually less sensitive as frequency decreases, so for humans to perceive infrasound, the sound pressure must be sufficiently high. The ear is the primary organ for sensing low sound, but at higher intensities it is possible to feel infrasound vibrations in various parts of the body.
- Integral
- In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that describes displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data. The process of finding integrals is called integration. Along with differentiation, integration is a fundamental operation of calculus, [b] and serves as a tool to solve problems in mathematics and physics involving the area of an arbitrary shape, the length of a curve, and the volume of a solid, among others.
- Integral transform
- In mathematics, an integral transform maps a function from its original function space into another function space via integration, where some of the properties of the original function might be more easily characterized and manipulated than in the original function space. The transformed function can generally be mapped back to the original function space using the inverse transform.
- International System of Units
- The International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the FrenchSystème international (d'unités)) is the modern form of the metric system. It is the only system of measurement with an official status in nearly every country in the world. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement starting with seven base units, which are the second (the unit of time with the symbol s), metre ( length, m), kilogram ( mass, kg), ampere ( electric current, A), kelvin ( thermodynamic temperature, K), mole ( amount of substance, mol), and candela ( luminous intensity, cd). The system allows for an unlimited number of additional units, called derived units, which can always be represented as products of powers of the base units. [Note 1] Twenty-two derived units have been provided with special names and symbols. [Note 2] The seven base units and the 22 derived units with special names and symbols may be used in combination to express other derived units, [Note 3] which are adopted to facilitate measurement of diverse quantities. The SI system also provides twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying power-of-ten (i.e. decimal) multiples and sub-multiples of SI units. The SI is intended to be an evolving system; units and prefixes are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the technology of measurement progresses and the precision of measurements improves.
- Interval estimation
- In statistics, interval estimation is the use of sample data to calculate an interval of possible values of an unknown population parameter; this is in contrast to point estimation, which gives a single value. Jerzy Neyman (1937) identified interval estimation ("estimation by interval") as distinct from point estimation ("estimation by unique estimate"). In doing so, he recognized that then-recent work quoting results in the form of an estimate plus-or-minus a standard deviation indicated that interval estimation was actually the problem statisticians really had in mind.
- Inorganic chemistry
- Deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture. [291]
- Ion
- Is a particle, atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of the electron is considered negative by convention. The negative charge of an ion is equal and opposite to charged proton(s) considered positive by convention. The net charge of an ion is non-zero due to its total number of electrons being unequal to its total number of protons.
- Ionic bonding
- Is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, [292] and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. It is one of the main types of bonding along with covalent bonding and metallic bonding. Ions are atoms (or groups of atoms) with an electrostatic charge. Atoms that gain electrons make negatively charged ions (called anions). Atoms that lose electrons make positively charged ions (called cations). This transfer of electrons is known as electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complex nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH+
4 or SO2−
4. In simpler words, an ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal in order to obtain a full valence shell for both atoms. - Ionization
- Ionization or ionisation is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule is called an ion. Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after collisions with subatomic particles, collisions with other atoms, molecules and ions, or through the interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Heterolytic bond cleavage and heterolytic substitution reactions can result in the formation of ion pairs. Ionization can occur through radioactive decay by the internal conversion process, in which an excited nucleus transfers its energy to one of the inner-shell electrons causing it to be ejected.
- Isotope
- Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number, and consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom. [293]
J
- Joule
- The SI unit of energy.The joule, (symbol: J), is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. [294] It is equal to the energy transferred to (or work done on) an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of the force's motion through a distance of one metre (1 newton metre or N⋅m). It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889). [295][296][297] gh a conductor produces heat.
- Joule heating
- Also known as resistive, resistance, or Ohmic heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor produces heat.
K
- Kalman filter
- In statistics and control theory, Kalman filtering, also known as linear quadratic estimation (LQE), is an algorithm that uses a series of measurements observed over time, containing statistical noise and other inaccuracies, and produces estimates of unknown variables that tend to be more accurate than those based on a single measurement alone, by estimating a joint probability distribution over the variables for each timeframe. The Kalman filter has numerous applications in technology.
- Kelvin
- Is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale using as its null point absolute zero, the temperature at which all thermal motion ceases in the classical description of thermodynamics. The kelvin (symbol: K) is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI).
- Kelvin–Planck statement
- (Or the Heat Engine Statement), of the second law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to devise a cyclically operating heat engine, the effect of which is to absorb energy in the form of heat from a single thermal reservoir and to deliver an equivalent amount of work. [298] This implies that it is impossible to build a heat engine that has 100% thermal efficiency. [299]
- Kinematics
- Is a branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the forces that caused the motion. [300][301][302]
L
- Laminar flow
- In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles following smooth paths in layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing. [303] At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like playing cards. There are no cross-currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids. [304] In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles close to a solid surface moving in straight lines parallel to that surface. [305] Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion and low momentum convection.
- Laplace transform
- In mathematics, the Laplace transform, named after its inventor Pierre-Simon Laplace ( /ləˈplɑːs/), is an integral transform that converts a function of a real variable (often time) to a function of a complex variable ( complex frequency). The transform has many applications in science and engineering because it is a tool for solving differential equations. In particular, it transforms differential equations into algebraic equations and convolution into multiplication. [306][307][308]
- LC circuit
- A circuit consisting entirely of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
- Le Chatelier's principle
- Le Chatelier's principle, also called Chatelier's principle, is a principle of chemistry used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on chemical equilibria. The principle is named after French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier, and sometimes also credited to Karl Ferdinand Braun, who discovered it independently. It can be stated as:
When any system at equilibrium for a long period of time is subjected to a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or pressure, (1) the system changes to a new equilibrium, and (2) this change partly counteracts the applied change.
It is common to treat the principle as a more general observation of systems,[309] such as
When a settled system is disturbed, it will adjust to diminish the change that has been made to it
or, "roughly stated",[309]
Any change in status quo prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system.
