| Hamásحركة المقاومة الاسلامية | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Portavoz | Fawzi Barhoum |
| Jefe del Buró Político | Ismail Haniyeh |
| Subjefe del Buró Político | Mousa Abu Marzouq y Khaled Mashal [1] |
| Fundador | Sheikh Ahmed Yassin , Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi , Mahmoud Zahar , Mohammad Taha , Abdel Fattah Dukhan, [2] Ibrahim Fares Al-Yazouri; [3] 'Isa al-Nashshar [4] Ibrahim Quqa, [5] y Mohammed Hassan Shama'a, [6] Hassan Yousef [7] |
| Fundado | 1987 |
| Precedido por | Hermandad musulmana palestina |
| Sede | Gaza , Franja de Gaza |
| Ala militar | Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam |
| Ideología | |
| Religión | Islam sunita |
| Afiliación internacional | Hermandad Musulmana |
| Colores | Verde |
| Consejo Legislativo (2006) | 74/132 |
| Bandera del partido | |
 | |
| Sitio web | |
| hamas.ps/en | |
Hamas ( árabe : حماس Hamas , un acrónimo de حركة المقاومة الاسلامية Harakat al-Muqāwamah al-'Islāmiyyah [Movimiento de Resistencia Islámica]) es una palestina sunita - islámica fundamentalista [c] pero pragmática , [d] militante , [16] y nacionalista organización . [e] Tiene un ala de servicio social, Dawah , y un ala militar, las Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam . [f] [g] Ganó elElecciones legislativas palestinas de 2006 [20] y se convirtió en la autoridad gobernante de facto de la Franja de Gaza tras la Batalla de Gaza de 2007 . [21] [22] Israel y Hamas se han involucrado desde entonces en varias guerras de diversa intensidad. [23] Canadá , la Unión Europea , Israel , Japón y los Estados Unidos clasifican a Hamas como una organización terrorista . Australia , Nueva Zelanda , Paraguay y Reino Unidoclasificar solo su ala militar como organización terrorista. No es considerada una organización terrorista por Brasil , China , Egipto , Irán , Noruega , Qatar , Rusia , Siria , Turquía y el resto del mundo. En diciembre de 2018, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas rechazó una resolución estadounidense que condenaba a Hamas como organización terrorista. [h]
Hamas fue fundado en 1987, [i] poco después de que estallara la Primera Intifada , como una rama de la Hermandad Musulmana Egipcia [26] que en su rama de Gaza no había sido previamente confrontacional con Israel y hostil a la Organización de Liberación de Palestina (OLP). [27] El cofundador Sheik Ahmed Yassin dijo en 1987, y la Carta de Hamas afirmó en 1988, que Hamas se fundó para liberar a Palestina , incluido el actual Israel, de la ocupación israelí y para establecer un estado islámico en el área que ahora es Israel, Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza. [28]Desde 1994, [29] el grupo ha declarado con frecuencia que aceptaría una tregua [j] si Israel se retira a las fronteras de 1967, paga reparaciones, permite elecciones libres en los territorios, [31] y el derecho al retorno de los refugiados palestinos . [k]
El ala militar de Hamas ha lanzado ataques contra civiles y soldados israelíes, a menudo describiéndolos como represalias, en particular por asesinatos del escalón superior de su liderazgo. [33] Las tácticas han incluido bombardeos suicidas y, desde 2001, ataques con cohetes [34] [35] El arsenal de cohetes de Hamas, aunque consiste principalmente en cohetes Qassam caseros de corto alcance con un alcance de 16 km, [36] [l] también incluye Cohetes de tipo Grad (21 km en 2009) y cohetes de mayor alcance (40 km), si no apuntan de manera confiable, que han alcanzado las principales ciudades israelíes como Beer Sheva y Ashdod , [36]y algunos que han afectado a ciudades como Tel Aviv y Haifa . [38] Human Rights Watch ha condenado como crímenes de guerra y crímenes de lesa humanidad tanto a Hamas como a Israel por los ataques contra civiles durante el conflicto, afirmando que la justificación de las represalias nunca es válida cuando se ataca a civiles. [metro]
En las elecciones parlamentarias palestinas de enero de 2006, Hamas obtuvo la mayoría en el Parlamento palestino, [39] derrotando al partido Fatah afiliado a la OLP . Después de las elecciones, el Cuarteto (la Unión Europea, Rusia, Naciones Unidas y Estados Unidos) condicionó la futura asistencia exterior a la Autoridad Nacional Palestina (ANP) al compromiso de la ANP con la no violencia, el reconocimiento del estado de Israel y la aceptación. de acuerdos anteriores. Hamas rechazó esas condiciones, lo que llevó al Cuarteto a suspender su programa de asistencia exterior e Israel a imponer sanciones económicas a la administración liderada por Hamas. [40] [41] En marzo de 2007, unEl gobierno de unidad nacional encabezado por el primer ministro Ismail Haniyeh de Hamas se formó brevemente, pero no logró reiniciar la asistencia financiera internacional. [42] Las tensiones por el control de las fuerzas de seguridad palestinas pronto estallaron en la Batalla de Gaza de 2007, [42] después de la cual Hamas tomó el control de Gaza, mientras que sus funcionarios fueron destituidos de puestos gubernamentales en Cisjordania. [42] Israel y Egipto impusieron un bloqueo económico de la Franja de Gaza con el argumento de que las fuerzas de Fatah ya no proporcionaban seguridad allí. [43]
Etimología
Hamas es un acrónimo de la frase árabe حركة المقاومة الاسلامية o Harakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya , que significa "Movimiento de Resistencia Islámico". Este acrónimo, HMS, fue posteriormente glosado en el Pacto de Hamas [44] por la palabra árabe 'hamas' ( حماس ) que en sí misma significa "celo", "fuerza", "valentía". [45] En hebreo, hay una palabra que suena similar, ḥāmās (חמס) que connota 'violencia' y se ha sugerido que la semejanza fonémica entre los dos términos puede haber conducido a incitar a las relaciones enconadas entre Israel y este movimiento palestino. [46]
Objetivos
Hamas, como su nombre lo indica (Movimiento de Resistencia Islámica), tiene como objetivo liberar a Palestina de la ocupación israelí y transformar el país en un estado islámico. Se discute cuál de estos dos objetivos es el objetivo principal. [47] El estatuto original del movimiento lo comprometía a librar una lucha armada para destruir el estado de Israel. [48]
Liderazgo y estructura
Hamas heredó de su predecesor una estructura tripartita que consistía en la provisión de servicios sociales, entrenamiento religioso y operaciones militares bajo un Consejo Shura. Tradicionalmente tenía cuatro funciones distintas: (a) una división benéfica de bienestar social ( dawah ); b) una división militar para la adquisición de armas y la realización de operaciones ( al-Mujahideen al Filastinun ); (c) un servicio de seguridad ( Jehaz Aman ); y (d) una rama de medios ( A'alam ). [49] Hamas tiene un liderazgo interno dentro de Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza, y un liderazgo externo, dividido entre un grupo de Gaza dirigido por Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook.de su exilio primero en Damasco y luego en Egipto, y un grupo kuwaití ( Kuwaidia ) bajo Khaled Mashal . [50] El grupo kuwaití de exiliados palestinos comenzó a recibir una gran cantidad de fondos de los Estados del Golfo después de que su líder Mashal rompió con la decisión de Yasser Arafat de ponerse del lado de Saddam Hussein en la invasión de Kuwait , y Mashal insistió en que Irak se retirara. [51] El 6 de mayo de 2017, el Consejo Shura de Hamas eligió a Ismail Haniya para convertirse en el nuevo líder, en sustitución de Mashal. [52]
La naturaleza exacta de la organización no está clara, y se mantiene el secreto por temor a asesinatos israelíes y para ocultar actividades operativas. Formalmente, Hamas sostiene que las alas están separadas e independientes. Matthew Levitt sostiene que esto es un mito público. Davis sostiene que ambos están separados y combinados por razones de necesidad política interna y externa. La comunicación entre las alas políticas y militares de Hamas es difícil debido a la minuciosidad de la vigilancia de la inteligencia israelí y la existencia de una amplia base de informantes. Después del asesinato de Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi, la dirección política ocasional del ala militante disminuyó, con los comandantes de campo con autonomía discrecional en las operaciones. [53]
Consejos consultivos
El órgano de gobierno es el Majlis al-Shura . El principio detrás del consejo se basa en el concepto coránico de consulta y asamblea popular ( shura ), que según los líderes de Hamas proporciona la democracia dentro de un marco islámico. [54] A medida que la organización se hizo más compleja y la presión israelí aumentó, necesitaba una base más amplia para las decisiones, el Consejo de la Shura pasó a llamarse "Consejo Consultivo General", elegido entre los miembros de los grupos del consejo local y este a su vez eligió un Politburó de 15 miembros ( al-Maktab al-Siyasi ) [55] que tomaba decisiones al más alto nivel. Los representantes provienen de Gaza, Cisjordania, líderes en el exilio yPrisiones israelíes . [56] Este órgano estuvo ubicado en Damasco hasta que la Guerra Civil Siria lo llevó a su traslado a Qatar en enero de 2012, cuando Hamas se puso del lado de la oposición civil contra el régimen de Bashar al-Assad . [56] [57]
Ala de servicios sociales
Hamás desarrolló su programa de bienestar social replicando el modelo establecido por la Hermandad Musulmana de Egipto. Para ellos, la caridad y el desarrollo de la propia comunidad están prescritos por la religión y, al mismo tiempo, deben entenderse como formas de resistencia. [58] En la tradición islámica, dawah (literalmente, 'el llamado a Dios') obliga a los fieles a acercarse a los demás mediante el proselitismo y las obras de caridad, y típicamente este último se centra en las mezquitas que hacen uso tanto de los recursos de la donación del waqf como de las obras de caridad. donaciones caritativas ( zakat, uno de los cinco pilares del Islam) para financiar servicios de base como guarderías, escuelas, orfanatos, comedores populares, actividades para mujeres, servicios bibliotecarios e incluso clubes deportivos dentro de un contexto más amplio de predicación y discusiones políticas. [59] En el decenio de 1990, aproximadamente el 85% de su presupuesto se asignó a la prestación de servicios sociales. [60] Se le ha llamado quizás el actor de servicios sociales más importante de Palestina. Para el año 2000, él o sus organizaciones benéficas afiliadas administraban aproximadamente el 40% de las instituciones sociales en Cisjordania y Gaza y, junto con otras organizaciones benéficas islámicas, en 2005 apoyaba a 120.000 personas con apoyo financiero mensual en Gaza. [61]Parte del atractivo de estas instituciones es que llenan un vacío en la administración de la OLP de los territorios palestinos, que no había logrado satisfacer la demanda de empleos y amplios servicios sociales, y es ampliamente vista como corrupta. [62] Todavía en 2005, el presupuesto de Hamas, que se basaba en contribuciones benéficas mundiales, estaba principalmente destinado a cubrir los gastos de funcionamiento de sus programas sociales, que se extendían desde el suministro de vivienda, alimentos y agua para los necesitados hasta funciones más generales. como ayuda financiera, asistencia médica, desarrollo educativo e instrucción religiosa. Una cierta flexibilidad contable permitió que estos fondos cubrieran tanto causas benéficas como operaciones militares, permitiendo la transferencia de uno a otro. [63]
La infraestructura de la dawah en sí misma se entendía, dentro del contexto palestino, como el terreno desde el cual florecería una oposición militante a la ocupación. [n] En este sentido, se diferencia de la Jihad Islámica Palestina rival, que carece de una red de bienestar social y se basa en espectaculares ataques terroristas para reclutar adeptos. [65] En 2007, a través de la financiación de Irán, Hamas logró asignar a un costo de $ 60 millones, estipendios mensuales de $ 100 para 100.000 trabajadores y una suma similar para 3.000 pescadores inactivos por la imposición de Israel de restricciones a la pesca en alta mar, más subvenciones. por un total de $ 45 millones para los detenidos y sus familias. [66] Matthew Levittargumenta que las subvenciones de Hamas a las personas están sujetas a un riguroso análisis de costo-beneficio de cómo los beneficiarios apoyarán a Hamas, y aquellos vinculados a actividades terroristas reciben más que otros. [67] Israel responsabiliza a las familias de los terroristas suicidas y arrasa sus hogares, mientras que las familias de los activistas de Hamas que han resultado muertos o heridos durante las operaciones militantes reciben una subvención inicial única que varía entre 500 y 5.000 dólares, junto con 100 dólares. asignación mensual. También se proporciona asistencia para el alquiler a las familias cuyas casas han sido destruidas por los bombardeos israelíes, aunque se dice que las familias no afiliadas a Hamas reciben menos. [68] [69]
Hasta 2007, estas actividades se extendieron a Cisjordania, pero, después de la represión de la OLP, ahora continúan exclusivamente en la Franja de Gaza. [70] Después de que el golpe de Estado egipcio de 2013 depuso al gobierno electo de la Hermandad Musulmana de Mohamed Morsi en 2013, Hamas se encontró en una camisa de fuerza financiera y desde entonces se ha esforzado por devolver la carga de la responsabilidad de la infraestructura de obras públicas en la Franja de Gaza a la Autoridad Nacional Palestina, pero sin éxito. [71]
Ala militar
Las Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam son el ala militar de Hamas. En el momento de la Intifada de Al-Aqsa, los laboratorios de Hamas habían ideado una forma primitiva de cohetes, el Qassam 1, que lanzaron por primera vez en octubre de 2000, con una ojiva de 500 gramos con un alcance de tiro de 4 kilómetros. Tanto el propulsor como el explosivo se fabricaron a partir de fertilizantes químicos, aunque también se probó el TNT. [72] Durante los siguientes cinco años del conflicto, también se fabricó una versión con ojiva de 3 kilogramos con un alcance de ataque de 6 a 8 kilómetros, el Qassam 2 [73]y en un aumento gradual, estos tipos de cohetes se dispararon hacia los asentamientos israelíes a lo largo de la Franja de Gaza: 4 en 2001, 35 en 2002, 155 en 2003, 281 en 2004 y 179 en 2005. Para 2005, el Qassam 3 había sido diseñado con un alcance de 12 a 14 kilómetros y una ojiva de 15 kilogramos. En 2006, se lanzaron 942 cohetes de este tipo contra el sur de Israel. [74] Durante la Guerra con Israel en 2008-2009 , Hamas desplegó cohetes Grad de 122 mm con un alcance de 20 a 40 kilómetros y una ojiva de 30 kilogramos y una variedad de misiles antitanques Kornet guiados. [75] Para 2012, Hamas había diseñado una versión del cohete Fajr-5 , que era capaz de llegar hasta Tel Aviv., como se demostró después del asesinato de Ahmed Jabari en ese año. En la guerra de 2014, sus cohetes avanzados llegaron a Jerusalén, Tel Aviv y Haifa . [44]
