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El yeso es un mineral de sulfato blando compuesto de sulfato de calcio dihidratado , con la fórmula química CaSO
4
· 2H 2 O
. [3] Se extrae ampliamente y se utiliza como fertilizante y como componente principal en muchas formas de yeso , pizarra / tiza para aceras y paneles de yeso . Muchas culturas han utilizado para la escultura una enorme variedad de yeso blanco o ligeramente teñido de grano fino, llamada alabastro , como el Antiguo Egipto , Mesopotamia , la Antigua Roma , el Imperio Bizantino y los alabastros de Nottingham de la Inglaterra medieval.. El yeso también cristaliza como cristales translúcidos de selenita . Se forma como un mineral evaporito y como un producto de hidratación de la anhidrita .

La escala de Mohs de dureza mineral define el yeso como un valor de dureza 2 basado en la comparación de dureza al rayado .

Etimología e historia [ editar ]

La palabra yeso se deriva de la palabra griega γύψος ( yesos ), "yeso". [4] Debido a que las canteras del distrito de Montmartre de París han suministrado durante mucho tiempo yeso quemado ( yeso calcinado ) utilizado para diversos fines, este yeso deshidratado se conoció como yeso de París . Al agregar agua, después de unas pocas decenas de minutos, el yeso de París se convierte nuevamente en yeso regular (dihidratado), lo que hace que el material se endurezca o "fragüe" de manera que sea útil para el vaciado y la construcción. [5]

El yeso se conocía en inglés antiguo como spærstān , "piedra de lanza", en referencia a sus proyecciones cristalinas. (Por lo tanto, la palabra spar en mineralogía es a modo de comparación con yeso, refiriéndose a cualquier mineral o cristal no mineral que se forma en proyecciones en forma de lanza). A mediados del siglo XVIII, el clérigo y agricultor alemán Johann Friderich Mayer investigó y publicitó el uso del yeso como fertilizante. [6] El yeso puede actuar como fuente de azufre para el crecimiento de las plantas y, a principios del siglo XIX, se lo consideraba un fertilizante casi milagroso. Los agricultores estadounidenses estaban tan ansiosos por adquirirlo que se desarrolló un animado comercio de contrabando con Nueva Escocia, lo que resultó en la llamada "Guerra del yeso" de 1820. [7]En el siglo XIX, también se le conocía como sulfato de cal o sulfato de cal .

Propiedades físicas [ editar ]

Los cristales de yeso son lo suficientemente suaves como para doblarse bajo la presión de la mano. Muestra expuesta en el Musée cantonal de géologie de Lausanne.

El yeso es moderadamente soluble en agua (~ 2.0–2.5 g / la 25 ° C) [8] y, a diferencia de la mayoría de las otras sales, exhibe solubilidad retrógrada, volviéndose menos soluble a temperaturas más altas. Cuando el yeso se calienta en el aire, pierde agua y se convierte primero en sulfato de calcio hemihidrato (bassanita, a menudo llamado simplemente "yeso") y, si se calienta más, en sulfato de calcio anhidro ( anhidrita ). Al igual que con la anhidrita , la solubilidad del yeso en soluciones salinas y en salmueras también depende en gran medida de la concentración de NaCl (sal común de mesa). [8]

La estructura del yeso consta de capas de calcio (Ca 2+ ) y sulfato ( SO
4
2-
) iones estrechamente unidos entre sí. Estas capas están unidas por láminas de moléculas de agua aniónica a través de enlaces de hidrógeno más débiles , lo que le da al cristal una escisión perfecta a lo largo de las láminas (en el plano {010}). [3] [9]

Variedades de cristal [ editar ]

El yeso se presenta en la naturaleza como cristales aplanados y, a menudo, maclados , y masas transparentes y escindibles llamadas selenita . La selenita no contiene selenio significativo ; más bien, ambas sustancias recibieron el nombre de la antigua palabra griega para la Luna .