- Lenz's law
- Lenz's law, named after the physicist Emil Lenz who formulated it in 1834, [310] states that the direction of the electric current which is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field. It is a qualitative law that specifies the direction of induced current, but states nothing about its magnitude. Lenz's law explains the direction of many effects in electromagnetism, such as the direction of voltage induced in an inductor or wire loop by a changing current, or the drag force of eddy currents exerted on moving objects in a magnetic field. Lenz's law may be seen as analogous to Newton's third law in classical mechanics. [311]
- Lepton
- In particle physics, a lepton is an elementary particle of half-integer spin ( spin1⁄2) that does not undergo strong interactions. [312] Two main classes of leptons exist: charged leptons (also known as the electron-like leptons), and neutral leptons (better known as neutrinos). Charged leptons can combine with other particles to form various composite particles such as atoms and positronium, while neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and are consequently rarely observed. The best known of all leptons is the electron.
- Lever
- Is a simple machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the locations of fulcrum, load and effort, the lever is divided into three types. Also, leverage is mechanical advantage gained in a system. It is one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever. As such, the lever is a mechanical advantage device, trading off force against movement.
- L'Hôpital's rule
- In mathematics, more specifically calculus, L'Hôpital's rule or L'Hospital's rule ( French: [lopital], English: /ˌloʊpiːˈtɑːl/, loh-pee-TAHL) provides a technique to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms. Application (or repeated application) of the rule often converts an indeterminate form to an expression that can be easily evaluated by substitution. The rule is named after the 17th-century French
mathematician
Guillaume de l'Hôpital. Although the rule is often attributed to L'Hôpital, the theorem was first introduced to him in 1694 by the Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli. L'Hôpital's rule states that for functions f and g which are differentiable on an open intervalI except possibly at a point c contained in I, if and for all x in I with x ≠ c, and exists, then
- Light
- Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation within the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be perceived by the human eye. [313] Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nm, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths). [314][315] This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430–750 terahertz (THz).
- Linear actuator
- Is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in machine tools and industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders inherently produce linear motion. Many other mechanisms are used to generate linear motion from a rotating motor.
- Linear algebra
- The mathematics of equations where the unknowns are only in the first power.
- Linear elasticity
- Is a mathematical model of how solid objects deform and become internally stressed due to prescribed loading conditions. It is a simplification of the more general nonlinear theory of elasticity and a branch of continuum mechanics.
- Liquid
- A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, gas, and plasma), and is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, held together by intermolecular bonds. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. Water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth.
- Logarithm
- In mathematics, the logarithm is the inverse function to exponentiation. That means the logarithm of a given number x is the exponent to which another fixed number, the base b, must be raised, to produce that number x. In the simplest case, the logarithm counts the number of occurrences of the same factor in repeated multiplication; e.g., since 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103, the "logarithm base 10" of 1000 is 3, or log10(1000) = 3. The logarithm of x to baseb is denoted as logb(x), or without parentheses, logb x, or even without the explicit base, log x, when no confusion is possible, or when the base does not matter such as in big O notation. More generally, exponentiation allows any positive real number as base to be raised to any real power, always producing a positive result, so logb(x) for any two positive real numbers b and x, where b is not equal to 1, is always a unique real number y. More explicitly, the defining relation between exponentiation and logarithm is:
- exactly if and and and .
- Logarithmic identities
- Several important formulas, sometimes called logarithmic identities or log laws, relate logarithms to one another. [317]
- Logarithmic mean temperature difference
- (Also known as log mean temperature difference, LMTD) is used to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow systems, most notably in heat exchangers. The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold feeds at each end of the double pipe exchanger. For a given heat exchanger with constant area and heat transfer coefficient, the larger the LMTD, the more heat is transferred. The use of the LMTD arises straightforwardly from the analysis of a heat exchanger with constant flow rate and fluid thermal properties.
- Lumped capacitance model
- A lumped-capacitance model, also called lumped system analysis, [318] reduces a thermal system to a number of discrete “lumps” and assumes that the temperature difference inside each lump is negligible. This approximation is useful to simplify otherwise complex differential heat equations. It was developed as a mathematical analog of electrical capacitance, although it also includes thermal analogs of electrical resistance as well.
- Lumped element model
- The lumped-element model (also called lumped-parameter model, or lumped-component model) simplifies the description of the behaviour of spatially distributed physical systems into a topology consisting of discrete entities that approximate the behaviour of the distributed system under certain assumptions. It is useful in electrical systems (including electronics), mechanical multibody systems, heat transfer, acoustics, etc. Mathematically speaking, the simplification reduces the state space of the system to a finite dimension, and the partial differential equations (PDEs) of the continuous (infinite-dimensional) time and space model of the physical system into ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with a finite number of parameters.
METRO
- Macaulay's method
- (The double integration method) is a technique used in structural analysis to determine the deflection of Euler-Bernoulli beams. Use of Macaulay’s technique is very convenient for cases of discontinuous and/or discrete loading. Typically partial uniformly distributed loads (u.d.l.) and uniformly varying loads (u.v.l.) over the span and a number of concentrated loads are conveniently handled using this technique.
- Mach number
- The ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound..
- Machine
- A machine (or mechanical device) is a mechanical structure that uses power to apply forces and control movement to perform an intended action. Machines can be driven by animals and people, by natural forces such as wind and water, and by chemical, thermal, or electrical power, and include a system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of output forces and movement. They can also include computers and sensors that monitor performance and plan movement, often called mechanical systems.
- Machine code
- In computer programming, machine code, consisting of machine language instructions, is a low-level programming language used to directly control a computer's central processing unit (CPU). Each instruction causes the CPU to perform a very specific task, such as a load, a store, a jump, or an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) operation on one or more units of data in the CPU's registers or memory.
- Machine element
- .
- Machine learning
- .
- Maclaurin series
- .