Si bien el número de miembros solo lo conocen los líderes de las Brigadas, Israel estima que las Brigadas tienen un núcleo de varios cientos de miembros que reciben entrenamiento de estilo militar , incluido el entrenamiento en Irán y en Siria (antes de la Guerra Civil Siria). [76] Además, las brigadas tienen un estimado de 10,000-17,000 operativos, [61] [77] formando una fuerza de respaldo siempre que las circunstancias requieran refuerzos para la Brigada. La formación de contratación tiene una duración de dos años. [76] La ideología del grupo describe su objetivo como la liberación de Palestina y la restauración de los derechos palestinos bajo las dispensaciones establecidas en el Corán, y esto se traduce en tres prioridades políticas:
Evocar el espíritu de Jihad (Resistencia) entre palestinos, árabes y musulmanes; defender a los palestinos y su tierra contra la ocupación sionista y sus manifestaciones; para liberar a los palestinos y su tierra que fue usurpada por las fuerzas de ocupación sionistas y los colonos. [78]
De acuerdo con sus estipulaciones oficiales, las operaciones militares de las Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam deben limitarse a operar solo dentro de Palestina, entablar contacto con soldados israelíes [o] y ejercer el derecho de autodefensa contra colonos armados. Deben evitar los objetivos civiles, respetar la humanidad del enemigo evitando la mutilación, la desfiguración o la matanza excesiva, y evitar atacar a los occidentales en las zonas ocupadas o más allá. [80]
Hasta 2007, se estima que las Brigadas perdieron unos 800 operativos en conflictos con las fuerzas israelíes. El liderazgo se ha visto socavado constantemente por asesinatos selectivos. Aparte de Yahya Ayyash (5 de enero de 1996), ha perdido a Emad Akel (24 de noviembre de 1993), Salah Shehade (23 de julio de 2002), Ibrahim al-Makadmeh (8 de marzo de 2003), Ismail Abu Shanab (21 de agosto de 2003), Ahmed Yassin (22 de marzo de 2004) y Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi (17 de abril de 2004). [73] [39]
Las Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam agrupan a sus combatientes en celdas de 4 a 5 hombres, que a su vez se integran en compañías y batallones. A diferencia de la sección política, que está dividida entre una estructura interna y externa, las Brigadas están bajo un liderazgo palestino local, y la desobediencia a las decisiones tomadas por el liderazgo político ha sido relativamente rara. [81]
Aunque las Brigadas Izz al-Din al-Qassam son una parte integral de Hamas, la naturaleza exacta de la relación es objeto de acalorados debates. A veces parecen operar independientemente de Hamas, ejerciendo cierta autonomía. [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] Algunas células tienen vínculos independientes con el liderazgo externo, lo que les permite eludir la cadena de mando jerárquica y el liderazgo político en Gaza. [87] Ilana Kass y Bard O'Neill, comparando la relación de Hamas con las Brigadas con la relación del partido político Sinn Féin con el brazo militar del Ejército Republicano Irlandés.. cite a un alto funcionario de Hamas diciendo: "La Brigada Izz al-Din al-Qassam es un ala militar armada separada, que tiene sus propios líderes que no siguen sus órdenes de Hamas y no nos informan de sus planes con anticipación". [88] [p]
Finanzas y financiación
Hamás, al igual que su predecesora, la Hermandad Musulmana, asumió la administración de las propiedades waqf de Gaza, dotaciones que se extienden a más del 10% de todos los bienes raíces en la Franja de Gaza, con 2.000 acres de tierras agrícolas en fideicomisos religiosos, junto con numerosas tiendas y apartamentos alquilables. y edificios públicos. [91]
En los primeros cinco años de la Primera Intifada, la economía de Gaza, el 50% de la cual dependía de fuentes externas de ingresos, se desplomó entre un 30% y un 50% cuando Israel cerró su mercado laboral y las remesas de los palestinos expatriados en los países del Golfo se agotaron después de la Guerra del Golfo de 1991-1992 . [79] En la conferencia de Filadelfia de 1993, las declaraciones de los líderes de Hamas indicaron que leían el esbozo de George HW Bush de un Nuevo Orden Mundial como encarnación de un objetivo tácito de destruir el Islam y que, por lo tanto, la financiación debería centrarse en mejorar las raíces islámicas de los palestinos. la sociedad y la promoción de la jihad, que también significa celo por la justicia social, en los territorios ocupados. [92]Hamas se volvió particularmente exigente en mantener recursos separados para sus respectivas ramas de actividad: servicios militares, políticos y sociales. [93] Ha tenido una sociedad de cartera en Jerusalén Este ( Beit al-Mal ), una participación del 20% en Al Aqsa International Bank que sirvió como su brazo financiero, el Sunuqrut Global Group y la empresa de cambio de dinero al-Ajouli. [94]
Para 2011, el presupuesto de Hamas, calculado en aproximadamente 70 millones de dólares, se derivó aún más sustancialmente (85%) de fuentes extranjeras, en lugar de internas palestinas. [94] Sólo dos fuentes israelíes-palestinas figuran en una lista incautada en 2004, mientras que los otros contribuyentes eran organismos donantes ubicados en Jordania, Qatar, Kuwait, Arabia Saudita, Gran Bretaña, Alemania, Estados Unidos, Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Italia y Francia. . Gran parte del dinero recaudado proviene de fuentes que dirigen su ayuda a lo que Hamas describe como su trabajo caritativo para los palestinos, pero las inversiones en apoyo de su posición ideológica también son relevantes, con los Estados del Golfo Pérsico y Arabia Saudita prominentes en este último. Matthew Levitt afirma que Hamas también obtiene dinero de corporaciones, organizaciones criminales y redes financieras que apoyan el terrorismo.[95] También se alega que se dedica al contrabando de cigarrillos y drogas, infracción de derechos de autor multimedia y fraude con tarjetas de crédito. [94] Estados Unidos, Israel y la UE han cerrado muchas organizaciones benéficas y órganos que canalizan dinero a Hamas, como la Fundación Tierra Santa para el Alivio. [96] Entre 1992 y 2001, se dice que este grupo proporcionó $ 6,8 millones a organizaciones benéficas palestinas de los $ 57 millones recaudados. En 2001, supuestamente le había dado a Hamas 13 millones de dólares y se cerró poco después. [97]
Aproximadamente la mitad de la financiación de Hamas provino de estados del Golfo Pérsico hasta mediados de la década de 2000. Arabia Saudita suministró la mitad del presupuesto de Hamas de 50 millones de dólares a principios de la década de 2000, [98] pero, bajo la presión de Estados Unidos, comenzó a recortar su financiación tomando medidas enérgicas contra las organizaciones benéficas islámicas y las transferencias de donantes privados a Hamas en 2004, [99] que en 2006 redujo drásticamente el flujo de dinero de esa área. Irán y Siria, tras la victoria electoral de Hamas en 2006, intervinieron para cubrir el déficit. [100] [101] La financiación saudí, negociada con terceros como Egipto, siguió apoyando a Hamas como grupo sunita, pero optó por brindar más asistencia a la ANP, el perdedor electoral, cuando la UE respondió al resultado suspendiendo su ayuda monetaria. . [102]Durante la década de 1980, Irán comenzó a proporcionar el 10% de la financiación de Hamas, que aumentó anualmente hasta que en la década de 1990 suministró $ 30 millones. [98] A fines de la década de 2000, representó $ 22 millones, más de una cuarta parte del presupuesto de Hamas. [99] Según Matthew Levitt, Irán prefirió el financiamiento directo a los grupos operativos en lugar de las organizaciones benéficas, lo que requiere una prueba de video de los ataques. [99] [103] Se dice que gran parte de la financiación de Irán se canaliza a través de Hezbollah . [99]Después de 2006, la voluntad de Irán de asumir el peso del déficit creado por el agotamiento de los fondos saudíes también reflejó las tensiones geopolíticas entre los dos, ya que, aunque chiita, Irán apoyaba a un grupo sunita tradicionalmente vinculado estrechamente con el reino saudí. [104] Estados Unidos impuso sanciones al Bank Saderat de Irán, alegando que había canalizado cientos de millones a Hamas. [105] Estados Unidos ha expresado su preocupación de que Hamas obtenga fondos a través de simpatizantes palestinos y libaneses de ascendencia árabe en el área de Foz do Iguaçu de la región de la triple frontera de América Latina., un área asociada durante mucho tiempo con el comercio de armas, el tráfico de drogas, el contrabando, la fabricación de productos falsificados, el blanqueo de dinero y el fraude monetario. El Departamento de Estado agrega que falta información confirmatoria de una presencia operativa de Hamas allí. [106]
Después de 2009, las sanciones contra Irán dificultaron la financiación, lo que obligó a Hamas a depender de donaciones religiosas de personas en Cisjordania, Qatar y Arabia Saudita. Los fondos que ascienden a decenas de millones de dólares recaudados en los estados del Golfo se transfirieron a través del paso fronterizo de Rafah . Estos no fueron suficientes para cubrir los costos de gobernar la Franja y dirigir las Brigadas al Qassam, y cuando surgieron tensiones con Irán por el apoyo del presidente Assad en Siria, Irán abandonó su asistencia financiera al gobierno, restringiendo su financiamiento al ala militar. lo que significó una caída de $ 150 millones en 2012 a $ 60 millones el año siguiente. Una nueva caída se produjo en 2015 cuando Hamas expresó sus críticas al papel de Irán en la Guerra Civil Yemení .[107]
En 2017, el gobierno de la Autoridad Palestina impuso sus propias sanciones contra Gaza, que incluyen, entre otras cosas, recortar los salarios de miles de empleados de la Autoridad Palestina, así como la asistencia financiera a cientos de familias en la Franja de Gaza. La Autoridad Palestina inicialmente dijo que dejaría de pagar la electricidad y el combustible que Israel suministra a la Franja de Gaza, pero después de un año retrocedió parcialmente. [108] El gobierno israelí ha permitido que millones de dólares de Qatar se canalicen de forma regular a través de Israel a Hamas, para reemplazar los millones de dólares que la Autoridad Palestina había dejado de transferir a Hamas. Primer ministro israelí, Benjamin NetanyahuExplicó que dejar que el dinero pasara por Israel significaba que no podría usarse para el terrorismo, y dijo: "Ahora que estamos supervisando, sabemos que se destinará a causas humanitarias". [109]
Historia
Orígenes
Los orígenes de Hamas se remontan a la fundación de la Hermandad Musulmana en Egipto en 1928. [110] La Hermandad Musulmana surgió como un intento de que los valores islámicos se extendieran más allá de la mezquita hacia la esfera secular, donde desafió los supuestos básicos, sociales, políticos , ideológico, nacionalista y económico del orden imperante existente. [111] En 1935 estableció contactos en la Palestina del Mandato y en 1945 inauguró su primera sucursal en Jerusalén. [112] Después de la Nakba en 1948, que destrozó la sociedad palestina, la Hermandad Musulmana fue una de las primeras organizaciones en restablecerse entre los palestinos. [110]
Cuando Israel ocupó los territorios palestinos en 1967, los miembros de la Hermandad Musulmana no participaron activamente en la resistencia, prefiriendo centrarse en la reforma socio-religiosa y en la restauración de los valores islámicos. [113] Esta perspectiva cambió a principios de la década de 1980 y las organizaciones islámicas se involucraron más en la política palestina. [114] La fuerza impulsora detrás de esta transformación fue Ahmed Yassin, un refugiado palestino de Al-Jura . [114] De origen humilde y tetrapléjico , [114] perseveró para convertirse en uno de los líderes de los Hermanos Musulmanes en Gaza. Su carisma y convicción le trajeron un fiel grupo de seguidores, a quienes él, como tetrapléjico, dependía para todo, desde alimentarlo, transportarlo hacia y desde los eventos, y comunicar su estrategia al público. [115]
En 1973, Yassin fundó la organización benéfica social-religiosa al-Mujama al-Islamiya ("centro islámico") en Gaza como una rama de la Hermandad Musulmana. [116] [117] Las autoridades israelíes alentaron a la caridad de Yassin a expandirse ya que la vieron como un contrapeso útil para la secular Organización de Liberación de Palestina . [90] [118] [119] [120] Yitzhak Segev, quien era el gobernador militar israelí de Gaza en ese momento, recordó que incluso financiaron su caridad: "El gobierno israelí me dio un presupuesto, y el gobierno militar da a las mezquitas ". [121] Oficial de asuntos religiosos de Israel en Gaza, Avner Cohen, más tarde concluyó con pesar que Hamás fue creado por Israel. Afirmó haber advertido a sus superiores que no respaldaran a los islamistas. [122]
En 1984, Yassin fue arrestado después de que los israelíes descubrieron que su grupo recolectaba armas, [122] pero fue liberado en mayo de 1985 como parte de un intercambio de prisioneros . [123] [124] Continuó ampliando el alcance de su caridad en Gaza. [122] Después de su liberación, estableció al-Majd (un acrónimo de Munazamat al-Jihad wa al-Da'wa), encabezado por el exlíder estudiantil Yahya Sinwar y Rawhi Mushtaha , encargado de manejar la seguridad interna y cazar informantes locales para los servicios de inteligencia israelíes. [125] [126] Aproximadamente al mismo tiempo, ordenó al exlíder estudiantil Salah Shehade que establecieraal-Mujahidun al-Filastiniun (combatientes palestinos), pero sus militantes fueron rápidamente detenidos por las autoridades israelíes y les confiscaron las armas. [127] [q]
La idea de Hamas comenzó a tomar forma el 10 de diciembre de 1987, cuando varios miembros de la Hermandad [r] se reunieron al día siguiente de un incidente en el que un camión del ejército israelí se estrelló contra un automóvil en un puesto de control de Gaza y mató a 4 jornaleros palestinos. . Se reunieron en la casa de Yassin y decidieron que ellos también debían reaccionar de alguna manera cuando estallaron los disturbios de protesta que provocaron la Primera Intifada . [39] Se considera que un folleto publicado el 14 de diciembre llamando a la resistencia marca su primera intervención pública, aunque el nombre de Hamas no se usó hasta enero de 1988. [4] Yassin no estaba directamente relacionado con la organización, pero le dio su bendición. [39]En una reunión con la Hermandad Musulmana de Jordania en febrero de 1988, también dio su aprobación. [128] Para muchos palestinos pareció comprometerse más auténticamente con sus expectativas nacionales, ya que simplemente proporcionó una versión islámica de lo que habían sido los objetivos originales de la OLP, la lucha armada para liberar toda Palestina, en lugar del compromiso territorial que la OLP accedió. - un pequeño fragmento de Palestina obligatoria. [129]