La selenita también puede presentarse en una forma fibrosa sedosa, en cuyo caso se la denomina comúnmente "mástil satinado". Finalmente, también puede ser granular o bastante compacto. En muestras del tamaño de una mano, puede ser de transparente a opaco. Una variedad de yeso de grano muy fino, blanca o ligeramente teñida, llamada alabastro , es apreciada para trabajos ornamentales de diversos tipos. En áreas áridas, el yeso puede presentarse en forma de flor, típicamente opaca, con granos de arena incrustados llamados rosa del desierto . También forma algunos de los cristales más grandes que se encuentran en la naturaleza, de hasta 12 m (39 pies) de largo, en forma de selenita. [10]

Ocurrencia [ editar ]

El yeso es un mineral común, con lechos de evaporita gruesos y extensos en asociación con rocas sedimentarias . Se sabe que los depósitos se producen en estratos desde el eón arcaico . [11] El yeso se deposita en el agua del lago y del mar, así como en las fuentes termales , de los vapores volcánicos y de las soluciones de sulfato en las venas . La anhidrita hidrotermal en las venas se hidrata comúnmente a yeso por el agua subterránea en exposiciones cercanas a la superficie. A menudo se asocia con los minerales halita y azufre . El yeso es el mineral de sulfato más común. [12] El yeso puro es blanco, pero otras sustancias que se encuentran como impurezas pueden dar una amplia gama de colores a los depósitos locales.

Debido a que el yeso se disuelve con el tiempo en agua, el yeso rara vez se encuentra en forma de arena. Sin embargo, las condiciones únicas del Parque Nacional White Sands en el estado estadounidense de Nuevo México han creado una extensión de 710 km 2 (270 millas cuadradas) de arena de yeso blanco, suficiente para abastecer a la industria de la construcción estadounidense con paneles de yeso durante 1000 años. [13] La explotación comercial del área, fuertemente rechazada por los residentes del área, fue impedida permanentemente en 1933 cuando el presidente Herbert Hoover declaró las dunas de yeso como monumento nacional protegido .

El yeso también se forma como un subproducto de la oxidación de sulfuros , entre otros por oxidación de pirita , cuando el ácido sulfúrico generado reacciona con el carbonato de calcio . Su presencia indica condiciones oxidantes. En condiciones reductoras, los sulfatos que contiene pueden reducirse de nuevo a sulfuro mediante bacterias reductoras de sulfato . Esto puede llevar a la acumulación de azufre elemental en formaciones petrolíferas, [14] como domos de sal, [15] donde se puede extraer mediante el proceso Frasch [16] Centrales eléctricas que queman carbón con desulfuración de gases de combustión. produce large quantities of gypsum as a byproduct from the scrubbers.

Orbital pictures from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) have indicated the existence of gypsum dunes in the northern polar region of Mars,[17] which were later confirmed at ground level by the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Opportunity.[18]

  • Crystals in the Cave of the Crystals in Mexico. Note person (lower right) for scale.

  • Crystals that formed as the water evaporated in Lake Lucero, White Sands National Park.

  • Veins in the silts/marls of the Tea Green and Grey Marls, Blue Anchor, Somerset, United Kingdom.

  • Veins in Caprock Canyons State Park and Trailway, Texas.

  • Extremely fine crystals of White Sands National Park.

Mining[edit]

Commercial quantities of gypsum are found in the cities of Araripina and Grajaú in Brazil; in Pakistan, Jamaica, Iran (world's second largest producer), Thailand, Spain (the main producer in Europe), Germany, Italy, England, Ireland and Canada[20] and the United States. Large open pit quarries are located in many places including Fort Dodge, Iowa, which sits on one of the largest deposits of gypsum in the world,[21] and Plaster City, California, United States, and East Kutai, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Several small mines also exist in places such as Kalannie in Western Australia, where gypsum is sold to private buyers for additions of calcium and sulfur as well as reduction of aluminum toxicities on soil for agricultural purposes.

Crystals of gypsum up to 11 m (36 ft) long have been found in the caves of the Naica Mine of Chihuahua, Mexico. The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment. Temperatures stayed at 58 °C (136 °F), and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth. The largest of those crystals weighs 55 tonnes (61 short tons) and is around 500,000 years old.[22]

  • Golden gypsum crystals from Winnipeg

  • Gypsum sand from White Sands National Park, New Mexico

Synthesis[edit]

Synthetic gypsum is recovered via flue-gas desulfurization at some coal-fired power plants. It can be used interchangeably with natural gypsum in some applications.

Gypsum also precipitates onto brackish water membranes, a phenomenon known as mineral salt scaling, such as during brackish water desalination of water with high concentrations of calcium and sulfate. Scaling decreases membrane life and productivity.[23] This is one of the main obstacles in brackish water membrane desalination processes, such as reverse osmosis or nanofiltration. Other forms of scaling, such as calcite scaling, depending on the water source, can also be important considerations in distillation, as well as in heat exchangers, where either the salt solubility or concentration can change rapidly.