- Magnetic field
- .
- Magnetism
- .
- Manufacturing engineering
- .
- Mass balance
- .
- Mass density
- .
- Mass moment of inertia
- .
- Mass number
- .
- Mass spectrometry
- .
- Material failure theory
- .
- Material properties
- .
- Materials science
- .
- Mathematical optimization
- .
- Mathematical physics
- .
- Mathematics
- .
- Matrix
- .
- Matter
- .
- Maximum-distortion energy theory
- .
- Maximum-normal-stress theory
- .
- Maximum shear stress
- .
- Maxwell's equations
- A number of basic laws describing the behavior of electric current and potential.
- Mean
- .
- Measures of central tendency
- .
- Mechanical advantage
- .
- Mechanical engineering
- .
- Mechanical filter
- .
- Mechanical wave
- .
- Mechanics
- .
- Mechanism
- .
- Median
- .
- Melting
- .
- Melting point
- .
- Meson
- .
- Metal alloy
- .
- Metallic bond
- .
- Middle-out
- A combination of top-down and bottom-up design. [319]
- Mid-range
- .
- Midhinge
- .
- Mining engineering
- .
- Miller indices
- .
- Mobile robot
- .
- Mode
- .
- Modulus of elasticity
- .
- Mohr's circle
- A graphical method of analyzing the three-dimensional stresses in a system that has a loading force applied to it.
- Molality
- .
- Molar concentration
- .
- Molar absorptivity
- .
- Molar mass
- .
- Molarity
- .
- Molding
- .
- Molecule
- .
- Molecular physics
- .
- Moment of inertia
- .
- Multibody system
- .
- Multidisciplinary design optimization
- .
- Mutual inductance
- .
- Muon
- .
norte
- Nanoengineering
- Is the practice of engineering on the nanoscale. It derives its name from the nanometre, a unit of measurement equalling one billionth of a meter. Nanoengineering is largely a synonym for nanotechnology, but emphasizes the engineering rather than the pure science aspects of the field.
- Nanotechnology
- The technology of systems built with moving parts on the order of a nanometre in size.
- In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations are a set of partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician George Gabriel Stokes.
- Neutrino
- A neutrino (denoted by the Greek letter ν) is a fermion (an elementary particle with spin of 1/2) that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity. [320][321] The neutrino is so named because it is electrically neutral and because its rest mass is so small ( -ino) that it was long thought to be zero. The mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the other known elementary particles. [322] The weak force has a very short range, the gravitational interaction is extremely weak, and neutrinos do not participate in the strong interaction. [323] Thus, neutrinos typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. [324][321]
- Newtonian fluid
- Is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from its flow, at every point, are linearly [325] correlated to the local strain rate—the rate of change of its deformation over time. [326][327][328] That is equivalent to saying those forces are proportional to the rates of change of the fluid's velocity vector as one moves away from the point in question in various directions. More precisely, a fluid is Newtonian only if the tensors that describe the viscous stress and the strain rate are related by a constant viscosity tensor that does not depend on the stress state and velocity of the flow. If the fluid is also isotropic (that is, its mechanical properties are the same along any direction), the viscosity tensor reduces to two real coefficients, describing the fluid's resistance to continuous shear deformation and continuous compression or expansion, respectively.
- Norton's theorem
- In direct-current circuit theory, Norton's theorem (aka Mayer–Norton theorem) is a simplification that can be applied to networks made of linear time-invariant resistances, voltage sources, and current sources. At a pair of terminals of the network, it can be replaced by a current source and a single resistor in parallel. For alternating current (AC) systems the theorem can be applied to reactive impedances as well as resistances.
- Nozzle
- Is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe. A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid ( liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of its pressure energy.
- nth root
- To put a number of function to the exponential power of 1/n.
- Nuclear binding energy
- The difference between the total mass energy of a nucleus and the mass energy of the isolated nucleons.
- Nuclear engineering
- The profession that deals with nuclear power.
- Nuclear fusion
- Is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles ( neutrons or protons). The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or the absorption of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic binding energy between the nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or main sequence stars and other high-magnitude stars, where large amounts of energy are released.
- Nuclear physics
- The science that describes the components of atoms.
- Nuclear potential energy
- The energy that is given up in decay of an unstable nucleus.
- Nuclear power
- The use of energy derived from nuclear chain reactions for electricity production or ship propulsion.
O
- Ohm
- The SI unit of electrical resistance.
- Ohm's law
- A law describing the relationship between resistance, current, and voltage.
- Optics
- The study of light.
- Organic chemistry
- The study of carbon compounds.
- Osmosis
- The spontaneous movement of molecules or ions through a semi-permable membrane, tending to equalize concentration on both sides.
PAG
- Parallel circuit
- A circuit that begins and ends at the same node as another circuit.
- Parity (mathematics)
- In mathematics, parity is the property of an integer of whether it is even or odd. An integer's parity is even if it is divisible by two with no remainders left and its parity is odd if its remainder is 1. [329] For example, -4, 0, 82, and 178 are even because there is no remainder when dividing it by 2. By contrast, -3, 5, 7, 21 are odd numbers as they leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 2.
- Parity (physics)
- .In quantum mechanics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of onespatial
coordinate. In three dimensions, it can also refer to the simultaneous flip in the sign of all three spatial coordinates (a point reflection):
- Paramagnetism
- Is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field. [330] Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; [331] they have a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than 1 (i.e., a small positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic materials are often conducted with a SQUID magnetometer.