Crear a Hamás como una entidad distinta de los Hermanos Musulmanes fue una cuestión de practicidad; la Hermandad Musulmana se negó a participar en actos de violencia contra Israel, [130] pero sin participar en la intifada, los islamistas vinculados a ella temían perder el apoyo a sus rivales, la Jihad Islámica Palestina y la OLP . También esperaban que al mantener separadas sus actividades militantes, Israel no interferiría con su trabajo social. [s]
Hamas publicó su carta en agosto de 1988, en la que se definía a sí misma como un capítulo de la Hermandad Musulmana y su deseo de establecer "un estado islámico en toda Palestina" (para más detalles sobre la carta, véase la Carta de Hamas (1988) ). [133]
El cofundador Yassin estaba convencido de que Israel se estaba esforzando por destruir el Islam y llegó a la conclusión de que los musulmanes leales tenían la obligación religiosa de destruir a Israel. [134] El objetivo a corto plazo de Hamas era liberar a Palestina , incluido el actual Israel, de la ocupación israelí . El objetivo a largo plazo buscaba establecer un estado islámico desde el río Jordán hasta el mar Mediterráneo, notablemente similar a, y quizás derivado de, la noción sionista de la misma área bajo una mayoría judía. [t]
Primera Intifada
El primer ataque de Hamas contra Israel se produjo en la primavera de 1989 cuando secuestró y mató a Avi Sasportas e Ilan Saadon , dos soldados israelíes. [136] En ese momento, Shehade y Sinwar cumplieron condena en prisiones israelíes y Hamas había creado un nuevo grupo, la Unidad 101, encabezada por Mahmoud al-Mabhouh , cuyo objetivo era secuestrar soldados. [137] El descubrimiento del cuerpo de Sasportas desencadenó, en palabras de Jean-Pierre Filiu , 'una respuesta israelí extremadamente violenta': cientos de líderes y activistas de Hamas, entre ellos Yassin, que fue condenado a cadena perpetua, fueron arrestados, [138] y Hamás fue ilegalizado. [124]Esta detención masiva de activistas, junto con una nueva ola de arrestos en 1990, desmanteló efectivamente a Hamás y, devastado, se vio obligado a adaptarse; [139] [138] su sistema de mando se regionalizó para hacer más difusa su estructura operativa, [62] y minimizar las posibilidades de ser detectado. [140]
La ira tras la masacre de al-Aqsa en octubre de 1990 en la que los fieles musulmanes habían tratado de evitar que los judíos ortodoxos colocaran una piedra fundamental para el Tercer Templo en el Monte del Templo y la policía israelí disparó contra la mezquita de al-Aqsa, matando a 17, hizo que Hamas intensificar su campaña de secuestros. Hamas declaró a cada soldado israelí un objetivo [141] y pidió una "yihad contra el enemigo sionista en todas partes, en todos los frentes y por todos los medios". [142]
Hamas reorganizó sus unidades de al-Majd y al-Mujahidun al-Filastiniun en un ala militar llamada Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam lideradas por Yahya Ayyash en el verano de 1991 o 1992. [143] [u] El nombre viene del militante líder nacionalista palestino Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam, quien luchó contra los británicos y cuya muerte en 1935 desató la revuelta árabe de 1936-1939 en Palestina . [76] Aunque sus miembros a veces se referían a sí mismos como "Estudiantes de Ayyash", "Estudiantes del ingeniero" o "Unidades de Yahya Ayyash". [141]Al principio, las armas eran difíciles de conseguir y la organización comenzó a recurrir a secuestros intermitentes de soldados para asegurar armas y municiones. [ cita requerida ]
Ayyash, un ingeniero graduado de la Universidad de Birzeit , era un hábil fabricante de bombas y mejoró enormemente la capacidad de ataque de Hamas, [147] lo que le valió el apodo de al-Muhandis ("el ingeniero"). Se cree que fue una de las fuerzas impulsoras del uso de ataques suicidas por parte de Hamas, argumentando que "pagamos un alto precio cuando solo usamos honda y piedras. Necesitamos ejercer más presión, hacer que el costo de la ocupación sea tan alto más caro en vidas humanas, que mucho más insoportable ". [148] Hasta su asesinato por Shin Bet en 1996, [141] casi todas las bombas utilizadas en misiones suicidas fueron construidas por él. [149]
En diciembre de 1992, Israel respondió al asesinato de un agente de la policía fronteriza exiliando a 415 miembros de Hamas y la Jihad Islámica al sur del Líbano, en ese momento ocupado por Israel. [150] Allí, Hamas estableció contactos con Hezbollah , palestinos que viven en campos de refugiados, y aprendió a construir suicidios y coches bomba. [151] [150] Israel acompañó las deportaciones con la imposición de un toque de queda de dos semanas en la Franja, lo que provocó un déficit de ingresos para su economía de 1.810.000 dólares diarios. [152] A los deportados se les permitió regresar nueve meses después. [151] La deportación provocó la condena internacional y una resolución unánime del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU condenando la acción.[153] [154] Hamas ordenó dos coches bomba en represalia por la deportación. [142]
El primer atentado suicida de Hamas tuvo lugar en Mehola Junction en Cisjordania en abril de 1993 utilizando un automóvil estacionado entre dos autobuses [50] que transportaban soldados. [155] Aparte del atacante, la explosión mató a un palestino que trabajaba en un asentamiento cercano. [50] El diseño de la bomba tenía fallas, pero Hamas pronto aprendería a fabricar bombas más letales. [156]
Colaboradores
En los primeros años de la Intifada, la violencia de Hamas se restringió a los palestinos; colaboradores de Israel y personas que definió como "desviados morales", es decir, traficantes de drogas y prostitutas que se sabe que disfrutan de vínculos con las redes criminales israelíes, [157] o por tener un comportamiento relajado , en la práctica se define como isqat , [v] tales como seducir a mujeres en salones de peluquería con alcohol, el comportamiento que Hamas consideró fue alentado por agentes israelíes. Los líderes de Hamas compararon su erradicación de los colaboradores con lo que hizo la resistencia francesa con los colaboradores nazis en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Solo en 1992 ejecutaron más de 150. [159] Los detalles de los métodos se publicaron en The New York Times.en 1993. [w] En los medios occidentales esto se informó como una típica "lucha entre comunidades" entre los árabes. [157]
Las acciones de Hamas en la Primera Intifada expandieron su popularidad. En 1989, menos del tres por ciento de los palestinos de Gaza apoyaban a Hamas. [139] En octubre de 1993, esta cifra había aumentado al 13,3%, una cifra que aún palidecía en comparación con Fatah, que contaba con el apoyo del 45% de los palestinos en los territorios ocupados. [161]
Años de oslo
En febrero de 1994, Baruch Goldstein , un colono judío en uniforme militar, masacró a 29 musulmanes a la oración en la mezquita de Abraham en Hebrón , en la Ribera Occidental durante el mes de Ramadán . Otros 19 palestinos murieron a manos de las fuerzas israelíes en los disturbios que siguieron. [162] El primer ministro israelí Yitzhak Rabin condenó la masacre, pero temiendo un enfrentamiento con la violenta comunidad de colonos de Hebrón, se negó a retirarlos, [142]y Hamás juró vengar las muertes. En un comunicado, anunció que si Israel no discrimina entre "combatientes y civiles", entonces se vería "obligado ... a tratar a los sionistas de la misma manera. Tratar como iguales es un principio universal". [163]
Al final del período de luto de 40 días por las víctimas de Goldstein, el 6 de abril, [164] [162] un atacante suicida hizo estallar su automóvil en una parada de autobús llena de gente en Afula , matando a ocho israelíes e hiriendo a 34. [164] Un cinco israelíes más murieron y 30 resultaron heridos cuando un palestino se detonó en un autobús en Hadera una semana después. [ cita requerida ] Hamas se atribuyó la responsabilidad de ambos ataques, que fueron los primeros atentados suicidas con bomba en Israel. [ cita requerida ] Los ataques pueden haber sido programados para interrumpir las negociaciones entre Israel y la OLP sobre la implementación de laAcuerdo de Oslo . [164]
Una bomba en un autobús en el centro de Tel Aviv en octubre, que mató a 22 personas e hirió a 45, fue el primer ataque exitoso de Hamas en la ciudad. [165]
A finales de diciembre de 1995, Hamas prometió a la Autoridad Palestina (AP) cesar las operaciones militares. Pero no fue así como Shin Bet asesinó a Ayyash, el líder de 29 años de las Brigadas al-Qassam el 5 de enero de 1996, usando un teléfono celular con trampa explosiva que le dio su tío que trabajaba como informante. [166] Casi 100.000 habitantes de Gaza, aproximadamente el 11% de la población total, marcharon en su funeral. [166] Hamas reanudó su campaña de atentados suicidas con bombas que había estado inactiva durante buena parte de 1995 para tomar represalias por el asesinato. [167]
En septiembre de 1997, el primer ministro de Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu, ordenó el asesinato del líder de Hamas, Khaled Mashal, que vivía en Jordania. [168] Dos agentes del Mossad entraron en Jordania con pasaportes canadienses falsos y rociaron a Mashal con un agente nervioso en una calle de Amman. [168] Sin embargo, fueron capturados y el rey Hussein amenazó con llevar a los agentes a juicio a menos que Israel proporcionara a Mashal un antídoto y liberara a Yassin. [168] Israel obedeció y el antídoto salvó la vida de Mashal. [168]Yassin fue devuelto a Gaza, donde fue recibido como un héroe con pancartas que lo llamaban "jeque de la Intifada". La liberación de Yassin impulsó temporalmente la popularidad de Hamas y en una conferencia de prensa Yassin declaró: "No se detendrán las operaciones armadas hasta el final de la ocupación ... somos buscadores de la paz. Amamos la paz. Israelíes] para mantener la paz con nosotros y ayudarnos a restablecer nuestros derechos mediante la paz ". [169]
Aunque los ataques suicidas de las Brigadas al-Qassam y otros grupos violaron los acuerdos de Oslo de 1993 (a los que Hamas se opuso [170] ), Arafat se mostró reacio a perseguir a los atacantes y pudo haber tenido los medios inadecuados para hacerlo. [167]
Impacto de la masacre de Hebrón
La masacre de Hebrón tuvo un efecto profundo en la militancia de Hamas. Durante sus primeros siete años, atacó solo lo que consideraba "objetivos militares legítimos", soldados e instalaciones militares israelíes. [77] Pero después de la masacre, sintió que ya no tenía que distinguir entre objetivos militares y civiles. El líder de los Hermanos Musulmanes en Cisjordania, el jeque Ahmed Haj Ali, argumentó más tarde que "si no hubiera habido la masacre de la mezquita Ibrahimi de 1994, no habría habido atentados suicidas". Al-Rantisi en una entrevista en 1998 declaró que los ataques suicidas "comenzaron después de la masacre cometida por el terrorista Baruch Goldstein y se intensificaron después del asesinato de Yahya Ayyash". [171]Musa Abu Marzouk culpó a los israelíes de la escalada: "Estábamos en contra de atacar a los civiles ... Después de la masacre de Hebrón, determinamos que era hora de matar a los civiles de Israel ... ofrecimos detenernos si Israel lo hacía, pero rechazaron Esa oferta." [172]
Según Matti Steinberg, ex asesor de Shin Bet y uno de los principales expertos de Israel en Hamas, la masacre puso fin a un debate interno dentro de Hamas sobre la utilidad de la violencia indiscriminada: "En los escritos de Hamas hay una prohibición explícita contra el daño indiscriminado a personas indefensas. La masacre en la mezquita los liberó de este tabú e introdujo una dimensión de medida por medida, basada en citas del Corán ". [142]
Expulsión de Jordania
En 1999, Hamas fue prohibido en Jordania , al parecer en parte a petición de Estados Unidos, Israel y la Autoridad Palestina . [173] El rey Abdullah de Jordania temía que las actividades de Hamas y sus aliados jordanos pusieran en peligro las negociaciones de paz entre la Autoridad Palestina e Israel, y acusó a Hamas de participar en actividades ilegítimas dentro de Jordania. [174] A mediados de septiembre de 1999, las autoridades arrestaron a los líderes de Hamas, Khaled Mashal e Ibrahim Ghosheh, a su regreso de una visita a Irán, y los acusaron de ser miembros de una organización ilegal, almacenar armas, realizar ejercicios militares y utilizar a Jordania como base de entrenamiento. [174] [175] Los líderes de Hamas negaron los cargos.[176] Mashal se exilió y finalmente se estableció en Damasco en Siria en 2001. [177] Como resultado de la guerra civil siria, se distanció del régimen de Bashar al-Assad en 2012 y se mudó a Qatar. [177]
Apoyo popular
Si bien los palestinos estaban acostumbrados a la idea de que sus jóvenes estaban dispuestos a morir por la lucha, la idea de que se atarían explosivos al cuerpo y se harían estallar a sí mismos era un desarrollo nuevo y no bien apoyado. [172] Una encuesta realizada en 1996 después de la ola de atentados suicidas que Hamas llevó a cabo para tomar represalias por el asesinato de Ayyash por parte de Israel mostró que la mayoría del 70% se opuso a la táctica y el 59% pidió que Arafat tomara medidas para evitar nuevos ataques. [178]
En la arena política, Hamás siguió muy por detrás de su rival Fatah; El 41% confiaba en Arafat en 1996, pero solo el 3,2% confiaba en Yasssin. [179]
Segunda Intifada
En contraste con el levantamiento anterior, Al-Aqsa o Segunda Intifada comenzó violentamente, con manifestaciones masivas y tácticas letales de contrainsurgencia israelí. Antes de los incidentes que rodearon la visita de Ariel Sharon al Monte del Templo , el apoyo palestino a la violencia contra los israelíes y para Hamas se había calculado en 51,6% y 10,3%, respectivamente. En julio del año siguiente, después de casi un año de salvaje conflicto, las encuestas indicaron que el 85,9% de los palestinos apoyaba la violencia contra los israelíes y el apoyo a Hamas había aumentado al 16,7%. [180]
Las Brigadas al-Qassam estuvieron entre los muchos grupos militantes que lanzaron tanto ataques de estilo militar como atentados suicidas con bombas contra objetivos civiles y militares israelíes en este período. En los años siguientes murieron casi 5000 palestinos y más de 1100 israelíes. [181] Si bien hubo un gran número de ataques palestinos contra israelíes, la forma más efectiva de violencia de los palestinos fueron los ataques suicidas; en los primeros cinco años de la intifada, poco más de la mitad de todas las muertes israelíes fueron víctimas de ataques suicidas. Hamas fue responsable de aproximadamente el 40% de los 135 ataques suicidas en el período. [182]
Cualesquiera que sean las circunstancias inmediatas que desencadenaron el levantamiento, una causa más general, escribe el profesor de ciencias políticas estadounidense Jeremy Pressman, fue "el descontento popular palestino [que] creció durante el proceso de paz de Oslo porque la realidad sobre el terreno no coincidía con las expectativas creadas por la paz acuerdos ". [183] Hamas sería el beneficiario de este creciente descontento en las elecciones legislativas de la Autoridad Palestina de 2006.