A new study has suggested that the formation of gypsum starts as tiny crystals of a mineral called bassanite (CaSO
4
·0.5H2O
).[24] This process occurs via a three-stage pathway:

  1. homogeneous nucleation of nanocrystalline bassanite;
  2. self-assembly of bassanite into aggregates, and
  3. transformation of bassanite into gypsum.

Occupational safety[edit]

People can be exposed to gypsum in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, and eye contact. Calcium sulfate per se is nontoxic and is even approved as a food additive,[25] but as powdered gypsum, it can irritate skin and mucous membranes.[26]

United States[edit]

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for gypsum exposure in the workplace as TWA 15 mg/m3 for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m3 for respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of TWA 10 mg/m3 for total exposure and TWA 5 mg/m3 for respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[26]

Uses[edit]

Gypsum works, Valencian Museum of Ethnology
Map of gypsum deposits in northern Ohio, black squares indicate the location deposits, from "Geography of Ohio," 1923

Gypsum is used in a wide variety of applications:

  • Gypsum board[27] is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings, and is known in construction as drywall, wallboard, sheetrock or plasterboard.
  • Gypsum blocks are used like concrete blocks in building construction.
  • Gypsum mortar is an ancient mortar used in building construction.
  • Plaster ingredients are used in surgical splints, casting moulds and modeling.
  • Fertilizer and soil conditioner: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Nova Scotia gypsum, often referred to as plaster, was a highly sought fertilizer for wheat fields in the United States. It is also used in ameliorating high-sodium soils,[28] such as in the Zuiderzee Works.[29]
  • Used for reclamation of saline soils: when gypsum is added to sodic and acidic soil the highly soluble form of boron (sodium metaborate) is converted to the less soluble calcium metaborate and exchangeable sodium percentage is also reduced by gypsum application.[30]
  • A binder in fast-dry tennis court clay.
  • As alabaster, a material for sculpture, it was used especially in the ancient world before steel was developed, when its relative softness made it much easier to carve.
  • A wood substitute in the ancient world: For example, when wood became scarce due to deforestation on Bronze Age Crete, gypsum was employed in building construction at locations where wood was previously used.[31]
  • A tofu (soy bean curd) coagulant, making it ultimately a major source of dietary calcium, especially in Asian cultures, which traditionally use few dairy products.
  • Adding hardness to water used for brewing.[32]
  • Used in baking as a dough conditioner, reducing stickiness, and as a baked-goods source of dietary calcium.[33] The primary component of mineral yeast food.[34]
  • A component of Portland cement used to prevent flash setting of concrete.
  • Soil/water potential monitoring (soil moisture).
  • A common ingredient in making mead.
  • In the medieval period, scribes and illuminators mixed it with lead carbonate (powdered white lead) to make gesso, which was applied to illuminated letters and gilded with gold in illuminated manuscripts.
  • In foot creams, shampoos and many other hair products.
  • A medicinal agent in traditional Chinese medicine called shi gao.
  • Impression plasters in dentistry.
  • Used in mushroom cultivation to stop grains from clumping together.
  • Tests have shown that gypsum can be used to remove pollutants such as lead.[35] or arsenic[36][37] from contaminated waters.

Gallery[edit]

  • Unusual gypsum specimens from around the world
  • Green gypsum crystals from Pernatty Lagoon, Mt Gunson, South Australia - its green color is due to presence of copper ions.

  • Unusual selenite gypsum from the Red River, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

  • Classic "ram's horn" gypsum from Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua, Mexico, 7.5×4.3×3.8 cm

  • Desert rose, 47 cm long

  • Gypsum from Pernatty Lagoon, Mt Gunson, Stuart Shelf area, Andamooka Ranges - Lake Torrens area, South Australia, Australia

  • Gypsum with crystalline native copper inside

  • Gypsum from Swan Hill, Victoria, Australia. The colouring is due to the copper oxide

  • Waterclear twined crystal of the form known as "Roman sword". Fuentes de Ebro, Zaragoza (Spain)

  • Bright, cherry-red gypsum crystals 2.5 cm in height colored by rich inclusions of the rare mineral botryogen

  • Gypsum from Naica, Mun. de Saucillo, Chihuahua, Mexico

  • Golden color gem, "fishtail"-twinned crystals of gypsum sitting atop a "ball" of gypsum which is composed of several single bladed crystals

See also[edit]

  • Gypcrust
  • Gypsum flora of Nova Scotia
  • Gypsum recycling
  • Phosphogypsum

References[edit]