- Particle accelerator
- Is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to very high speeds and energies, and to contain them in well-defined beams. [332]
- Particle displacement
- Particle displacement or displacement amplitude is a measurement of distance of the movement of a sound particle from its equilibrium position in a medium as it transmits a sound wave. [333] The SI unit of particle displacement is the metre (m). In most cases this is a longitudinal wave of pressure (such as sound), but it can also be a transverse wave, such as the vibration of a taut string. In the case of a sound wave travelling through air, the particle displacement is evident in the oscillations of air molecules with, and against, the direction in which the sound wave is travelling. [334]
- Particle physics
- Particle physics (also known as high energy physics) is a branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and radiation. Although the word particle can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, or even household dust), particle physics usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the fundamental interactions necessary to explain their behaviour. In current understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest "known" particle, the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force field, gravity. [335][336]
- Pascal's law
- Pascal's law (also Pascal's principle[337][338][339] or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure) is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change occurring anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere. [340] The law was established by French mathematician Blaise Pascal[30] in 1647–48. [341]
- Pendulum
- Is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. [342] When a pendulum is displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force acting on the pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. The period depends on the length of the pendulum and also to a slight degree on the amplitude, the width of the pendulum's swing.
- Petroleum engineering
- Is a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to the production of Hydrocarbons, which can be either crude oil or natural gas. [343] Exploration and production are deemed to fall within the upstream sector of the oil and gas industry. Exploration, by earth scientists, and petroleum engineering are the oil and gas industry's two main subsurface disciplines, which focus on maximizing economic recovery of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs. Petroleum geology and geophysics focus on provision of a static description of the hydrocarbon reservoir rock, while petroleum engineering focuses on estimation of the recoverable volume of this resource using a detailed understanding of the physical behavior of oil, water and gas within porous rock at very high pressure.
- pH
- A logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in an acid or base solution.
- Phase (matter)
- .
- Phase (waves)
- .
- Phase diagram
- .
- Phase equilibrium
- .
- Photon
- A particle with no rest mass that carries electromagnetic energy.
- Physical chemistry
- .
- Physical quantity
- .
- Physics
- .
- Planck constant
- .
- Plasma physics
- .
- Plasticity
- .
- Pneumatics
- The control of mechanical force and movement, generated by the application of compressed gas.
- Point estimation
- .
- Polyphase system
- An electrical system that uses a set of alternating currents at different phases.
- Power (electric)
- .
- Power (physics)
- .
- Power factor
- .
- Pressure
- The force per unit area .
- Probability
- .
- Probability distribution
- .
- Probability theory
- .
- Psi particle
- .
- Pulley
- .
- Pump
- .
Q
- Quantum electrodynamics
- In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.
- Quantum field theory
- In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is a theoretical framework that combines classical field theory, special relativity and quantum mechanics, [344]:xi but notgeneral relativity's description of gravity. QFT is used in particle physics to construct physical models of subatomic particles and in condensed matter physics to construct models of quasiparticles.
- Quantum mechanics
- Is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. [345]:1.1 It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science.
R
- Regelation
- The phenomena of melting under pressure, then freezing when the pressure is reduced.
- Relative density
- Relative density, or specific gravity, [346][347] is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity for liquids is nearly always measured with respect to water at its densest (at 4 °C or 39.2 °F); for gases, the reference is air at room temperature (20 °C or 68 °F). The term "relative density" is often preferred in scientific usage.
- Relative velocity
- The relative velocity (also or ) is the velocity of an object or observer B in the rest frame of another object or observer A.
- Reliability engineering
- Is a sub-discipline of systems engineering that emphasizes the ability of equipment to function without failure. Reliability describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. [348] Reliability is closely related to availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time.
- Resistivity
- Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) and its inverse, electrical conductivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how strongly it resists or conducts electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letterρ ( rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm- meter (Ω⋅m). [349][350][351] For example, if a 1 m × 1 m × 1 m solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m.
- Resistor
- Is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
- Reynolds number
- The Reynolds number ( Re) helps predict flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. At low Reynolds numbers, flows tend to be dominated by laminar (sheet-like) flow, while at high Reynolds numbers flows tend to be turbulent. The turbulence results from differences in the fluid's speed and direction, which may sometimes intersect or even move counter to the overall direction of the flow ( eddy currents). These eddy currents begin to churn the flow, using up energy in the process, which for liquids increases the chances of cavitation. Reynolds numbers are an important dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics.
- Rheology
- Is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid or gas state, but also as "soft solids" or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an applied force. Rheology is a branch of physics, and it is the science that deals with the deformation and flow of materials, both solids and liquids. [352]
- Rigid body
- In physics, a rigid body (also known as a rigid object[353]) is a solid body in which deformation is zero or so small it can be neglected. The distance between any two given points on a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of external forces or moments exerted on it. A rigid body is usually considered as a continuous distribution of mass. In the study of special relativity, a perfectly rigid body does not exist; and objects can only be assumed to be rigid if they are not moving near the speed of light. In quantum mechanics, a rigid body is usually thought of as a collection of point masses. For instance, molecules (consisting of the point masses: electrons and nuclei) are often seen as rigid bodies (see classification of molecules as rigid rotors).
- Robonaut
- A development project conducted by NASA to create humanoid robots capable of using space tools and working in similar environments to suited astronauts..
- Robotics
- Is an interdisciplinary field that integrates computer science and engineering. [354] Robotics involves design, construction, operation, and use of robots. The goal of robotics is to design machines that can help and assist humans. Robotics integrates fields of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, information engineering, mechatronics, electronics, bioengineering, computer engineering, control engineering, software engineering, among others.
- Root mean square
- In mathematics and its applications, the root mean square (RMS or rms) is defined as the square root of the mean square (the arithmetic mean of the squares of a set of numbers). [355] The RMS is also known as the quadratic mean[356][357] and is a particular case of the generalized mean with exponent 2. RMS can also be defined for a continuously varying function in terms of an integral of the squares of the instantaneous values during a cycle. For alternating electric current, RMS is equal to the value of the constant direct current that would produce the same power dissipation in a resistive load. [355] In estimation theory, the root-mean-square deviation of an estimator is a measure of the imperfection of the fit of the estimator to the data.