Según Tristan Dunning, Israel nunca ha respondido a las repetidas ofertas de Hamas en los años siguientes de una moratoria quid pro quo de los ataques contra civiles ”. [184] Se ha involucrado en varios tadi'a (períodos de calma) y ha propuesto una serie de ceses del fuego. [184] En enero de 2004, el líder de Hamas Ahmed Yassin , antes de su asesinato, dijo que el grupo pondría fin a la resistencia armada contra Israel durante una hudna de 10 años . [x] a cambio de un estado palestino en Cisjordania , la Franja de Gaza y Jerusalén Este , y que la restauración de los "derechos históricos" de los palestinos (relacionados con laÉxodo palestino de 1948 ) "quedaría para las generaciones futuras". Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi , alto funcionario de Hamas, se hizo eco rápidamente de sus opiniones , y agregó que Hamas preveía una "liberación gradual". [186] La respuesta de Israel fue asesinar a Yassin en marzo en un ataque aéreo israelí selectivo , y luego a al-Rantisi en un ataque aéreo similar en abril. [187]
Elecciones presidenciales y legislativas de 2006
Hamas boicoteó las elecciones generales palestinas de 1996 y las elecciones presidenciales palestinas de 2005 , pero decidió participar en las elecciones legislativas palestinas de 2006 , las primeras que tuvieron lugar después de la muerte de Yassir Arafat . La UE ocupó un lugar destacado en la propuesta de que se celebren elecciones democráticas en los territorios. [188] En el período previo a la jornada electoral, el gobierno de Estados Unidos 's , Condoleezza Rice , de Israel , Tzipi Livni , y el primer ministro británico , Tony Blair, todos expresaron reservas sobre permitir que Hamás para competir en un proceso democrático. [189]Hamas funcionó en una plataforma de gobierno limpio, una revisión completa del sistema administrativo corrupto y el problema de la anarquía desenfrenada. [190] [191] La Autoridad Palestina, notoriamente plagada de corrupción, eligió ejecutar a Marwan Barghouti como su principal candidato, que estaba cumpliendo cinco cadenas perpetuas en Israel. Estados Unidos donó dos millones de dólares a la Autoridad Palestina para mejorar su imagen en los medios. Israel también ayudó a la Autoridad Palestina al permitir que Barghouti fuera entrevistado en prisión por la televisión árabe y al permitir que 100.000 palestinos en Jerusalén Oriental votaran. [191]
Fundamentalmente, la elección tuvo lugar poco después de que Israel evacuara sus asentamientos en Gaza . [192] La evacuación, ejecutada sin consultar a Fatah , dio curso a la opinión de Hamas de que la resistencia había obligado a Israel a abandonar Gaza. [193] En un comunicado, Hamas lo describió como una reivindicación de su estrategia de resistencia armada ("Cuatro años de resistencia superaron los 10 años de negociación") y Muhammed Deif atribuyó "la Liberación de Gaza" a sus camaradas "amor al martirio". [194]
Hamas, decidido a mostrar su poder a través de un plebiscito en lugar de mediante la violencia, anunció que se abstendría de atacar a Israel si Israel desistiera de su ofensiva contra las ciudades y pueblos palestinos. [195] Su manifiesto electoral abandonó la agenda islámica, habló de soberanía para los territorios palestinos , incluida Jerusalén (un respaldo implícito de la solución de dos estados ), sin conceder nada sobre sus reclamos sobre toda Palestina. Mencionó la "resistencia armada" dos veces y afirmó en el artículo 3.6 que era un derecho resistir el "terrorismo de ocupación". [190] Un cristiano palestino figuraba en su lista de candidatos. [196]
Hamas ganó 76 escaños, excluyendo cuatro ganados por independientes que apoyaban a Hamas, y Fatah solo 43. [192] Los observadores internacionales juzgaron que las elecciones habían sido "competitivas y genuinamente democráticas". La UE dijo que se habían llevado a cabo mejor que las elecciones en algunos países miembros de la unión y prometió mantener su apoyo financiero. [188] Egipto , Arabia Saudita , Qatar y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos instaron a Estados Unidos a darle una oportunidad a Hamas, y que no era aconsejable castigar a los palestinos por su elección, una posición también respaldada por la Liga Árabe un mes después. [197]La promesa de la UE duró poco; tres meses después, al violar sus principios básicos con respecto a las elecciones libres, congeló abruptamente la asistencia financiera al gobierno liderado por Hamas, siguiendo el ejemplo de Estados Unidos y Canadá. En cambio, se comprometió a canalizar fondos directamente a personas y proyectos, y pagar salarios solo a miembros de Fatah, empleados o no. [198]
Hamás asumió la administración de Gaza tras su victoria electoral e introdujo cambios radicales. Heredó una situación caótica de anarquía, ya que las sanciones económicas impuestas por Israel, Estados Unidos y el Cuarteto habían paralizado los recursos administrativos de la Autoridad Palestina, lo que llevó al surgimiento de numerosas bandas mafiosas y células terroristas inspiradas en Al Qaeda . [199] Escribiendo en Foreign Affairs , Daniel Byman declaró más tarde:
Después de que tomó el control de la Franja de Gaza, Hamás renovó la policía y las fuerzas de seguridad, reduciendo a 50.000 miembros (al menos en el papel) bajo Fatah a fuerzas más pequeñas y eficientes de poco más de 10.000, que luego tomaron medidas enérgicas contra el crimen y las pandillas. Los grupos ya no portaban armas abiertamente ni robaban impunemente. La gente pagaba sus impuestos y facturas de electricidad y, a cambio, las autoridades recogían la basura y encarcelaban a los delincuentes. Gaza, descuidada bajo el control egipcio y luego israelí, y mal gobernada por el líder palestino Yasir Arafat y sus sucesores, finalmente tiene un gobierno real ”. [200] [y]
A principios de febrero de 2006, Hamas ofreció a Israel una tregua de diez años "a cambio de una completa retirada israelí de los territorios palestinos ocupados: Cisjordania, la Franja de Gaza y Jerusalén Oriental", [202] y el reconocimiento de los derechos palestinos, incluido el "derecho de vuelta ". [203] Mashal agregó que Hamas no estaba pidiendo el fin definitivo de las operaciones armadas contra Israel, y no impediría que otros grupos palestinos llevaran a cabo tales operaciones. [204]
Gobierno de Unidad Nacional
Tras las elecciones, el Cuarteto sobre Oriente Medio (Estados Unidos, Rusia, la Unión Europea (UE) y Naciones Unidas) declaró que la asistencia a la Autoridad Palestina solo continuaría si Hamas renunciaba a la violencia, reconocía a Israel y aceptaba Acuerdos israelo-palestinos, que Hamas se negó a hacer. [205] El Cuarteto impuso entonces una congelación de toda la ayuda internacional a los territorios palestinos. [206] En 2006, después de las elecciones de Gaza, el líder de Hamas envió una carta dirigida a George W. Bush donde, entre otras cosas, declaró que Hamas aceptaría un estado en las fronteras de 1967, incluida una tregua. Sin embargo, la administración Bush no respondió. [207]
Política legislativa y reforma del poder judicial
Khaled Hroub escribió que Hamas "[refuerza la separación entre los tres poderes, el legislativo, el ejecutivo y el judicial; activa el papel del Tribunal Constitucional; reforma el Consejo Supremo Judicial y elige a sus miembros mediante elecciones y sobre la base de de calificaciones más que partidistas, personales y sociales [...] promulgar las leyes necesarias que garanticen la neutralidad de la fiscalía [...] [y] leyes que detengan cualquier transgresión del poder ejecutivo a la constitución. " [208]
Libertades públicas y derechos ciudadanos
Hroubd informó que los nuevos documentos de Hamas incluyen "[alcanzar] la igualdad ante la ley entre los ciudadanos en derechos y deberes; brindar seguridad a todos los ciudadanos y proteger sus propiedades y garantizar su seguridad contra arrestos arbitrarios, torturas o venganzas; enfatizar la cultura del diálogo [...]; apoyar a la prensa y las instituciones de los medios y mantener el derecho de los periodistas a acceder y publicar información; mantener la libertad e independencia de los sindicatos profesionales y preservar los derechos de sus miembros ". [208]
Conflicto Hamas-Fatah
Después de la formación del gabinete liderado por Hamas el 20 de marzo de 2006, las tensiones entre Fatah y los militantes de Hamas aumentaron progresivamente en la Franja de Gaza cuando los comandantes de Fatah se negaron a recibir órdenes del gobierno mientras la Autoridad Palestina iniciaba una campaña de manifestaciones, asesinatos y secuestros. contra Hamas, lo que llevó a Hamas a responder. [209] La inteligencia israelí advirtió a Mahmoud Abbas que Hamas había planeado matarlo en su oficina en Gaza. Según una fuente palestina cercana a Abbas, Hamas considera que el presidente Abbas es una barrera para su control total sobre la Autoridad Palestina y decidió matarlo. En una declaración a Al Jazeera, el líder de Hamas, Mohammed Nazzal, acusó a Abbas de ser parte en el asedio y aislamiento del gobierno liderado por Hamas. [210]
El 9 de junio de 2006, durante una operación de artillería israelí, ocurrió una explosión en una concurrida playa de Gaza, matando a ocho civiles palestinos. [211] [212] Se asumió que los disparos israelíes eran los responsables de los asesinatos, pero los funcionarios del gobierno israelí lo negaron. [213] [214] Hamas se retiró formalmente de su alto el fuego de 16 meses el 10 de junio, asumiendo la responsabilidad de los posteriores ataques con cohetes Qassam lanzados desde Gaza hacia Israel. [215]
El 25 de junio, dos soldados israelíes murieron y otro, Gilad Shalit , fue capturado tras una incursión de las Brigadas Izz ad-Din al-Qassam , los Comités de Resistencia Popular y el Ejército del Islam . En respuesta, el ejército israelí lanzó la Operación Lluvias de Verano tres días después, para asegurar la liberación del soldado secuestrado, [216] [217] [218] arrestando a 64 funcionarios de Hamas. Entre ellos se encontraban 8 ministros del gabinete de la Autoridad Palestina y hasta 20 miembros del Consejo Legislativo Palestino , [218]Los arrestos, junto con otros eventos, impidieron efectivamente que la legislatura dominada por Hamas funcionara durante la mayor parte de su mandato. [219] [220] Shalit estuvo cautivo hasta 2011, cuando fue liberado a cambio de 1.027 prisioneros palestinos. [221] Desde entonces, Hamas ha continuado construyendo una red de túneles internos y transfronterizos, [222] que se utilizan para almacenar y desplegar armas, proteger a militantes y facilitar ataques transfronterizos. La destrucción de los túneles fue un objetivo principal de las fuerzas israelíes en el conflicto entre Israel y Gaza de 2014 . [223] [224]
En febrero de 2007, las negociaciones patrocinadas por Arabia Saudita llevaron al Acuerdo de la Meca de Hamas y Fatah para formar un gobierno de unidad, firmado por Mahmoud Abbas en nombre de Fatah y Khaled Mashal en nombre de Hamas. Se pidió al nuevo gobierno que alcanzara los objetivos nacionales palestinos aprobados por el Consejo Nacional Palestino, las cláusulas de la Ley Fundamental y el Documento de Reconciliación Nacional (el "Documento de los Prisioneros"), así como las decisiones de la cumbre árabe. [225]
En marzo de 2007, el Consejo Legislativo Palestino estableció un gobierno de unidad nacional , con 83 representantes votando a favor y tres en contra. Los ministros del gobierno fueron juramentados por Mahmoud Abbas , presidente de la Autoridad Palestina, en una ceremonia celebrada simultáneamente en Gaza y Ramallah. En junio de ese año, estallaron nuevos combates entre Hamas y Fatah. [226] En un comentario filtrado por el mayor general Yadlin al embajador estadounidense Richard H JonesEn este punto (12 de junio de 2007), Yadlin enfatizó que la victoria electoral de Hamas y una eventual retirada de Fatah de Gaza sería ventajosa para los intereses israelíes, ya que la reubicación de la OLP en Cisjordania permitiría a Israel tratar a la Franja de Gaza y a Hamas como un país hostil. [z] En el curso de la Batalla de Gaza de junio de 2007 , Hamas aprovechó el colapso casi total de las fuerzas de la Autoridad Palestina en Gaza para tomar [228] el control de Gaza, derrocando a los funcionarios de Fatah. El presidente Mahmoud Abbas luego destituyó al gobierno de la Autoridad Palestina liderado por Hamas. [229] y proscribió la milicia de Hamas. [230] Al menos 600 palestinos murieron en los enfrentamientos entre Hamas y Fatah. [231] Human Rights Watch, un grupo con sede en Estados Unidos, acusó a ambas partes en el conflicto de torturas y crímenes de guerra . [232]
Human Rights Watch estima que varios cientos de habitantes de Gaza fueron "mutilados" y torturados después de la Guerra de Gaza. 73 hombres de Gaza acusados de "colaborar" sufrieron fracturas de brazos y piernas por "perpetradores no identificados" y 18 palestinos acusados de colaborar con Israel, que habían escapado del principal recinto penitenciario de Gaza después de que Israel bombardeara las instalaciones, fueron ejecutados por funcionarios de seguridad de Hamas en el primeros días del conflicto. [233] [234] Las fuerzas de seguridad de Hamas atacaron a cientos de funcionarios de Fatah que apoyaban a Israel. Human Rights Watch entrevistó a una de esas personas:
Éramos ocho sentados allí. Todos éramos de Fatah. Luego entraron tres militantes enmascarados. Vestían uniformes militares de camuflaje marrón; todos tenían armas. Nos apuntaron con sus armas y nos insultaron, luego nos empezaron a golpear con barras de hierro, incluido un niño de 10 años al que golpearon en la cara. Decían que éramos "colaboradores" e "infieles". Me golpearon con palos de hierro y culatas de armas durante 15 minutos. Gritaban: "¡Estás feliz de que Israel nos esté bombardeando!" hasta que la gente salió de sus casas y se retiraron. [233]
En marzo de 2012, Mahmoud Abbas declaró que no había diferencias políticas entre Hamas y Fatah, ya que habían llegado a un acuerdo sobre una plataforma política conjunta y una tregua con Israel. Al comentar sobre las relaciones con Hamas, Abbas reveló en una entrevista con Al Jazeera que "Acordamos que el período de calma sería no solo en la Franja de Gaza, sino también en Cisjordania", y agregó que "También acordamos una reunión popular pacífica resistencia [contra Israel], el establecimiento de un estado palestino a lo largo de las fronteras de 1967 y que las conversaciones de paz continuarían si Israel detuviera la construcción de asentamientos y aceptara nuestras condiciones ". [235] [236] El progreso se ha estancado, hasta un acuerdo de abril de 2014 para formar un gobierno de unidad de compromiso, con elecciones que se celebrarán a finales de 2014.[237] Estas elecciones no se llevaron a cabo y, tras un nuevo acuerdo, las próximas elecciones generales palestinas están programadas para fines de marzo de 2021. [238]
Guerra de Gaza 2008-2009
El 17 de junio de 2008, los mediadores egipcios anunciaron que se había acordado una tregua informal entre Hamas e Israel. [239] [240] Hamas acordó cesar los ataques con cohetes contra Israel, mientras que Israel acordó permitir el envío comercial limitado a través de su frontera con Gaza , salvo que se rompiera el tentativo acuerdo de paz; Hamas también insinuó que discutiría la liberación de Gilad Shalit . [241] Fuentes israelíes afirman que Hamas también se comprometió a hacer cumplir el alto el fuego sobre las otras organizaciones palestinas. [242] Incluso antes de que se acordara la tregua, algunos en el lado israelí no eran optimistas al respecto, el jefe de Shin Bet , Yuval Diskindeclarando en mayo de 2008 que una incursión terrestre en Gaza era inevitable y sofocaría más eficazmente el contrabando de armas y presionaría a Hamás para que renunciara al poder. [243]
Si bien Hamas tuvo cuidado de mantener el alto el fuego, otros grupos violaron esporádicamente la tregua, a veces desafiando a Hamas. [242] [244] [245] Por ejemplo, el 24 de junio, la Jihad Islámica lanzó cohetes contra la ciudad israelí de Sderot; Israel calificó el ataque como una grave violación de la tregua informal y cerró sus cruces fronterizos con Gaza. [246] El 4 de noviembre de 2008, las fuerzas israelíes, en un intento por detener la construcción de un túnel, mataron a seis hombres armados de Hamas en una redada dentro de la Franja de Gaza . [247] [248] Hamas respondió reanudando los ataques con cohetes, un total de 190 cohetes en noviembre según el ejército de Israel. [249]
Con la tregua de seis meses expirada oficialmente el 19 de diciembre, Hamas lanzó entre 50 y más de 70 cohetes y morteros contra Israel durante los siguientes tres días, aunque ningún israelí resultó herido. [250] [251] El 21 de diciembre, Hamas dijo que estaba listo para detener los ataques y renovar la tregua si Israel detuvo su "agresión" en Gaza y abrió sus cruces fronterizos. [251] [252]
El 27 y 28 de diciembre, Israel implementó la Operación Plomo Fundido contra Hamas. El presidente egipcio Hosni Mubarak dijo: "Advertimos a Hamas repetidamente que rechazar la tregua empujaría a Israel a una agresión contra Gaza". Según funcionarios palestinos, más de 280 personas murieron y 600 resultaron heridas en los dos primeros días de ataques aéreos. [253] La mayoría eran policías y agentes de seguridad de Hamas, aunque también murieron muchos civiles. [253] Según Israel, los campos de entrenamiento de militantes, las instalaciones de fabricación de cohetes y los almacenes de armas que habían sido previamente identificados fueron atacados, y luego atacaron a escuadrones de cohetes y morteros que dispararon alrededor de 180 cohetes y morteros contra comunidades israelíes. [254] Jefe de la fuerza policial de Gaza Tawfiq Jabber, Jefe del Servicio de Seguridad General Salah Abu Shrakh, [255] la alta autoridad religiosa y la seguridad oficial de Nizar Rayyan , [256] y el ministro del Interior, Said Seyam [257] estaban entre los muertos durante los combates. Aunque Israel envió miles de mensajes por teléfono celular instando a los residentes de Gaza a abandonar las casas donde se pueden almacenar armas, en un intento por minimizar las bajas civiles, [254] algunos residentes se quejaron de que no había ningún lugar adonde ir porque muchos vecindarios habían recibido el mismo mensaje. . [254] [258] [259] Las bombas israelíes cayeron cerca de estructuras civiles como escuelas, [260] [261]y algunos alegaron que Israel estaba atacando deliberadamente a civiles palestinos. [262]