  1. ^ Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C., eds. (2003). "Gypsum" (PDF). Handbook of Mineralogy. V (Borates, Carbonates, Sulfates). Chantilly, VA, US: Mineralogical Society of America. ISBN 978-0962209703.
  2. ^ Gypsum. Mindat
  3. ^ a b c Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S., Jr. (1985), Manual of Mineralogy (20th ed.), John Wiley, pp. 352–353, ISBN 978-0-471-80580-9
  4. ^ "Compact Oxford English Dictionary: gypsum".
  5. ^ Szostakowski, B.; Smitham, P.; Khan, W.S. (17 April 2017). "Plaster of Paris–Short History of Casting and Injured Limb Immobilzation". The Open Orthopaedics Journal. 11: 291–296. doi:10.2174/1874325001711010291. ISSN 1874-3250. PMC 5420179. PMID 28567158.
  6. ^ See:
    • Thaer, Albrecht Daniel; Shaw, William, trans.; Johnson, Cuthbert W., trans. (1844). The Principles of Agriculture. vol. 1. London, England: Ridgway. pp. 519–520. |volume= has extra text (help)
    • Klaus Herrmann (1990), "Mayer, Johann Friedrich", Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German), 16, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 544–545CS1 maint: postscript (link); (full text online) From p. 544: " … er bewirtschaftete nebenbei ein Pfarrgüttchen, … für die Düngung der Felder mit dem in den nahen Waldenburger Bergen gefundenen Gips einsetzte." ( … he also managed a small parson's estate, on which he repeatedly conducted agricultural experiments. In 1768, he first published the fruits of his experiences during this time as "Instruction about Gypsum", in which he espoused the fertilizing of fields with the gypsum that was found in the nearby Waldenburg mountains.)
    • Beckmann, Johann (1775). Grundsätze der deutschen Landwirthschaft [Fundamentals of German Agriculture] (in German) (2nd ed.). Göttingen, (Germany): Johann Christian Dieterich. p. 60. From p. 60: "Schon seit undenklichen Zeiten … ein Gewinn zu erhalten seyn wird." (Since times immemorial, in our vicinity, in the ministry of Niedeck [a village southeast of Göttingen], one has already made this use of gypsum; but Mr. Mayer has the merit to have made it generally known. In the History of Farming in Kupferzell, he had depicted a crushing mill (p. 74), in order to pulverize gypsum, from which a profit has been obtained, albeit with difficulty.)
    • Mayer, Johann Friderich (1768). Lehre vom Gyps als vorzueglich guten Dung zu allen Erd-Gewaechsen auf Aeckern und Wiesen, Hopfen- und Weinbergen [Instruction in gypsum as an ideal good manure for all things grown in soil on fields and pastures, hops yards and vineyards] (in German). Anspach, (Germany): Jacob Christoph Posch.
  7. ^ Smith, Joshua (2007). Borderland smuggling: Patriots, loyalists, and illicit trade in the Northeast, 1780–1820. Gainesville, FL: UPF. pp. passim. ISBN 978-0-8130-2986-3.
  8. ^ a b Bock, E. (1961). "On the solubility of anhydrous calcium sulphate and of gypsum in concentrated solutions of sodium chloride at 25 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C, and 50 °C". Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 39 (9): 1746–1751. doi:10.1139/v61-228.
  9. ^ Mandal, Pradip K; Mandal, Tanuj K (2002). "Anion water in gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) and hemihydrate (CaSO4·1/2H2O)". Cement and Concrete Research. 32 (2): 313. doi:10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00675-5.
  10. ^ García-Ruiz, Juan Manuel; Villasuso, Roberto; Ayora, Carlos; Canals, Angels; Otálora, Fermín (2007). "Formation of natural gypsum megacrystals in Naica, Mexico" (PDF). Geology. 35 (4): 327–330. Bibcode:2007Geo....35..327G. doi:10.1130/G23393A.1. hdl:10261/3439.
  11. ^ Cockell, C. S.; Raven, J. A. (2007). "Ozone and life on the Archaean Earth". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 365 (1856): 1889–1901. Bibcode:2007RSPTA.365.1889C. doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2049. PMID 17513273. S2CID 4716.
  12. ^ Deer, W.A.; Howie, R.A.; Zussman, J. (1966). An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals. London: Longman. p. 469. ISBN 978-0-582-44210-8.
  13. ^ Abarr, James (7 February 1999). "Sea of sand". The Albuquerque Journal. Archived from the original on 30 June 2006. Retrieved 27 January 2007.