- Root-mean-square speed
- In the physics of gas molecules, the root-mean-square speed is defined as the square root of the average squared-speed. The RMS speed of an ideal gas is calculated using the following equation:
- Rotational energy
- Rotational energy or angular kinetic energy is kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and is part of its total kinetic energy. Looking at rotational energy separately around an object's axis of rotation, the following dependence on the object's moment of inertia is observed:
- is the angular velocity
- is the moment of inertia around the axis of rotation
- is the kinetic energy
- is rotational speed in cycles per second
- is angular speed in radians per second
- is angular speed in degrees per second
S
- Safe failure fraction (SFF)
- A term used in functional safety for the proportion of failures that are either non- hazardous or detected automatically. The opposite of SFF is the proportion of undetected, hazardous failures. [360]
- Safety data sheet
- A safety data sheet (SDS), [361] material safety data sheet (MSDS), or product safety data sheet (PSDS) are documents that list information relating to occupational safety and health for the use of various substances and products. SDSs are a widely used system for cataloguing information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product, along with spill-handling procedures. The older MSDS formats could vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements; however, the newer SDS format is internationally standardized.
- Sanitary engineering
- Sanitary engineering, also known as public health engineering or wastewater engineering, is the application of engineering methods to improve sanitation of human communities, primarily by providing the removal and disposal of human waste, and in addition to the supply of safe potable water.
- Saturated compound
- In chemistry, a saturated compound is a chemical compound (or ion) that resists the addition reactions, such as hydrogenation, oxidative addition, and binding of a Lewis base. The term is used in many contexts and for many classes of chemical compounds. Overall, saturated compounds are less reactive than unsaturated compounds. Saturation is derived from the Latin word saturare, meaning 'to fill') [362]
- Scalar (mathematics)
- .
- Scalar (physics)
- .
- Scalar multiplication
- .
- Screw
- .
- Series circuit
- An electrical circuit in which the same current passes through each component, with only one path.
- Servo
- A motor that moves to and maintains a set position under command, rather than continuously moving.
- Servomechanism
- An automatic device that uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism.
- Shadow matter
- In physics, mirror matter, also called shadow matter or Alice matter, is a hypothetical counterpart to ordinary matter. [363]
- Shear flow
- .
- Shear strength
- .
- Shear stress
- .
- Shortwave radiation
- .
- SI units
- .
- Signal processing
- .
- Simple machine
- A mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force.
- Siphon
- A closed tube that conveys liquids between two levels without pumping.
- Solid mechanics
- .
- Solid-state physics
- .
- Solid solution strengthening
- .
- Solubility
- .
- Solubility equilibrium
- .
- Sound
- .
- Special relativity
- .
- Specific heat
- The amount of energy required to change the temperature of a unit mass of substance by one degree.
- Specific gravity
- The ratio between the mass density of a substance to that of water.
- Specific volume
- The volume of a unit mass of a substance.
- Specific weight
- The weight of a substance per unit volume.
- Spontaneous combustion
- .
- Stagnation pressure
- .
- Standard electrode potential
- .
- State of matter
- .
- Statics
- The study of forces in a non-moving, rigid body.
- Statistics
- .
- Steam table
- .
- Stefan–Boltzmann law
- .
- Stewart platform
- a movable platform using six linear actuators, hence also known as a Hexapod.
- Stiffness
- .
- Stoichiometry
- .
- Strain
- .
- Strain hardening
- .
- Strength of materials
- .
- Stress
- .
- Stress–strain analysis
- .
- Stress–strain curve
- .
- Structural analysis
- .
- Structural load
- .
- Sublimation
- .
- Subsumption architecture
- a robot architecture that uses a modular, bottom-up design beginning with the least complex behavioral tasks.
- Surface tension
- .
- Superconductor
- .
- Superhard material
- .
- Supersaturation
- .
- Surgical robot
- a remote manipulator used for keyhole surgery.
T
- Tangential acceleration
- .
- Technical standard
- A technical standard is an established norm or requirement for a repeatable technical task. It is usually a formal document that establishes uniform engineering or technical criteria, methods, processes, and practices. In contrast, a custom, convention, company product, corporate standard, and so forth that becomes generally accepted and dominant is often called a de facto standard.
- Temperature
- Is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal energy, present in all matter, which is the source of the occurrence of heat, a flow of energy, when a body is in contact with another that is colder. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have used various reference points and thermometric substances for definition. The most common scales are the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade, denoted °C), the Fahrenheit scale (denoted °F), and the Kelvin scale (denoted K), the last of which is predominantly used for scientific purposes by conventions of the International System of Units (SI).
- Tempering (metallurgy)
- Heat treatment to alter the crystal structure of a metal such as steel.
- Tensile force
- Pulling force, tending to lengthen an object.
- Tensile modulus
- .
- Tensile strength
- Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS), ultimate strength, or within equations, [364][365][366] is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In brittle materials the ultimate tensile strength is close to the yield point, whereas in ductile materials the ultimate tensile strength can be higher.
- Tensile testing
- Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, [367] is a fundamental materials science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. [368] From these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics. [369]Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the mechanical characteristics of isotropic materials. Some materials use biaxial tensile testing. The main difference between these testing machines being how load is applied on the materials.
- Tension member
- Tension members are structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile forces. Examples of tension members are bracing for buildings and bridges, truss members, and cables in suspended roof systems.
- Thermal conduction
- .
- Thermal equilibrium
- .
- Thermal radiation
- .
- Thermodynamics
- The science of the flow of heat.
- Theory of relativity
- .
- Thévenin's theorem
- .
- Three-phase
- Electric power using three alternating currents, displaced in time.
- Torque
- Twisting force.
- Torsional vibration
- .
- Toughness
- .
- Trajectory
- .
- Transducer
- .
- Transformer
- .
- Trigonometric functions
- .
- Trigonometry
- .
- Trimean
- The trimean is a measure of a probability distribution's location defined as a weighted average of the distribution's median and its two quartiles
- Triple point
- .