Israel declaró un alto el fuego unilateral el 17 de enero de 2009. [263] Hamas respondió al día siguiente anunciando un alto el fuego de una semana para darle tiempo a Israel para retirar sus fuerzas de la Franja de Gaza. [264] Fuentes israelíes, palestinas y de terceros no estuvieron de acuerdo con las cifras totales de víctimas de la guerra de Gaza y el número de víctimas palestinas que eran civiles. [265] [266]En noviembre de 2010, un alto funcionario de Hamas reconoció que murieron hasta 300 combatientes y "además de ellos, entre 200 y 300 combatientes de las Brigadas Al-Qassam y otras 150 fuerzas de seguridad fueron martirizados". Estos nuevos números concilian el total con los del ejército israelí, que originalmente dijo que habían muerto 709 "operativos terroristas". [267] [268]
Después de la Guerra de Gaza
El 16 de agosto de 2009, el líder de Hamas, Khaled Mashal, declaró que la organización está dispuesta a entablar un diálogo con la administración Obama porque sus políticas son mucho mejores que las del ex presidente de Estados Unidos, George W. Bush : "Mientras haya un nuevo lenguaje, acogerlo con satisfacción, pero queremos ver no solo un cambio de lenguaje, sino también un cambio de políticas sobre el terreno. Hemos dicho que estamos dispuestos a cooperar con los EE. UU. o cualquier otra parte internacional que permita a los palestinos deshacerse de de ocupación ". [269] A pesar de esto, un discurso del 30 de agosto de 2009 durante una visita a Jordania [270] en el que Mashal expresó su apoyo al derecho de retorno palestinoDavid Pollock, del Washington Institute for Near East Policy, interpretó como una señal de que "Hamas ha optado claramente por salir de la diplomacia". [271] En una entrevista en mayo de 2010, Mashal dijo que si se establecía un estado palestino con soberanía real en las condiciones que él estableció, en las fronteras de 1967 con su capital Jerusalén y con derecho al retorno, ese sería el fin. de la resistencia palestina, y luego la naturaleza de cualquier vínculo posterior con Israel sería decidida democráticamente por los palestinos. [272] [273] En julio de 2009, Khaled Mashal, jefe de la oficina política de Hamas, declaró la voluntad de Hamas de cooperar con una resolución del conflicto árabe-israelí, que incluía un estado palestino basado en1967 , siempre que los refugiados palestinos tengan derecho a regresar a Israel y que Jerusalén Este sea reconocida como la capital del nuevo estado. [274]
En 2011, tras el estallido de la Guerra Civil Siria, Hamas se distanció del régimen sirio y sus miembros comenzaron a salir de Siria. Donde una vez hubo "cientos de funcionarios palestinos exiliados y sus familiares", ese número se redujo a "unas pocas docenas". [275] En 2012, Hamas anunció públicamente su apoyo a la oposición siria . [276] Esto llevó a la televisión estatal siria a lanzar un "ataque fulminante" contra el liderazgo de Hamas. [277] Khaled Mashal dijo que Hamas había sido "expulsado" de Damasco debido a sus desacuerdos con el régimen sirio. [278] A finales de octubre, soldados del ejército sirio mataron a tiros a dos líderes de Hamas en el campo de refugiados de Daraa .[279]El 5 de noviembre de 2012, las fuerzas de seguridad del estado sirio cerraron todas las oficinas de Hamas en el país. [280] En enero de 2013, otros dos miembros de Hamas fueron encontrados muertos en el campamento de Husseinieh en Siria. Los activistas dijeron que los dos habían sido arrestados y ejecutados por las fuerzas de seguridad del estado. [281] En 2013, se informó que el ala militar de Hamas había comenzado a entrenar unidades del Ejército Sirio Libre . [282] En 2013, después de "varias semanas intensas de diplomacia indirecta de tres vías entre representantes de Hamas, Israel y la Autoridad Palestina", no se llegó a ningún acuerdo. [283] Además, las conversaciones de reconciliación entre palestinos se estancaron y, como resultado, durante la visita de Obama a Israel, Hamas lanzó cinco ataques con cohetes contra Israel.[283] En noviembre, Isra Almodallal fue nombrada primera portavoz del grupo. [284]
Conflicto entre Israel y Gaza de 2014
El 8 de julio de 2014, Israel lanzó la Operación Margen Protector para contrarrestar el aumento del lanzamiento de cohetes de Hamas desde Gaza. El conflicto terminó con un alto el fuego permanente después de 7 semanas y más de 2.200 muertos. 64 de los muertos eran soldados israelíes, 7 eran civiles en Israel (por ataques con cohetes) y 2.101 fueron asesinados en Gaza, de los cuales, según la ONU OCHA, al menos 1.460 eran civiles. Israel dice que mil de los muertos eran militantes. Tras el conflicto, Mahmoud Abbas, presidente de la Autoridad Palestina, acusó a Hamas de extender innecesariamente los combates en la Franja de Gaza, contribuyendo al elevado número de muertos, de dirigir un "gobierno en la sombra" en Gaza y de ejecutar ilegalmente a decenas de palestinos. [285] [286] [287]Hamas se ha quejado de la lentitud con la entrega de materiales de reconstrucción después del conflicto y anunció que estaban desviando estos materiales de usos civiles para construir más túneles de infiltración. [288]
Intentos de reconciliación
En 2016, Hamas comenzó la coordinación de seguridad con Egipto para tomar medidas enérgicas contra las organizaciones terroristas islámicas en el Sinaí, a cambio de ayuda económica. [289]
En mayo de 2017, Hamas dio a conocer su nueva carta, en un intento de moderar su imagen. La carta ya no pide la destrucción de Israel, pero sigue pidiendo la liberación de Palestina y "confrontar el proyecto sionista". También confirma la aceptación de las fronteras de 1967 como la base para establecer un estado palestino, además de no ser una rama de la Hermandad Musulmana . [290] [291]
En octubre de 2017, Fatah y Hamas firmaron otro acuerdo de reconciliación. El acuerdo parcial aborda asuntos civiles y administrativos que involucran a Gaza y Cisjordania. Otros temas polémicos como las elecciones nacionales, la reforma de la Organización de Liberación de Palestina (OLP) y la posible desmilitarización de Hamas se debatirán en la próxima reunión en noviembre de 2017, debido a un nuevo enfoque paso a paso. [292]
Medios de comunicación
Hamas produjo varias canciones de propaganda destinadas a asustar a los ciudadanos israelíes, incluyendo Shock Israel's Security y "Go, call a Gazan to rip Giv'ati ". [293]
Al-Aqsa TV
Al-Aqsa TV es un canal de televisión fundado por Hamas. [294] La estación comenzó a transmitir en la Franja de Gaza el 9 de enero de 2006, [295] [296] menos de tres semanas antes de las elecciones legislativas palestinas . Ha emitido programas de televisión, incluida algunos programas de televisión para niños, que transmiten mensajes antisemitas. [297] Hamas ha declarado que la estación de televisión es "una institución de medios independiente que a menudo no expresa las opiniones del gobierno palestino encabezado por Ismail Haniyeh o del movimiento Hamas", y que Hamas no tiene opiniones antisemitas. [298] La programación incluye programas para niños con tintes ideológicos, noticias y entretenimiento de inspiración religiosa.[299] Según la Liga Anti-Difamación , la estación promueve la actividad terrorista e incita al odio a judíos e israelíes. [296] Al-Aqsa TV está dirigida por Fathi Ahmad Hammad , presidente de al-Ribat Communications and Artistic Productions, una empresa dirigida por Hamas que también produce la estación de radio de Hamas, Voice of al-Aqsa , y su periódico quincenal, The Message . [300]
Revista infantil
Al-Fateh ("el conquistador") es la revista infantil de Hamas, que se publica quincenalmente en Londres y también se publica en un sitio web en línea. Comenzó a publicarse en septiembre de 2002 y su número 108 se publicó a mediados de septiembre de 2007. La revista presenta historias, poemas, acertijos y acertijos, y afirma que es para "los jóvenes constructores del futuro". [301]
Según MEMRI (tres de cuyos siete miembros fundadores habían servido anteriormente en las FDI), la revista incluye incitación a la jihad y al martirio y glorificación de las operaciones terroristas y de sus planificadores y perpetradores. así como caracterizaciones de judíos como "asesinos de los profetas" y descripciones elogiosas de padres que animan a sus hijos a matar judíos. En cada número, un artículo regular titulado "La historia de un mártir" presenta las "hazañas heroicas" de un muyahid.de una de las organizaciones que murió en una operación suicida, incluidas operaciones contra civiles, o que fue asesinada por las FDI. MEMRI también señaló que la revista incluye ilustraciones de figuras, incluidos niños guerreros, que encarnan el espíritu de la jihad y el martirio, presentándolos como modelos a seguir. Estos incluyen al personaje principal de la revista, Al-Fateh ("El Conquistador"), un niño pequeño a caballo blandiendo una cimitarra dibujada, así como niños con armas y fotos de combatientes de Hamas lanzando cohetes Qassam. [302] [303]
Carta de Hamás (1988)
El documento fundacional de Hamas, la Carta de Hamas ( mīthāq ḥarakat ), fue, según Khaled Hroub, escrito por una sola persona y hecho público sin pasar por el proceso habitual de consulta previa. [aa] Luego fue firmado el 18 de agosto de 1988. Contiene pasajes antisemitas y caracterizaciones de la sociedad israelí como nazi en su crueldad, [305] y afirmaciones irredentistas . [306] [307] [308] Declara a toda Palestina un waqf , una propiedad religiosa inalienable que consiste en tierras donadas a musulmanes.a perpetuidad por Dios, [309] [ab] [311] con la coexistencia religiosa bajo el dominio del Islam. [312] La carta rechaza una solución de dos estados , afirmando que el conflicto no se puede resolver "excepto a través de la yihad ". [313] [314]
El artículo 6 establece que el objetivo del movimiento es "izar la bandera de Alá en cada centímetro de Palestina, porque bajo el ala del Islam, los seguidores de todas las religiones pueden coexistir con seguridad y protección en lo que respecta a sus vidas, posesiones y derechos". [315] [316] Agrega que, "cuando nuestros enemigos usurpan algunas tierras islámicas, la yihad se convierte en un deber vinculante para todos los musulmanes", [317] para lo cual la totalidad de la tierra no es negociable, una posición comparada, sin el sentimientos racistas presentes en la carta de Hamas, al de la plataforma del partido Likud y en movimientos como Gush Emunim . Para Hamás, ceder territorio equivale a renunciar al propio Islam. [318] [319][320] [321] [322] [323] [324] [325]
Décadas después, la posición oficial de Hamas cambió con respecto a una solución de dos estados. Khaled Mashaal , su líder, ha afirmado públicamente la disposición del movimiento a aceptar tal división. [326] [327] Cuando Hamas ganó la mayoría en las elecciones legislativas palestinas de 2006 , Haniyeh, entonces presidente electo, envió mensajes tanto a George Bush como a los líderes de Israel pidiendo ser reconocido y ofreciendo una tregua a largo plazo ( hudna ), junto con las líneas fronterizas de 1967. No hubo respuesta. [328]
Mousa Marzook dijo en 2007 que la carta constitutiva no podía modificarse porque parecería un compromiso inaceptable para la "calle" y corría el riesgo de fracturar la unidad del partido. El líder de Hamas, Khaled Meshaal, ha declarado que la Carta es "una parte de la historia y ya no es relevante, pero no se puede cambiar por razones internas". Ahmed Yousef , asesor principal de Ismail Haniyeh , agregó en 2011 que reflejaba las opiniones de los Ancianos frente a una 'ocupación implacable'. Los detalles de su lenguaje religioso y político no se habían examinado en el marco del derecho internacional, y un comité interno de revisión para enmendarlo se archivó debido a la preocupación de no ofrecer concesiones a Israel, como hizo Fatah, en bandeja de plata.[329]Si bien los representantes de Hamas reconocen el problema, un funcionario señala que Arafat obtuvo muy poco a cambio de cambiar la Carta de la OLP en virtud de los Acuerdos de Oslo, y que hay acuerdo en que se gana poco con un enfoque no violento. [330] Richard Davis dice que el rechazo por parte de los líderes contemporáneos de su relevancia y, sin embargo, la suspensión del deseo de reescribirlo refleja los diferentes distritos electorales que Hamas debe abordar, la audiencia nacional y las relaciones internacionales. [331] La carta en sí se considera una "reliquia histórica". [332]
En marzo de 2006, Hamas publicó su programa legislativo oficial. El documento señaló claramente que Hamas podría remitir la cuestión del reconocimiento de Israel a un referéndum nacional. Bajo el título "Reconocimiento de Israel", decía simplemente (AFP, 11/03/06): "La cuestión de reconocer a Israel no es la jurisdicción de una facción, ni del gobierno, sino una decisión del pueblo palestino". Este fue un gran cambio de su estatuto de 1988. [333] Unos meses más tarde, a través de Jerome Segal de la Universidad de Maryland , el grupo envió una carta al presidente de Estados Unidos, George W. Bush.declarando que "no les importa tener un estado palestino en las fronteras de 1967", y pidió negociaciones directas: "Segal enfatizó que un estado dentro de las fronteras de 1967 y una tregua durante muchos años podría considerarse el reconocimiento de facto de Israel por parte de Hamás ". [334]
En una reunión de abril de 2008 entre el líder de Hamas Khaled Mashal y el ex presidente de los Estados Unidos Jimmy Carter , se llegó a un entendimiento en el que Hamas acordó que respetaría la creación de un estado palestino en el territorio tomado por Israel en la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967 , siempre que esto fueron ratificados por el pueblo palestino en referéndum. Más tarde, Hamás ofreció públicamente una tregua a largo plazo con Israel si Israel aceptaba regresar a sus fronteras de 1967 y otorgar el "derecho al regreso" a todos los refugiados palestinos . [335]En noviembre de 2008, el líder de Hamas, Ismail Haniyeh, reafirmó que Hamas estaba dispuesto a aceptar un estado palestino dentro de las fronteras de 1967 y ofreció a Israel una tregua a largo plazo "si Israel reconocía los derechos nacionales de los palestinos". [336] En 2009, en una carta al secretario general de la ONU, Ban Ki-moon , Haniyeh reiteró el apoyo de su grupo a un acuerdo de dos estados basado en las fronteras de 1967: "Nunca frustraríamos los esfuerzos para crear un estado palestino independiente con fronteras [desde ] 4 de junio de 1967, con Jerusalén como capital ". [337]El 1 de diciembre de 2010, Ismail Haniyeh repitió nuevamente: "Aceptamos un estado palestino en las fronteras de 1967, con Jerusalén como su capital, la liberación de prisioneros palestinos y la resolución del problema de los refugiados", y "Hamas respetará los resultados [de un referéndum] independientemente de si difiere con su ideología y principios ". [338]
En febrero de 2012, según la autoridad palestina, Hamas renunció al uso de la violencia. La evidencia de esto fue proporcionada por una erupción de violencia de la Jihad Islámica en marzo de 2012 después del asesinato israelí de un líder de la Jihad, durante el cual Hamas se abstuvo de atacar a Israel. [339] "Israel - a pesar de su mantra de que porque Hamás es soberano en Gaza es responsable de lo que sucede allí - casi parece entender", escribieron los periodistas israelíes Avi Issacharoff y Amos Harel, "y no ha bombardeado las oficinas o instalaciones de Hamás ". [340]
Israel ha rechazado algunas ofertas de tregua de Hamas porque sostiene que el grupo las usa para prepararse para más combates en lugar de paz. [341] El columnista de la revista Atlantic Jeffrey Goldberg , junto con otros analistas, cree que Hamas puede ser incapaz de una reconciliación permanente con Israel. [342] [343] Mkhaimer Abusada, un politólogo de la Universidad Al Azhar , escribe que Hamas habla "de hudna [alto el fuego temporal], no de paz o reconciliación con Israel. Creen que con el tiempo serán lo suficientemente fuertes como para liberar a todos Palestina." [344]
Esfuerzos de islamización
En la Franja de Gaza
La ideología de género esbozada en la carta de Hamas, la importancia de la mujer en el proyecto religioso-nacionalista de liberación se afirma no menos que la de los hombres. Su papel se definió principalmente como el de fabricar machos y cuidar de su crianza y crianza, aunque la carta reconocía que podían luchar por la liberación sin obtener el permiso de su marido y en 2002 se permitió su participación en la jihad. [345] El énfasis doctrinal en la maternidad y la crianza como deber primordial de la mujer no es tan diferente de la visión de Fatah sobre las mujeres en la Primera Intifada y también se asemeja a la perspectiva de los colonos judíos, y con el tiempo ha estado sujeta a cambios. [346] [68]
En 1989, durante la Primera Intifada, un pequeño número de seguidores de Hamas [347] hicieron campaña por el uso del hiyab , que no es parte del atuendo tradicional de las mujeres en Palestina, [348] por la poligamia, y también insistieron en que las mujeres se quedaran en casa. y estar segregado de los hombres. En el transcurso de esta campaña, las mujeres que optaron por no usar el hiyab fueron acosadas verbal y físicamente, con el resultado de que el hiyab se usaba "solo para evitar problemas en las calles". [349] El hostigamiento se redujo drásticamente cuando, después de 18 meses, la UNLU lo condenó, [350] aunque se repitieron campañas similares.