  14. ^ Machel, H.G (April 2001). "Bacterial and thermochemical sulfate reduction in diagenetic settings — old and new insights". Sedimentary Geology. 140 (1–2): 143–175. Bibcode:2001SedG..140..143M. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00176-7.
  15. ^ Sassen, Roger; Chinn, E.W.; McCabe, C. (December 1988). "Recent hydrocarbon alteration, sulfate reduction and formation of elemental sulfur and metal sulfides in salt dome cap rock". Chemical Geology. 74 (1–2): 57–66. Bibcode:1988ChGeo..74...57S. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(88)90146-5.
  16. ^ Wolfgang Nehb, Karel Vydra. "Sulfur". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a25_507.pub2.
  17. ^ High-resolution Mars image gallery. University of Arizona
  18. ^ NASA Mars Rover Finds Mineral Vein Deposited by Water, NASA, 7 December 2011.
  19. ^ "GYPSUM" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey.
  20. ^ "Mines, mills and concentrators in Canada". Natural Resources Canada. 24 October 2005. Archived from the original on 13 March 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2007.
  21. ^ The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide. Helion. 2018 – via Credo Reference.
  22. ^ Alleyne, Richard (27 October 2008). "World's largest crystal discovered in Mexican cave". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
  23. ^ Uchymiak, Michal; Lyster, Eric; Glater, Julius; Cohen, Yoram (April 2008). "Kinetics of gypsum crystal growth on a reverse osmosis membrane". Journal of Membrane Science. 314 (1–2): 163–172. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2008.01.041.
  24. ^ Van Driessche, A.E.S.; Benning, L. G.; Rodriguez-Blanco, J. D.; Ossorio, M.; Bots, P.; García-Ruiz, J. M. (2012). "The role and implications of bassanite as a stable precursor phase to gypsum precipitation". Science. 336 (6077): 69–72. Bibcode:2012Sci...336...69V. doi:10.1126/science.1215648. PMID 22491851. S2CID 9355745.
  25. ^ "Compound Summary for CID 24497 - Calcium Sulfate". PubChem.
  26. ^ a b "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Gypsum". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
  27. ^ *Complimentary list of MasterFormat 2004 Edition numbers and titles (large PDF document)
  28. ^ Oster, J. D.; Frenkel, H. (1980). "The chemistry of the reclamation of sodic soils with gypsum and lime". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 44 (1): 41–45. Bibcode:1980SSASJ..44...41O. doi:10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400010010x.
  29. ^ Ley, Willy (October 1961). "The Home-Made Land". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 92–106.
  30. ^ Genesis and Management of Sodic (Alkali) Soils. (2017). (n.p.): Scientific Publishers.
  31. ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2007). "Knossos fieldnotes". Modern Antiquarian.
  32. ^ Palmer, John. "Water Chemistry Adjustment for Extract Brewing". HowToBrew.com. Retrieved 15 December 2008.
  33. ^ "Calcium sulphate for the baking industry" (PDF). United States Gypsum Company. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
  34. ^ "Tech sheet for yeast food" (PDF). Lesaffre Yeast Corporation. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
  35. ^ Astilleros, J.M.; Godelitsas, A.; Rodríguez-Blanco, J.D.; Fernández-Díaz, L.; Prieto, M.; Lagoyannis, A.; Harissopulos, S. (2010). "Interaction of gypsum with lead in aqueous solutions" (PDF). Applied Geochemistry. 25 (7): 1008. Bibcode:2010ApGC...25.1008A. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2010.04.007.
  36. ^ Rodriguez, J. D.; Jimenez, A.; Prieto, M.; Torre, L.; Garcia-Granda, S. (2008). "Interaction of gypsum with As(V)-bearing aqueous solutions: Surface precipitation of guerinite, sainfeldite, and Ca2NaH(AsO4)2⋅6H2O, a synthetic arsenate". American Mineralogist. 93 (5–6): 928. Bibcode:2008AmMin..93..928R. doi:10.2138/am.2008.2750. S2CID 98249784.
  37. ^ Rodríguez-Blanco, Juan Diego; Jiménez, Amalia; Prieto, Manuel (2007). "Oriented Overgrowth of Pharmacolite (CaHAsO4⋅2H2O) on Gypsum (CaSO4⋅2H2O)". Cryst. Growth Des. 7 (12): 2756–2763. doi:10.1021/cg070222+.

External links[edit]

  • WebMineral data
  • Mineral galleries – gypsum
  • CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
  • "Gypsum" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
  • "Gypsum" . The American Cyclopædia. 1879.