- Trouton's rule
- .
- Truncated mean
- .
- Truss
- .
- Turbine
- .
- Turbomachinery
- .
- Turbulence
- .
U
- Ultimate tensile strength
- Ultimate tensile strength ( UTS), often shortened to tensile strength ( TS), ultimate strength, or Ftu within equations, [364][365][366] is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate, as opposed to compressive strength, which withstands loads tending to reduce size. In other words, tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart), whereas compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together). Ultimate tensile strength is measured by the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently.
- Uncertainty principle
- In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities[370] asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, known as complementary variables, such as positionx and momentump, can be known.
- Unicode
- A standard for the consistent encoding of textual characters.
- Unit vector
- In mathematics, a unit vector in a normed vector space is a vector (often a spatial vector) of length 1. A unit vector is often denoted by a lowercase letter with a circumflex, or "hat": (pronounced "i-hat"). The term direction vector is used to describe a unit vector being used to represent spatial direction, and such quantities are commonly denoted as d. .
- Unsaturated compound
- .
- Upthrust
- Buoyancy, or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object. The pressure difference results in a net upward force on the object. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the pressure difference, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the submerged volume of the object, i.e. the displaced fluid.
- Utility frequency
- The utility frequency, (power) line frequency ( American English) or mains frequency ( British English) is the nominal frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in a wide area synchronous grid transmitted from a power station to the end-user. In large parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas and parts of Asia it is typically 60 Hz. Current usage by country or region is given in the list of mains electricity by country.
V
- Vacuole
- Is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal[371] and bacterial cells. [372] Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these. [373] The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the requirements of the cell.
- Vacuum
- An absence of mass in a volume.
- Valence
- In chemistry, the valence or valency of an element is a measure of its combining power with other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules. The concept of valence developed in the second half of the 19th century and helped successfully explain the molecular structure of inorganic and organic compounds. [374] The quest for the underlying causes of valence led to the modern theories of chemical bonding, including the cubical atom (1902), Lewis structures (1916), valence bond theory (1927), molecular orbitals (1928), valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (1958), and all of the advanced methods of quantum chemistry.
- Valence band
- In solid-state physics, the valence band and conduction band are the bands closest to the Fermi level and thus determine the electrical conductivity of the solid. In non-metals, the valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the lowest range of vacant electronic states. On a graph of the electronic band structure of a material, the valence band is located below the Fermi level, while the conduction band is located above it. The distinction between the valence and conduction bands is meaningless in metals, because conduction occurs in one or more partially filled bands that take on the properties of both the valence and conduction bands.
- Valence bond theory
- In chemistry, valence bond (VB) theory is one of the two basic theories, along with molecular orbital (MO) theory, that were developed to use the methods of quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonding. It focuses on how the atomic orbitals of the dissociated atoms combine to give individual chemical bonds when a molecule is formed. In contrast, molecular orbital theory has orbitals that cover the whole molecule. [375]
- Valence electron
- In chemistry and physics, a valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a shared pair.
- Valence shell
- The valence shell is the set of orbitals which are energetically accessible for accepting electrons to form chemical bonds. For main group elements, the valence shell consists of the ns and np orbitals in the outermost electron shell. In the case of transition metals (the (n-1)d orbitals), and lanthanides and actinides (the (n-2)f and (n-1)d orbitals), the orbitals involved can also be in an inner electron shell. Thus, the shell terminology is a misnomer as there is no correspondence between the valence shell and any particular electron shell in a given element. A scientifically correct term would be valence orbital to refer to the energetically accessible orbitals of an element.
- Valve
- Is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valva, the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll.
- van der Waals equation
- .
- van der Waals force
- In molecular physics, the Van der Waals force, named after Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals, is a distance-dependent interaction between atoms or molecules. Unlike ionic or covalent bonds, these attractions do not result from a chemical electronic bond; they are comparatively weak and therefore more susceptible to disturbance. The Van der Waals force quickly vanishes at longer distances between interacting molecules.
- van 't Hoff equation
- .
- van 't Hoff factor
- .
- Variable capacitor
- .
- Variable resistor
- .
- Vector space
- .
- Venturi effect
- .
- Vibration
- .
- Virtual leak
- Traces of gas trapped in cavities within a vacuum chamber, slowly dissipating out in the main chamber, thus appearing like a leak from the outside.
- Viscoelasticity
- .
- Viscosity
- The viscosity of a fluid is the measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. [376] For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, honey has a higher viscosity than water. [377]
- Volt-ampere
- (VA), is the unit used for the apparent power in an electrical circuit. The apparent power equals the product of root-mean-square (RMS) voltage and RMS current. [378] In direct current (DC) circuits, this product is equal to the real power (active power) [379] in watts. Volt-amperes are useful only in the context of alternating current (AC) circuits. The volt-ampere is dimensionally equivalent to the watt (in SI units, 1 VA = 1 N m A −1 s −1 A = 1 N m s −1 = 1 J s −1 = 1 W). VA rating is most useful in rating wires and switches (and other power handling equipment) for inductive loads.
- Volt-ampere reactive
- .
- Volta potential
- The Volta potential (also called Volta potential difference, contact potential difference, outer potential difference, Δψ, or "delta psi") in electrochemistry, is the electrostatic potential difference between two metals (or one metal and one electrolyte) that are in contact and are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Specifically, it is the potential difference between a point close to the surface of the first metal, and a point close to the surface of the second metal (or electrolyte). [380]
- Voltage
- Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension is the difference in electric potential between two points. The difference in electric potential between two points (i.e., voltage) is defined as the work needed per unit of charge against a static electric field to move a test charge between the two points. In the International System of Units, the derived unit for voltage is named volt. [381] In SI units, work per unit charge is expressed as joules per coulomb, where 1 volt = 1 joule (of work) per 1 coulomb (of charge). The official SI definition for volt uses power and current, where 1 volt = 1 watt (of power) per 1 ampere (of current). [381]
- Volumetric flow rate
- Also known as volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow or volume velocity, is the volume of fluid which passes per unit time; usually represented by the symbol Q (sometimes V̇). The SI unit is m 3/s ( cubic metres per second).