Desde que Hamás tomó el control de la Franja de Gaza en 2007, algunos de sus miembros han intentado imponer a las mujeres la vestimenta islámica o el velo del hijab . [344] [351] Además, el "Ministerio de Dotación Islámica" del gobierno ha desplegado miembros del Comité de Virtudes para advertir a los ciudadanos de los peligros de la vestimenta indecente, los juegos de cartas y las citas. [352] Sin embargo, no hay leyes gubernamentales que impongan la vestimenta y otras normas morales, y el Ministerio de Educación de Hamas revirtió un esfuerzo por imponer la vestimenta islámica a los estudiantes. [344] También ha habido una resistencia exitosa a los intentos de los funcionarios locales de Hamas de imponer la vestimenta islámica a las mujeres. [353]
Los funcionarios de Hamas niegan tener planes para imponer la ley islámica, un legislador afirmó que "lo que están viendo son incidentes, no políticas", y que la ley islámica es el estándar deseado "pero creemos en la persuasión". [352] El Ministerio de Educación de Hamas revirtió un esfuerzo por imponer la vestimenta islámica a los estudiantes. [344] Cuando la BBC en 2010 entrevistó a cinco mujeres de "clase media" en la ciudad de Gaza, los sujetos generalmente indicaron que los intentos de Hamas de hacer cumplir las normas religiosas conservadoras de vestimenta habían sido rechazados en gran medida por la población local, y algunos expresaron su preocupación de que el cierre de Gaza permitiría la proliferación de intentos de imposición extremistas por parte de funcionarios de bajo nivel de Hamas, y otros indicaron estaban felices de ver que Hamas hacía cumplir tales requisitos. También citaron ejemplos de indulgencia por parte de las autoridades de Hamas, como permitir que las mujeres viudas mantengan la custodia de sus hijos mientras no se vuelvan a casar, y otras relajaciones en la aplicación de la ley islámica. Una mujer señaló que el ambiente "no era tan malo" como durante la Primera Intifada, cuando las mujeres eran objeto de críticas públicas y lapidaciones por no obedecer las normas conservadoras de vestimenta islámica.Una mujer se quejó de que las mujeres no eran libres de decir lo que pensaban o viajar solas, y agregó: "Hamas quiere imponerse a la gente. Quieren que la gente se someta a ellos, esta es su tapadera. Destruyeron la reputación del Islam, diciendo que hacemos esto porque es religión. Así es como ganaron las elecciones ".[354]
En 2013, UNRWA canceló su maratón anual en Gaza después de que los gobernantes de Hamas prohibieran a las mujeres participar en la carrera. [355]
En Cisjordania
En 2005, la organización de derechos humanos Freemuse publicó un informe titulado "Palestina: intentos de censurar la música al estilo de los talibanes", que decía que los músicos palestinos temían que se imponieran duras leyes religiosas contra la música y los conciertos, ya que el grupo Hamas logró avances políticos en Palestina. Elecciones locales de la autoridad de 2005. [356]
El intento de Hamas de dictar un código de conducta cultural en la década de 1980 y principios de la de 1990 condujo a una violenta lucha entre diferentes sectores palestinos. Según los informes, los miembros de Hamas incendiaron tiendas que almacenaban videos que consideraban indecentes y destruyeron libros que describieron como "heréticos". [357]
En 2005, un espectáculo de danza y música al aire libre en Qalqiliya fue repentinamente prohibido por el municipio dirigido por Hamas, debido a que tal evento estaría prohibido por el Islam, o " Haram ". [358] El municipio también ordenó que ya no se reproduzca música en el zoológico de Qalqiliya, y el mufti Akrameh Sabri emitió un edicto religioso afirmando la decisión del municipio. [357] En respuesta, el poeta nacional palestino Mahmoud Darwish advirtió que "hay elementos de tipo talibán en nuestra sociedad, y esta es una señal muy peligrosa". [356] [357] [359] [360]
El columnista palestino Mohammed Abd Al-Hamid, residente de Ramallah, escribió que esta coerción religiosa podría causar la migración de artistas y dijo: "Los fanáticos religiosos en Argelia destruyeron todos los símbolos culturales, destrozaron estatuas y raras obras de arte y liquidaron a los intelectuales y artistas, reporteros y autores, bailarines de ballet y cantantes, ¿vamos a imitar los ejemplos argelino y afgano? " [357]
La Turquía de Tayyip Erdogan como modelo a seguir
Algunos miembros de Hamas declararon que el modelo de gobierno islámico que Hamas busca emular es el de Turquía bajo el gobierno de Tayyip Erdogan . Los principales miembros que distanciaron a Hamas de las prácticas de los talibanes y apoyaron públicamente el modelo de Erdogan fueron Ahmed Yousef y Ghazi Hamad , asesores del primer ministro Hanieh. [361] [362]Yusuf, el viceministro de Relaciones Exteriores de Hamas, reflejó este objetivo en una entrevista a un periódico turco, afirmando que si bien la opinión pública extranjera equipara a Hamas con los talibanes o al-Qaeda, la analogía es inexacta. Yusuf describió a los talibanes como "opuestos a todo", incluida la educación y los derechos de las mujeres, mientras que Hamas quiere establecer buenas relaciones entre los elementos religiosos y laicos de la sociedad y lucha por los derechos humanos, la democracia y una sociedad abierta. [363] Según el profesor Yezid Sayigh del King's College de Londres, es incierto cuán influyente es este punto de vista dentro de Hamas, ya que tanto Ahmad Yousef como Ghazi Hamad fueron destituidos de sus puestos como asesores del primer ministro de Hamas, Ismail Hanieh, en octubre de 2007.[361] Desde entonces, ambos han sido nombrados para otros puestos destacados dentro del gobierno de Hamas. Khaled al-Hroub, deldiario palestino Al Ayyam, con sede en Cisjordania y anti-Hamas [364], agregó que a pesar de las afirmaciones de los líderes de Hamas de que quiere repetir el modelo turco del Islam, "lo que está sucediendo sobre el terreno en realidad es una réplica del modelo islámico talibán ". [365]
Antisemitismo y antisionismo
Según la académica Esther Webman, el antisemitismo no es el principio principal de la ideología de Hamas, aunque la retórica antisemita es frecuente e intensa en los folletos de Hamas. Los folletos generalmente no distinguen entre judíos y sionistas. En otras publicaciones de Hamas y entrevistas con sus líderes, se han hecho intentos de esta diferenciación. [366] En 2009, representantes del pequeño grupo judío antisionista Neturei Karta se reunieron con el líder de Hamas, Ismail Haniyeh, en Gaza, quien declaró que no tenía nada contra los judíos sino solo contra el estado de Israel. [367]
Hamas ha hecho declaraciones contradictorias sobre su disposición a reconocer a Israel. En 2006, un portavoz señaló que estaba dispuesto a reconocer a Israel dentro de las fronteras de 1967. Hablando de las solicitudes para que Hamas reconozca los acuerdos entre la Autoridad Palestina e Israel, Khaled Suleiman, miembro de alto rango de Hamas, dijo que "estos acuerdos son una realidad que consideramos como tal y, por lo tanto, no veo ningún problema". [368] También en 2006, un funcionario de Hamas descartó el reconocimiento de Israel con referencia a Alemania Occidental y Oriental, que nunca se reconocieron entre sí. [369]
Carta de Hamás
- El artículo 7 del Pacto de Hamas proporciona la siguiente cita, atribuida a Mahoma :
El Día del Juicio no llegará hasta que los musulmanes luchen contra los judíos (matando a los judíos), cuando el judío se esconderá detrás de piedras y árboles. Las piedras y los árboles dirán Oh musulmanes, oh Abdulla, hay un judío detrás de mí, ven y mátalo. Solo el árbol de Gharkad (evidentemente un cierto tipo de árbol), no haría eso porque es uno de los árboles de los judíos. [315]
Varios comentaristas, incluidos Jeffrey Goldberg y Philip Gourevitch , han identificado este pasaje como una incitación al genocidio . [370] [371]
- El artículo 22 establece que la Revolución Francesa , la Revolución Rusa , el colonialismo y ambas guerras mundiales fueron creadas por los sionistas o fuerzas que apoyan al sionismo:
Puede hablar todo lo que quiera sobre guerras regionales y mundiales. Ellos estuvieron detrás de la Primera Guerra Mundial, cuando pudieron destruir el Califato Islámico, obteniendo ganancias financieras y controlando los recursos. Obtuvieron la Declaración Balfour, formaron la Liga de Naciones a través de la cual podrían gobernar el mundo. Ellos estuvieron detrás de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, a través de la cual obtuvieron enormes ganancias financieras mediante el comercio de armamentos, y allanaron el camino para el establecimiento de su estado. Fueron ellos quienes instigaron el reemplazo de la Sociedad de Naciones por las Naciones Unidas y el Consejo de Seguridad para permitirles gobernar el mundo a través de ellos. No hay guerra en ninguna parte sin tener el dedo en la llaga. [372]
- El artículo 32 del Pacto se refiere a una falsificación antisemita, Los Protocolos de los Ancianos de Sión :
Hoy es Palestina, mañana será un país u otro. El plan sionista no tiene límites. Después de Palestina, los sionistas aspiran a expandirse desde el Nilo hasta el Éufrates. Cuando hayan digerido la región que alcanzaron, aspirarán a una mayor expansión, y así sucesivamente. Su plan está plasmado en Los Protocolos de los Ancianos de Sión , y su conducta actual es la mejor prueba de lo que estamos diciendo. [315]
Declaraciones de miembros y clérigos de Hamas ante una audiencia árabe
En 2008, el Imam Yousif al-Zahar de Hamas dijo en su sermón en la mezquita Katib Wilayat en Gaza que "los judíos son un pueblo en el que no se puede confiar. Han sido traidores a todos los acuerdos. Regrese a la historia. Su destino es su desaparición . " [342] [373]
Otro legislador e imán de Hamas, el jeque Yunus al-Astal, discutió un verso coránico que sugiere que "sufrir por el fuego es el destino de los judíos en este mundo y en el próximo". Concluyó: "Por lo tanto, estamos seguros de que el Holocausto aún está por sobrevenir a los judíos". [342] [373]
Tras la nueva dedicación de la sinagoga Hurva en Jerusalén en marzo de 2010, el alto funcionario de Hamas al-Zahar pidió a los palestinos de todo el mundo que guardaran cinco minutos de silencio "por la desaparición de Israel y se identificaran con Jerusalén y la mezquita de al-Aqsa". Dijo además que "dondequiera que hayas estado, has sido enviado a tu destrucción. Has matado y asesinado a tus profetas y siempre has tratado con usurpación de préstamos y destrucción. Has hecho un trato con el diablo y con la destrucción". en sí mismo, al igual que su sinagoga ". [374] [375]
El 10 de agosto de 2012, Ahmad Bahr, vicepresidente del Parlamento de Hamas, declaró en un sermón que se transmitió en Al-Aqsa TV :
Si el enemigo pone un pie en una pulgada cuadrada de tierra islámica, la Jihad se convierte en un deber individual, que incumbe a todos los musulmanes, hombres o mujeres. Una mujer puede embarcarse [en el Jihad] sin el permiso de su esposo, y un sirviente sin el permiso de su amo. ¿Por qué? Para aniquilar a esos judíos. ... Oh Allah, destruye a los judíos y sus seguidores. Oh Allah, destruye a los estadounidenses y sus partidarios. Oh Allah, cuéntalos uno por uno y mátalos a todos, sin dejar uno solo. [376] [377] [378] [379]
En una entrevista con Al-Aqsa TV el 12 de septiembre de 2012, Marwan Abu Ras, un parlamentario de Hamas, que también es miembro de la Unión Internacional de Académicos Musulmanes , declaró (traducido por MEMRI ):
Los judíos están detrás de todas y cada una de las catástrofes sobre la faz de la Tierra. Esto no está abierto a debate. Esto no es algo temporal, sino que se remonta a tiempos pasados. Ellos inventaron tantas conspiraciones y traicionaron a gobernantes y naciones tantas veces que la gente alberga odio hacia ellos. ... A lo largo de la historia, desde Nabucodonosor hasta los tiempos modernos. ... Mataron a los profetas, y así sucesivamente. ... Cualquier catástrofe sobre la faz de esta Tierra - los judíos deben estar detrás de ella. [380]
El 26 de diciembre de 2012, el alto funcionario de Hamas y jefe de la oficina de Jerusalén, Ahmed Abu Haliba, pidió a "todas las facciones palestinas que reanuden los ataques suicidas ... en lo más profundo del enemigo sionista" y dijo que "debemos renovar la resistencia a la ocupación en todo lo posible camino, sobre todo a través de la resistencia armada ". Abu Haliba sugirió el uso de atentados suicidas como respuesta a los planes de Israel de construir viviendas en Jerusalén Este y Cisjordania. [381]
En una entrevista en la televisión libanesa el 28 de julio de 2014, el portavoz de Hamas, Osama Hamdan, repitió el mito del libelo de sangre :
Todos recordamos cómo los judíos solían masacrar a los cristianos, para mezclar su sangre en sus santas matzá ... Sucedía en todas partes. [382]
Statements by Hamas members and clerics to an international audience
In an interview with CBS This Morning on July 27, 2014, Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal stated:
We are not fanatics. We are not fundamentalists. We are not actually fighting the Jews because they are Jews per se. We do not fight any other races. We fight the occupiers.[383]
On January 8, 2012, during a visit to Tunis, Gazan Hamas PM Ismail Haniyeh told The Associated Press on that he disagrees with the anti-Semitic slogans. "We are not against the Jews because they are Jews. Our problem is with those occupying the land of Palestine," he said. "There are Jews all over the world, but Hamas does not target them."[384] In response to a statement by Palestinian Authority leader Mahmoud Abbas that Hamas preferred non-violent means and had agreed to adopt "peaceful resistance," Hamas contradicted Abbas. According to Hamas spokesman Sami Abu-Zuhri, "We had agreed to give popular resistance precedence in the West Bank, but this does not come at the expense of armed resistance."[385]
In May 2009, senior Hamas MP Sayed Abu Musameh said, "in our culture, we respect every foreigner, especially Jews and Christians, but we are against Zionists, not as nationalists but as fascists and racists."[386] In the same interview, he also said, "I hate all kinds of weapons. I dream of seeing every weapon from the atomic bomb to small guns banned everywhere." In January 2009, Gazan Hamas Health Minister Basim Naim published a letter in The Guardian, stating that Hamas has no quarrel with Jewish people, only with the actions of Israel.[387] In October 1994, in a response to Isreael's crackdown on Hamas militants following a suicide bombing on a Tel Aviv bus, Hamas promised retaliation: "Rabin must know that Hamas loves death more than Rabin and his soldiers love life."[388]
Statements on the Holocaust
Hamas has been explicit in its Holocaust denial. In reaction to the Stockholm conference on the Jewish Holocaust, held in late January 2000, Hamas issued a press release that it published on its official website, containing the following statements from a senior leader:
This conference bears a clear Zionist goal, aimed at forging history by hiding the truth about the so-called Holocaust, which is an alleged and invented story with no basis. (...) The invention of these grand illusions of an alleged crime that never occurred, ignoring the millions of dead European victims of Nazism during the war, clearly reveals the racist Zionist face, which believes in the superiority of the Jewish race over the rest of the nations. (...) By these methods, the Jews in the world flout scientific methods of research whenever that research contradicts their racist interests.[389]
In August 2003, senior Hamas official Dr Abd Al-Aziz Al-Rantisi wrote in the Hamas newspaper Al-Risala that the Zionists encouraged murder of Jews by the Nazis with the aim of forcing them to immigrate to Palestine.[390]
In 2005, Khaled Mashal called Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's December 14, 2005 statements on the Holocaust that Europeans had "created a myth in the name of Holocaust"[391]) as "courageous".[392] Later in 2008, Basim Naim, the minister of health in the Hamas-led Palestinian Authority government in Gaza countered holocaust denial, and said "it should be made clear that neither Hamas nor the Palestinian government in Gaza denies the Nazi Holocaust. The Holocaust was not only a crime against humanity but one of the most abhorrent crimes in modern history. We condemn it as we condemn every abuse of humanity and all forms of discrimination on the basis of religion, race, gender or nationality."[393]
In an open letter to Gaza Strip UNRWA chief John Ging published August 20, 2009, the movement's Popular Committees for Refugees called the Holocaust "a lie invented by the Zionists," adding that the group refused to let Gazan children study it.[394] Hamas leader Younis al-Astal continued by saying that having the Holocaust included in the UNRWA curriculum for Gaza students amounted to "marketing a lie and spreading it". Al-Astal continued "I do not exaggerate when I say this issue is a war crime, because of how it serves the Zionist colonizers and deals with their hypocrisy and lies."[395][396]
In February 2011, Hamas voiced opposition to UNRWA's teaching of the Holocaust in Gaza. According to Hamas, "Holocaust studies in refugee camps is a contemptible plot and serves the Zionist entity with a goal of creating a reality and telling stories in order to justify acts of slaughter against the Palestinian people."[397][398] In July 2012, Fawzi Barhoum, a Hamas spokesman, denounced a visit by Ziad al-Bandak, an adviser to Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas, to the Auschwitz death camp, saying it was "unjustified" and "unhelpful" and only served the "Zionist occupation" while coming "at the expense of a real Palestinian tragedy". He also called the Holocaust an "alleged tragedy" and "exaggerated".[399][400][401][402] In October 2012, Hamas said that they were opposed to teaching about the Holocaust in Gaza Strip schools run by the UN Relief and Works Agency. The Refugee Affairs Department of Hamas said that teaching the Holocaust was a "crime against the issue of the refugees that is aimed at canceling their right of return".[403]
Violence and terrorism
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Hamas has used both political activities and violence in pursuit of its goals. For example, while politically engaged in the 2006 Palestinian Territories parliamentary election campaign, Hamas stated in its election manifesto that it was prepared to use "armed resistance to end the occupation".[404]
From 2000 to 2004, Hamas was responsible for killing nearly 400 Israelis and wounding more than 2,000 in 425 attacks, according to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 2001 through May 2008, Hamas launched more than 3,000 Qassam rockets and 2,500 mortar attacks into Israel.[405]
Attacks on civilians
Hamas has attacked Israeli civilians. Hamas most deadly suicide bombing was an attack on a Netanya hotel on March 27, 2002, in which 30 people were killed and 140 were wounded. The attack has also been referred to as the Passover massacre since it took place on the first night of the Jewish festival of Passover at a Seder.
Hamas has defended suicide attacks as a legitimate aspect of its asymmetric warfare against Israel. In 2003, according to Stephen Atkins, Hamas resumed suicide bombings in Israel as a retaliatory measure after the failure of peace talks and an Israeli campaign targeting members of the upper echelon of the Hamas leadership.[ac] but they are considered as crimes against humanity under international law.[406][407] In a 2002 report, Human Rights Watch stated that Hamas leaders "should be held accountable" for "war crimes and crimes against humanity" committed by the al-Qassam Brigades.[408][409][410]
In May 2006 Israel arrested a top Hamas official, Ibrahim Hamed, who Israeli security officials alleged was responsible for dozens of suicide bombings and other attacks on Israelis.[411] Hamed's trial on those charges has not yet concluded.[412] In 2008, Hamas explosives engineer Shihab al-Natsheh organized a deadly suicide bombing in Dimona.[413][414]
Since 2002, paramilitary soldiers of al-Qassam Brigades and other groups have used homemade Qassam rockets to hit Israeli towns in the Negev, such as Sderot. Al-Qassam Brigades was estimated in 2007 to have launched 22% of the rocket and mortar attacks,[415] which killed fifteen people between the years 2000 and 2009 (see Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel).[416] The introduction of the Qassam-2 rocket in 2008 enabled Palestinian paramilitary groups to reach, from Gaza, such Israeli cities such as Ashkelon.[417]
In 2008, Hamas leader Khaled Mashal, offered that Hamas would attack only military targets if the IDF would stop causing the deaths of Palestinian civilians.[418] Following a June 19, 2008 ceasefire, the al-Qassam Brigades ended its rocket attacks and arrested Fatah militants in Gaza who had continued sporadic rocket and mortar attacks against Israel. The al-Qassam Brigades resumed the attacks after the November 4 Israeli incursion into Gaza.[242][419]
On June 15, 2014, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu accused Hamas of involvement in the kidnapping of three Israeli teenagers (including one who held American citizenship), saying "This has severe repercussions."[420] On July 20, 2014, nearly two weeks into Operation Protective Edge, Netanyahu in an interview with CNN described Hamas as "genocidal terrorists."[421]
On August 5, 2014 Israel announced that Israeli security forces arrested Hussam Kawasme, in Shuafat, in connection with the murders.[422] During interrogation, Kawasme admitted to being the mastermind behind the attack, in addition to securing the funding from Hamas.[423] Officials have stated that additional people arrested in connection with the murders are still being held, but no names have been released.[424]
On August 20, Saleh al-Arouri, a Hamas leader in exile in Turkey, claimed responsibility for the kidnapping of the three Israeli teens. He delivered an address on behalf of Khaled Mashal at the conference of the International Union of Muslim Scholars in Istanbul, a move that might reflect a desire by Hamas to gain leverage.[425] In it he said: "Our goal was to ignite an intifada in the West Bank and Jerusalem, as well as within the 1948 borders. ... Your brothers in the Al-Qassam Brigades carried out this operation to support their imprisoned brothers, who were on a hunger strike. ... The mujahideen captured these settlers in order to have a swap deal."[426] Hamas political leader Khaled Mashal accepted that members of Hamas were responsible, stating that he knew nothing of it in advance and that what the leadership knew of the details came from reading Israeli reports.[427] Meshaal, who has headed Hamas's exiled political wing since 2004, has denied being involved in the "details" of Hamas "military issues", but "justified the killings as a legitimate action against Israelis on "occupied" lands."[428]
Hamas suicide attacks on Israeli civilians have largely disappeared since 2005; this has coincided with an increase in rocket attacks. One analysis suggests that the decline in suicide attacks is not motivated by any lack of supplies or volunteers to carry out such operations, by enhanced Israeli security measures such as the West Bank barrier (if Israeli actions were the reason, one would expect to see an equal decline in suicide attacks by all Palestinian factions, which is not observed), or by a newfound desire for reconciliation with Israel on the part of Hamas. Rather, suicide bombings provoked targeted killings that decimated the leadership of Hamas, whereas rocket attacks have elicited weaker Israeli reprisals that have tended to harm the Palestinian population as a whole more than Hamas (such as the blockade of the Gaza Strip) – thereby paradoxically increasing Hamas's popular support.[429]
Rocket attacks on Israel
Rocket attacks by Hamas have been condemned by Human rights organizations as war crimes, both because they usually take aim at civilians and because the weapons' inaccuracy would disproportionately endanger civilians even if military targets were chosen. After Operation Pillar of Defense, Human Rights Watch stated that armed Palestinian groups fired hundreds of rockets at Israeli cities, violating international humanitarian law, and that statements by Palestinian groups that they deliberately targeted Israeli civilians demonstrated an "intent to commit war crimes". HRW's Middle East director Sarah Leah Whitson said that Palestinian groups made clear that "harming civilians was their aim" and said that launching rockets at populated areas had no legal justification. International humanitarian law prohibits deliberate attacks on civilians and intentional violations can be war crimes.[430]
According to Human Rights Watch, Hamas and other Palestinian armed groups have launched thousands of rockets into Israel since 2001, killing 15 civilians, wounding many more, and posing an ongoing threat to the nearly 800,000 Israeli civilians who live and work in the weapons' range. Hamas officials have said that the rockets were aimed only at military targets, saying that civilian casualties were the "accidental result" of the weapons' poor quality. According to Human Rights Watch, statements by Hamas leaders suggest that the purpose of the rocket attacks was indeed to strike civilians and civilian objects. From January 2009, following Operation Cast Lead, Hamas largely stopped launching rocket attacks on Israel and has on at least two occasions arrested members of other groups who have launched rockets, "showing that it has the ability to impose the law when it wants".[431] In February 2010, Hamas issued a statement regretting any harm that may have befallen Israeli civilians as a result of Palestinian rocket attacks during the Gaza war. It maintained that its rocket attacks had been aimed at Israeli military targets but lacked accuracy and hence sometimes hit civilian areas. Israel responded that Hamas had boasted repeatedly of targeting and murdering civilians in the media.[432]
According to one report, commenting on the 2014 conflict, "nearly all the 2,500–3,000 rockets and mortars Hamas has fired at Israel since the start of the war seem to have been aimed at towns", including an attack on "a kibbutz collective farm close to the Gaza border", in which an Israeli child was killed.[433] Former Israeli Lt. Col. Jonathan D. Halevi stated that "Hamas has expressed pride in aiming long-range rockets at strategic targets in Israel including the nuclear reactor in Dimona, the chemical plants in Haifa, and Ben-Gurion Airport", which "could have caused thousands" of Israeli casualties "if successful".[434]
In July 2008 Barack Obama, then the Democratic presidential candidate, said: "If somebody was sending rockets into my house, where my two daughters sleep at night, I'm going to do everything in my power to stop that, and I would expect Israelis to do the same thing."[435] On December 28, 2008, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said in a statement: "the United States strongly condemns the repeated rocket and mortar attacks against Israel."[436] On March 2, 2009, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton condemned the attacks.[437]
Attempts to derail 2010 peace talks
In 2010, Hamas, who have been actively sidelined from the peace talks by Israel, spearheaded a coordinated effort by 13 Palestinian militant groups, in attempt to derail the stalled peace talks between Israel and Mahmoud Abbas, President of the Palestinian Authority. According to the Israeli Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories Major Gen. Eitan Dangot, Israel seeks to work with Salam Fayyad, to help revive the Palestinian economy, and hopes to ease restrictions on the Gaza Strip further, "while somehow preventing the Islamic militants who rule it from getting credit for any progress". According to Dangot, Hamas must not be seen as ruling successfully or be allowed to "get credit for a policy that would improve the lives of people".[438] The campaign consists of attacks against Israelis in which, according to a Hamas declaration in early September, "all options are open".[439][440][441][442] The participating groups also include Palestinian Islamic Jihad, the Popular Resistance Committees and an unnamed splinter group of Fatah.[443]
As part of the campaign, on August 31, 2010, 4 Israeli settlers, including a pregnant woman, were killed by Hamas militants while driving on Route 60 near the settlement Kiryat Arba, in the West bank. According to witnesses, militants opened fire on the moving vehicle, but then "approached the car" and shot the occupants in their seats at "close range". The attack was described by Israeli sources as one of the "worst" terrorist acts in years.[444][445][446] A senior Hamas official said that Israeli settlers in the West Bank are legitimate targets since "they are an army in every sense of the word".[447][448]
Themes of martyrdom
According to a translation by Palestinian Media Watch, in 2008, Fathi Hamad, a member of the Palestinian Legislative Council, stated on Al-Aqsa TV, "For the Palestinian people death became an industry, at which women excel and so do all people on this land: the elderly excel, the Jihad fighters excel, and the children excel. Accordingly (Palestinians) created a human shield of women, children, the elderly and the Jihad fighters against the Zionist bombing machine, as if they were saying to the Zionist enemy: 'We desire death as you desire life.'"[449]
In 2010, Hamas speaker Ahmad Bahr praised the virtues of martyrdom and Jihad, and said that 2.5 million black-eyed virgins were waiting in the Garden of Eden, which could be entered only by prophets, by the righteous, and by martyrs. He continued by saying that nobody on Earth "will be able to confront the resistance, or to confront the mujahideen, those who worship Allah and seek martyrdom".[450]
Guerrilla warfare
Hamas has made great use of guerrilla tactics in the Gaza Strip and to a lesser degree the West Bank.[451] It has successfully adapted these techniques over the years since its inception. According to a 2006 report by rival Fatah party, Hamas had smuggled between several hundred and 1,300 tons of advanced rockets, along with other weaponry, into Gaza.[451]
Hamas has used IEDs and anti-tank rockets against the IDF in Gaza. The latter include standard RPG-7 warheads and home-made rockets such as the Al-Bana, Al-Batar and Al-Yasin. The IDF has a difficult, if not impossible time trying to find hidden weapons caches in Palestinian areas – this is due to the high local support base Hamas enjoys.[452]
Extrajudicial killings of rivals
In addition to killing Israeli civilians and armed forces, Hamas has also murdered suspected Palestinian Israel collaborators and Fatah rivals.[453] Hundreds of Palestinians were executed by both Hamas and Fatah during the First Intifada.[454] In the wake of the 2006 Israeli conflict with Gaza, Hamas was accused of systematically rounding up, torturing and summarily executing Fatah supporters suspected of supplying information to Israel. Human Rights Watch estimates several hundred Gazans were "maimed" and tortured in the aftermath of the conflict. Seventy-three Gazan men accused of "collaborating" had their arms and legs broken by "unidentified perpetrators" and 18 Palestinians accused of helping Israel were executed by Hamas security officials in the first days of the conflict.[233][234][455] In November 2012, Hamas's Izzedine al-Qassam brigade publicly executed six Gaza residents accused of collaborating with Israel. According to the witnesses, six alleged informers were shot dead one by one in Gaza City, while the corpse of the sixth victim was tied by a cable to the back of a motorcycle and dragged through the streets.[456] In 2013, Human Rights Watch issued a statement condemning Hamas for not investigating and giving a proper trial to the 6 men. Their statement was released the day before Hamas issued a deadline for "collaborators" to turn themselves in, or they will be pursued "without mercy".[457] In August 2014, during the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict, at least 22 accused collaborators were executed by Hamas shortly after three of its commanders were assassinated by Israeli forces.[458] An Israeli source denied that any of the commanders had been targeted on the basis of human intelligence.[459]
Frequent killings of unarmed people have also occurred during Hamas-Fatah clashes.[460][461] NGOs have cited a number of summary executions as particular examples of violations of the rules of warfare, including the case of Muhammad Swairki, 28, a cook for Palestinian Authority Chairman Mahmoud Abbas's presidential guard, who was thrown to his death, with his hands and legs tied, from a 15-story apartment building in Gaza City.[462] Hamas security forces reportedly shoot and torture Palestinians who opposed Hamas rule in Gaza.[233] In one case, a Palestinian had criticized Hamas in a conversation on the street with some friends. Later that day, more than a dozen armed men with black masks and red kaffiyeh took the man from his home, and brought him to a solitary area where they shot him three times in the lower legs and ankles. The man told Human Rights Watch that he was not politically active.[233]
On August 14, 2009, Hamas fighters stormed the Mosque of cleric Abdel-Latif Moussa.[463] The cleric was protected by at least 100 fighters from Jund Ansar Allah ("Army of the Helpers of God"), an Islamist group with links to Al-Qaeda. The resulting battle left at least 13 people dead, including Moussa and 6 Hamas fighters, and 120 people injured.[464] According to Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas, during 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Hamas killed more than 120 Palestinian youths for defying house arrest imposed on them by Hamas, in addition to 30–40 Palestinians killed by Hamas in extrajudicial executions after accusing them of being collaborators with Israel.[465] Referring to the killing of suspected collaborators, a Shin Bet official stated that "not even one" of those executed by Hamas provided any intelligence to Israel, while the Shin Bet officially "confirmed that those executed during Operation Protective Edge had all been held in prison in Gaza in the course of the hostilities".[459]
2011–2013 Sinai insurgency
Hamas has been accused of providing weapons, training and fighters for Sinai-based insurgent attacks,[466][467] although Hamas strongly denies the allegations, calling them a smear campaign aiming to harm relations with Egypt.[466] According to the Egyptian Army, since the ouster of Egypt's Muslim-Brotherhood president Mohamed Morsi, over 600 Hamas members have entered the Sinai Peninsula through smuggling tunnels.[468] In addition, several weapons used in Sinai's insurgent attacks are being traced back to Hamas in the Gaza Strip, according to the army.[468] The four leading insurgent groups in the Sinai have all reportedly maintained close ties with the Gaza Strip.[469] Hamas is also accused of helping Morsi and other high-ranking Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood members break out of the Wadi Natroun prison in Cairo during the 2011 revolution.[470] Hamas called the accusation a "dangerous development".[471] Egyptian authorities stated that the 2011 Alexandria bombing was carried out by the Gaza-based Army of Islam, which has received sanctuary from Hamas and earlier collaborated in the capture of Gilad Shalit.[469][472][473][474] Army of Islam members linked to the August 2012 Sinai attack have reportedly sought refuge in the Gaza Strip.[469] Egypt stated that Hamas directly provided logistical support to the Muslim Brotherhood militants who carried out the December 2013 Mansoura bombing.[475]
International views of Hamas
According to Tobias Buck, Hamas is "listed as a terrorist organisation by Israel, the US and the EU, but few dare to treat it that way now" and in the Arab and Muslim world it has lost its pariah status and its emissaries are welcomed in capitals of Islamic countries.[476] While Hamas is considered a terrorist group by several governments and some academics, others regard Hamas as a complex organization, with terrorism as only one component.[477][478]The United States outlawed Hamas in 1995, as did Canada in November 2002.[479] The European Union outlawed Hamas's military wing in 2001 and, under US pressure,[480] included Hamas in its list of terrorist organizations in 2003.[481] Hamas challenged this decision,[482] but it was upheld by the European Court of Justice in July 2017.[483] Japan,[484] New Zealand,[485] Australia and the United Kingdom,[486] among others,[ad] have designated the military wing of Hamas as a terrorist organization.[488] The organization is banned in Jordan.[489]
Hamas is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Iran,[490] Russia,[491] Norway,[ae] Switzerland,[493] Turkey, China,[494] Egypt, Syria, and Brazil.[495][496][497][498][499][500][af]
| Country | Designation |
|---|---|
 Australia | The military wing of Hamas, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, is listed as a terrorist organization.[502] |
 Brazil | Hamas is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Brazil.[495][496] |
 Canada | Under the Anti-Terrorism Act, the Government of Canada currently lists Hamas as a terrorist entity, thus establishing it as a terrorist group, since 2002.[503][504] |