- von Mises yield criterion
- The von Mises yield criterion (also known as the maximum distortion energy criterion [382]) suggests that yielding of a ductile material begins when the second deviatoric stress invariant reaches a critical value. [383] It is part of plasticity theory that applies best to ductile materials, such as some metals. Prior to yield, material response can be assumed to be of a nonlinear elastic, viscoelastic, or linear elastic behavior. In materials science and engineering the von Mises yield criterion can also be formulated in terms of the von Mises stress or equivalent tensile stress, . This is a scalar value of stress that can be computed from the Cauchy stress tensor. In this case, a material is said to start yielding when the von Mises stress reaches a value known as yield strength, . The von Mises stress is used to predict yielding of materials under complex loading from the results of uniaxial tensile tests. The von Mises stress satisfies the property where two stress states with equal distortion energy have an equal von Mises stress.
W
- Watt
- The SI unit of power, rate of doing work.
- Wave
- Is a disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space, with little or no associated mass transport. Waves consist of oscillations or vibrations of a physical medium or a field, around relatively fixed locations. From the perspective of mathematics, waves, as functions of time and space, are a class of signals. [384]
- Wavelength
- Is the spatial period of a periodic wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats. [385][386] It is thus the inverse of the spatial frequency. Wavelength is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests, troughs, or zero crossings and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and standing waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns. [387][388] Wavelength is commonly designated by the Greek letterlambda (λ). The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to modulated waves, and to the sinusoidal envelopes of modulated waves or waves formed by interference of several sinusoids. [389]' .
- Wedge
- Is a triangular shaped tool, and is a portable inclined plane, and one of the six classical simple machines. It can be used to separate two objects or portions of an object, lift up an object, or hold an object in place. It functions by converting a force applied to its blunt end into forces perpendicular ( normal) to its inclined surfaces. The mechanical advantage of a wedge is given by the ratio of the length of its slope to its width. [390][391] Although a short wedge with a wide angle may do a job faster, it requires more force than a long wedge with a narrow angle.
- Weighted arithmetic mean
- The weighted arithmetic mean is similar to an ordinary arithmetic mean (the most common type of average), except that instead of each of the data points contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others. The notion of weighted mean plays a role in descriptive statistics and also occurs in a more general form in several other areas of mathematics. If all the weights are equal, then the weighted mean is the same as the arithmetic mean. While weighted means generally behave in a similar fashion to arithmetic means, they do have a few counterintuitive properties, as captured for instance in Simpson's paradox.
- Wet-bulb temperature
- The temperature of a wetted thermometer with an air current across it. Used in psychrometry. .
- Wheel and axle
- Are one of six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists drawing from Greek texts on technology. [392] The wheel and axle consists of a wheel attached to a smaller axle so that these two parts rotate together in which a force is transferred from one to the other. A hinge or bearing supports the axle, allowing rotation. It can amplify force; a small force applied to the periphery of the large wheel can move a larger load attached to the axle.
- Winsorized mean
- Is a winsorized statistical measure of central tendency, much like the mean and median, and even more similar to the truncated mean. It involves the calculation of the mean after replacing given parts of a probability distribution or sample at the high and low end with the most extreme remaining values, [393] typically doing so for an equal amount of both extremes; often 10 to 25 percent of the ends are replaced. The winsorized mean can equivalently be expressed as a weighted average of the truncated mean and the quantiles at which it is limited, which corresponds to replacing parts with the corresponding quantiles.
- Work hardening
- Also known as strain hardening, is the strengthening of a metal or polymer by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material. [394]
X
- X-axis
- In algebraic geometry, the axis on a graph that is usually drawn left to right and usually shows the range of values of an independent variable. [395]
Y
- Y-axis
- In algebraic geometry, the axis on a graph that is usually drawn from bottom to top and usually shows the range of values of variable dependent on one other variable, or the second of two independent variables. [396]
- Yield
- The point of maximum elastic deformation of a material; above yield the material is permanently deformed.
- Young's modulus
- A measure of the stiffness of a material; the amount of force per unit area require to produce a unit strain.
Z
- Z-axis
- In algebraic geometry, the axis on a graph of at least three dimensions that is usually drawn vertically and usually shows the range of values of a variable dependent on two other variables or the third independent variable. [397]
- Zero defects
- A quality assurance philosophy that aims to reduce the need for inspection of components by improving their quality.
- Zero force member
- In the field of engineering mechanics, a zero force member is a member (a single truss segment) in a truss which, given a specific load, is at rest: neither in tension, nor in compression. In a truss a zero force member is often found at pins (any connections within the truss) where no external load is applied and three or fewer truss members meet. Recognizing basic zero force members can be accomplished by analyzing the forces acting on an individual pin in a physical system. NOTE: If the pin has an external force or moment applied to it, then all of the members attached to that pin are not zero force members UNLESS the external force acts in a manner that fulfills one of the rules below:
- If two non-collinear members meet in an unloaded joint, both are zero-force members.
- If three members meet in an unloaded joint of which two are collinear, then the third member is a zero-force member.
- These members contribute to the stability of the structure, by providing buckling prevention for long slender members under compressive forces
- These members can carry loads in the event that variations are introduced in the normal external loading configuration.
- Zeroth law of thermodynamics
- The equivalence principle applied to temperature; two systems in thermal equiplbirum with a third are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Ver también
- Engineering
- National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
- Fundamentals of Engineering Examination
- Principles and Practice of Engineering Examination
- Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering
- Glossary of aerospace engineering
- Glossary of civil engineering
- Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
- Glossary of mechanical engineering
- Glossary of structural engineering
- Glossary of architecture
- Glossary of areas of mathematics
- Glossary of artificial intelligence
- Glossary of astronomy
- Glossary of biology
- Glossary of calculus
- Glossary of chemistry
- Glossary of ecology
- Glossary of economics
- Glossary of physics
- Glossary of probability and statistics
- List of established military terms#Engineering
Notas
- ^ The second law of thermodynamics imposes limitations on the capacity of a system to transfer energy by performing work, since some of the system's energy might necessarily be consumed in the form of heat instead. See e.g. Lehrman, Robert L. (1973). "Energy Is Not The Ability To Do Work". The Physics Teacher. 11 (1): 15–18. Bibcode:1973PhTea..11...15L. doi:10.1119/1.2349846. ISSN 0031-921X.
- ^ The words map, mapping, transformation, correspondence, and operator are often used synonymously. Halmos 1970, p. 30 .
- ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for G by Boys (1894). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students (1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the heat transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling, but has by now become quite common, e.g. Calmet et al, Quantum Black Holes (2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino, Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC (2013), p. 3. The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "Newton–Cavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 [1969]), Soviet Physics: Uspekhi 30 (1987), Issues 1–6, p. 342 [etc.]. "Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f. Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to "little g" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge, The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the Einstein tensor Gμν vs. the metric tensor gμν, Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations: supplement of books published 1945–1948, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
- ^ Integral calculus is a very well established mathematical discipline for which there are many sources. See Apostol 1967 and Anton, Bivens & Davis 2016 , for example.
- ^ For example, the SI unit of velocity is the metre per second, m⋅s−1; of acceleration is the metre per second squared, m⋅s−2; etc.
- ^ For example the newton (N), the unit of force, equivalent to kg⋅m⋅s−2; the joule (J), the unit of energy, equivalent to kg⋅m2⋅s−2, etc. The most recently named derived unit, the katal, was defined in 1999.
- ^ For example, the recommended unit for the electric field strength is the volt per metre, V/m, where the volt is the derived unit for electric potential difference. The volt per metre is equal to kg⋅m⋅s−3⋅A−1 when expressed in terms of base units.
Referencias
- ^ IUPAC Gold Book - absolute electrode potential
- ^ "Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". SI Brochure, 8th edition. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 13 March 2010 [1967]. Section 2.1.1.5. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2017. Note: The triple point of water is 0.01 °C, not 0 °C; thus 0 K is −273.15 °C, not −273.16 °C.
- ^ Arora, C. P. (2001). Thermodynamics. Tata McGraw-Hill. Table 2.4 page 43. ISBN 978-0-07-462014-4.
- ^ Zielinski, Sarah (1 January 2008). "Absolute Zero". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2012-01-26.
- ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "Absorbance". doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00028
- ^ IUPAC Gold Book - acid
- ^ Knowles, J. R. (1980). "Enzyme-catalyzed phosphoryl transfer reactions". Annu. Rev. Biochem. 49: 877–919. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.004305. PMID 6250450.
- ^ "Aerobic Diestion" (PDF). Water Environment Federation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
- ^ "Handbook Biological Wastewater Treatment - Design of Activated Sludge Systems". Retrieved 19 March 2016.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 2010. ISBN 978-0-470-75440-5.
- ^ Daniel Malacara, Zacarias Malacara, Handbook of optical design. Page 379
- ^ "Alkanes". IUPAC Gold Book - alkanes. IUPAC. March 27, 2017. doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00222. ISBN 978-0-9678550-9-7. Retrieved 2018-08-23.
- ^ Wade, L.G. (2006). Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 279. ISBN 978-1-4058-5345-3.
- ^ Alkyne. Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Callister, W. D. "Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9.
- ^ "Amino". Dictionary.com. 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
- ^ "amino acid". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Cambridge University Press. 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
- ^ "amino". FreeDictionary.com. Farlex. 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
- ^ Wagner I, Musso H (November 1983). "New Naturally Occurring Amino Acids". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 22 (11): 816–28. doi:10.1002/anie.198308161.
- ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "amphoteric". doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00306
- ^ Knopp, Konrad; Bagemihl, Frederick (1996). Theory of Functions Parts I and II. Dover Publications. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-486-69219-7.
- ^ National Non-Food Crops Centre. "NNFCC Renewable Fuels and Energy Factsheet: Anaerobic Digestion", Retrieved on 2011-11-22
- ^ "Angular Velocity and Acceleration". Theory.uwinnipeg.ca. Archived from the original on 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2015-04-13.
- ^ University of Colorado Boulder (November 21, 2013). "Atoms and Elements, Isotopes and Ions". colorado.edu.
- ^ "Antimatter". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 23 August 2008. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
- ^ "The Standard Model – Particle decays and annihilations". The Particle Adventure: The Fundamentals of Matter and Force. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
- ^ RFC 4949
- ^ "ATMAE Venn Diagram". Archived from the original on 2017-06-30. Retrieved 2018-11-15.
- ^ "What is buoyant force?".
- ^ a b Acott, Chris (1999). "The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal. 29 (1). ISSN 0813-1988. OCLC 16986801. Archived from the original on 2011-04-02. Retrieved 2011-06-14..
- ^ Jacobs, Harold R. (1994). Mathematics: A Human Endeavor (Third ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 547. ISBN 978-0-7167-2426-1.
- ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "arenes". doi:10.1351/goldbook.A00435
- ^ Mechanisms of Activation of the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor by Maria Backlund, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet.
- ^ Arrhenius, S.A. (1889). "Über die Dissociationswärme und den Einfluß der Temperatur auf den Dissociationsgrad der Elektrolyte". Z. Phys. Chem. 4: 96–116. doi:10.1515/zpch-1889-0408. S2CID 202553486.
- ^ Arrhenius, S.A. (1889). "Über die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit bei der Inversion von Rohrzucker durch Säuren". ibid. 4: 226–248.
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