 China | As of 2006, China does not designate Hamas to be a terrorist organization and acknowledges Hamas to be the legitimately elected political entity in the Gaza Strip that represents the Palestinian people. Despite U.S. and Israeli opposition, the Chinese government met with senior Hamas representative Mahmoud al-Zahar, who previously served as Palestinian foreign minister, during the June 2006 China-Arab Cooperation Forum in Beijing, and held direct bilateral talks with Hamas and the Arab World. In addition, during the same month, a spokesperson for the Chinese Foreign Ministry further elucidated China's pro-Palestinian stance regarding Hamas in spite of U.S. and Israeli opposition to China's associations and close relationship with the organization, stating, "We believe that the Palestinian government is legally elected by the people there and it should be respected."[505][506] |
 Egypt | In June 2015, Egypt's appeals court overturned a prior ruling that listed Hamas as a terrorist organization.[507] In February 2015, Cairo's Urgent Matters Court designated Hamas as a terrorist organization, as part of a crack down on the Muslim Brotherhood movement following the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état. The court accused Hamas of carrying terrorist attacks in Egypt through tunnels linking the Sinai Peninsula to the Gaza Strip.[508] In March 2014, the same court outlawed Hamas' activities in Egypt, ordered the closure of its offices and to arrest any Hamas member found in the country.[509][510] |
 EU | The EU designated Hamas as a terrorist group from 2003. In December 2014, the General Court of the European Union ordered to remove HAMAS from the register. The court stated that the move was technical and was not a reassessment of Hamas' classification as a terrorist group. In March 2015, EU decided to keep Hamas on its terrorism blacklist "despite a controversial court decision", appealing the court's judgment.[511][512][513][514][515][516][517][518] Hamas remains on the list as of July 2020.[519] |
 Iran | Hamas is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Iran.[490][501] |
 Israel | The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs states, "Hamas maintains a terrorist infrastructure in Gaza and the West Bank, and acts to carry out terrorist attacks in the territories and Israel."[520] |
 Japan | As of 2005, Japan had frozen the assets of 472 terrorists and terrorist organizations including those of Hamas.[521] However, in 2006 it publicly acknowledged that Hamas had won the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections democratically.[522] |
 Jordan | Hamas was banned in 1999, reportedly in part at the request of the United States, Israel, and the Palestinian Authority.[173] In 2019, Jordanian sources are said to have revealed "that the Kingdom refused a request from the General Secretariat of the Arab League in late March to ban Hamas and list it as a terrorist organization."[523][better source needed] |
 New Zealand | The military wing of Hamas, the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades, has been listed as a terrorist entity since 2010.[524] |
 Norway | Norway does not designate Hamas as a terrorist organization.[525] In 2006, Norway distanced itself from the European Union, "claiming that it was causing problems for its role as a 'neutral facilitator.'"[492] |
 Paraguay | The military wing of Hamas, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, is listed as a terrorist organization. |
 Qatar | The Qatari government has a designated terrorist list. As of 2014, the list contained no names, according to The Daily Telegraph.[526] In September 2020, Qatar brokered a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas that is reported to include "plans to build a power station operated by Qatar, the provision of $34 million for humanitarian aid, provision of 20,000 COVID-19 testing kits by Qatar to the Health Ministry, and a number of initiatives to reduce unemployment in the Gaza Strip."[527] |
 Russia | Russia does not designate Hamas a terrorist organisation, and held direct talks with Hamas in 2006, after Hamas won the Palestine elections, stating that it did so to press Hamas to reject violence and recognise Israel.[528] |
 Saudi Arabia | Banned the Muslim Brotherhood in 2014 and branded it a terrorist organization. While Hamas is not specifically listed, a non-official Saudi source stated that the decision also encompasses its branches in other countries, including Hamas.[529][better source needed] As of January 2020, ties between Saudi Arabia and Hamas remain strained despite attempts at a rapprochement. Wesam Afifa, director general of Al-Aqsa TV is quoted as saying that "Saudi Arabia did not sever ties with Hamas, and even when Riyadh made public its list of terrorists in 2017, Hamas was not added to the list."[530][better source needed] |
 Switzerland | Switzerland does not designate Hamas as a terrorist organization. In accordance with Swiss neutrality, its policy of contact with the main actors of a conflict is characterized by impartial inclusiveness, discretion and pragmatism. Switzerland has direct contacts with all major stakeholders in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, including Hamas.[531] |
 Syria | Syria does not designate Hamas as a terrorist organization. Syria is among other countries that consider Hamas' armed struggle to be legitimate.[501] |
 Turkey | The Turkish government met with Hamas leaders in February 2006, after the organization's victory in the Palestinian elections. In 2010, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan described Hamas as "resistance fighters who are struggling to defend their land".[532][533] |
 United Kingdom | The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades have been listed as a proscribed organization under the Terrorism Act since 2001, but Hamas as a whole is not listed.[534] |
 United Nations | The list of United Nations designated terrorist groups does not include Hamas.[535] On 5 December 2018, the U.N. General Assembly rejected a U.S. resolution condemning Hamas for "repeatedly firing rockets into Israel and for inciting violence, thereby putting civilians at risk" as well as its "use of resources [...] to construct military infrastructure, including tunnels to infiltrate Israel and equipment to launch rockets into civilian areas, when such resources could be used to address the critical needs of the civilian population", and that "Hamas and other militant actors... cease all provocative actions and violent activity, including by using airborne incendiary devices."[536] The resolution received 87 votes in favor, 58 against, 32 abstentions and 16 countries did not vote and failed due to the requirement for a two thirds majority.[537][538] The U.N. General Assembly rejected "a U.S. resolution condemning Hamas as a terrorist organization, delivering a blow to Ambassador Nikki Haley's parting action before leaving her post at the end of the year." Haley said it was as simple as "rejecting or accepting terrorism" whereas objectors said the question was more complex and "ignored other causes of the conflict." A competing resolution, calling for a "comprehensive, just and lasting peace in the Middle East", passed by 156 votes to six against and 12 abstentions.[539] |
 United States | Lists Hamas as a "Foreign Terrorist Organization"[540] The State Department decided to add Hamas to its U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations in April 1993.[541] As of 2009[update], Hamas is still listed.[542] |
Criticism
United States
The FBI and United States Department of Justice also stated, in 2004, that Hamas threatened the United States through covert cells on U.S. soil.[543][544] Researcher Steven Emerson in 2006 alleged that the group had "an extensive infrastructure in the U.S. mostly revolving around the activities of fundraising, recruiting and training members, directing operations against Israel, organizing political support and operating through human-rights front groups". Emerson added that while the group had never acted outside of Israel or the Palestinian Territories, it does have the capacity to carry out attacks in the U.S. "if it decided to enlarge the scope of its operations".[545] FBI director Robert Mueller in 2005 testified to the Senate Intelligence Committee that, the FBI's assessment at that time was that there was "a limited threat of a coordinated terrorist attack in the US from Palestinian terrorist organizations" such as Hamas. He added that Hamas had "maintained a longstanding policy of focusing their attacks on Israeli targets in Israel and the Palestinian territories", and that the FBI believed that the main interest of Hamas in the U.S. remained "the raising of funds to support their regional goals". Mueller also stated, "of all the Palestinian groups, Hamas has the largest presence in the US, with a robust infrastructure, primarily focused on fundraising, propaganda for the Palestinian cause, and proselytizing." Although it would be a major strategic shift for Hamas, its United States network is theoretically capable of facilitating acts of terrorism in the U.S.[546]
On May 2, 2011, Hamas leader and Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh condemned the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan by the United States.[547] Haniyeh praised Bin Laden, the founder of the jihadist organization al-Qaeda, as a "martyr" and an "Arab holy warrior".[548][549] The United States government condemned his remarks as "outrageous".[550] Hamas has reportedly maintained operational and financial ties with al Qaeda.[551]
Human shields
After Operation Pillar of Defense, Human Rights Watch stated that Palestinian groups had endangered civilians by "repeatedly fired rockets from densely populated areas, near homes, businesses, and a hotel" and noted that under international law, parties to a conflict may not place military targets in or near densely populated areas. One rocket was launched close to the Shawa and Housari Building, where various Palestinian and international media have offices; another was fired from the yard of a house near the Deira Hotel.[430][552] The New York Times journalist Steven Erlanger reported that "Hamas rocket and weapons caches, including rocket launchers, have been discovered in and under mosques, schools and civilian homes."[553] Another report published by Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center revealed that Hamas used close to 100 mosques to store weapons and as launch-pads to shoot rockets. The report contains testimony from variety Palestinian sources, including a Hamas militant Sabhi Majad Atar, who said he was taught how to shoot rockets from inside a mosque.[554] Hamas has also been criticized by Israeli officials for blending into or hiding among the Palestinian civilian population during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict.[555] The Israeli government published what it said was video evidence of human shield tactics by Hamas.[556] Israel said that Hamas frequently used mosques and school yards[557] as hideouts and places to store weapons,[558][559] and that Hamas militants stored weapons in their homes, making it difficult to ensure that civilians close to legitimate military targets are not hurt during Israeli military operations.[560] Israeli officials also accused the Hamas leadership of hiding under Shifa Hospital during the conflict, using the patients inside to deter an Israeli attack.[553][561]
The Israeli government filed a report entitled "Gaza Operations Investigation: Second Update" to the United Nations accusing Hamas of exploiting its rules of engagement by shooting rockets and launching attacks within protected civilian areas.[562][563][564] Israel says 12,000 rockets and mortars were fired at it between 2000 and 2008 – nearly 3,000 in 2008 alone.[565] In one case, an errant Israeli mortar strike killed dozens of people near a UN school. Hamas said that the mortar killed 42 people and left dozens wounded. Israel said that Hamas militants had launched a rocket from a yard adjacent to the school and one mortar of three rounds hit the school, due to a GPS error. According to the Israeli military probe, the remaining two rounds hit the yard used to launch rockets into Israel, killing two members of Hamas's military wing who fired the rockets.[566] Human Rights Watch called Hamas to "publicly renounce" the rocket attacks against Israeli civilians and hold those responsible to account. Human Rights Watch program director Iain Levine said the attacks by Hamas were "unlawful and unjustifiable, and amount to war crimes", and accused Hamas of putting Palestinians at risk by launching attacks from built-up areas.[565] Hamas spokesman relied that the report was "biased" and he denied that Hamas uses human shields.[565]
Human Rights Watch investigated 19 incidents involving 53 civilian deaths in Gaza that Israel said were the result of Hamas fighting in densely populated areas and did not find evidence for existence of Palestinian fighters in the areas at the time of the Israeli attack. In other cases where no civilians had died, the report concluded that Hamas may have deliberately fired rockets from areas close to civilians.[567] HRW also investigated 11 deaths that Israel said were civilians being used as human shields by Hamas. HRW found no evidence that the civilians were used as human shields, nor had they been shot in crossfire.[568] The Israeli 'human shields' charge against Hamas was called "full of holes" by The National (UAE), which stated that only Israel accused Hamas of using human shields during the conflict, though Hamas "may be guilty" of "locating military objectives within or near densely populated areas" and for "deliberately firing indiscriminate weapons into civilian populated areas".[569]
On July 8, 2014, Hamas's spokesman Sami Abu Zuhri encouraged the "policy of people confronting the Israeli warplanes with their bare chests in order to protect their homes", saying it has proven itself.[570] Israeli soldiers recounted "Suddenly, a small boy appeared, and the terrorist grabbed him and escaped with him";[571] "I saw with my own eyes someone using another person, a woman, as a shield. ... And I can see very clearly that the woman doesn't want to be there and he's pulling her with him";[572] and "We even found explosives in nurseries. The whole neighborhood was practically a terrorist base."[573]
Israel has accused Hamas of using children as human shields. The Israeli government released video footage in which it claims two militants are shown grabbing a young boy's arm from behind holding him to walk in front of them toward a group of people waiting near a wall. The IDF argues the militants were placing the boy between themselves and an Israeli sniper. The second scene shows an individual, described as a terrorist, grabbing a school boy off of a floor, where he is hiding behind a column from IDF fire, and using him as a human shield to walk to a different location.[574] After 15 alleged militants sought refuge in a mosque from Israeli forces, the BBC reported that Hamas radio instructed local women to go the mosque to protect the militants. Israeli forces later opened fire and killed two women.[575]
In November 2006, the Israeli Air Force warned Muhammad Weil Baroud, commander of the Popular Resistance Committees who are accused of launching rockets into Israeli territory, to evacuate his home in a Jabalya refugee camp apartment block in advance of a planned Israeli air strike. Baroud responded by calling for volunteers to protect the apartment block and nearby buildings and, according to The Jerusalem Post, hundreds of local residents, mostly women and children, responded. Israel suspended the air strike. Israel termed the action an example of Hamas using human shields.[576] In response to the incident, Hamas proclaimed: 'We won. From now on we will form human chains around every house threatened with demolition.'"[577] In a November 22 press release, Human Rights Watch condemned Hamas, stating: "There is no excuse for calling civilians to the scene of a planned attack. Whether or not the home is a legitimate military target, knowingly asking civilians to stand in harm's way is unlawful."[578] Following criticism, Human rights Watch issued a statement saying that their initial assessment of the situation was in error. They stated that, on the basis of available evidence, the home demolition was in fact an administrative act, viewed in the context of Israel's longstanding policy of punitive home demolitions, not a military act and thus would not fall within the purview of the law regulating hostilities during armed conflict, which had been the basis for their initial criticism of Hamas.[575]
When the UN-sponsored Goldstone Commission Report on the Gaza War was commissioned in 2009, it stated that it "found no evidence that Palestinian combatants mingled with the civilian population with the intention of shielding themselves from attack" though they deemed credible reports that Palestinian militants were "not always dressed in a way that distinguished them from civilians".[579] Hamas MP Fathi Hamed stated that "For the Palestinian people, death has become an industry, at which women excel...the elderly excel at this...and so do the children. This is why they have formed human shields of the women, the children."[580] Following the release of the Goldstone Report, the former commander of the British forces in Afghanistan Col. Richard Kemp was invited to testify at the UN Human Rights Council 12th Special Session that during Operation Cast Lead Israel encountered an "enemy that deliberately positioned its military capability behind the human shield of the civilian population".[581][582][583]
Children as combatants
In the early intifada period, children in Gaza and the West Bank were instilled by Hamas with Islamic and military values. Evidence from 2001 shows that kindergarten children attended ceremonies where they wore emblematic uniforms and bore mock rifles. Some were dressed up as suicide bombers, whose readiness to die for the cause was held up as a model to be imitated. The preschoolers would swear an oath 'to pursue jihad, resistance and intifada.' At summer camps, alongside qur’anic studies and familiarization with computers, courses were given that included military training.[584]
Although Hamas admits to sponsoring summer schools to train teenagers in handling weapons they condemn attacks by children. Following the deaths of three teenagers during a 2002 attack on Netzarim in central Gaza, Hamas banned attacks by children and "called on the teachers and religious leaders to spread the message of restraint among young boys".[585][586] Hamas's use of child labor to build tunnels with which to attack Israel has also been criticized, with at least 160 children killed in the tunnels as of 2012.[587]
Political freedoms
Human rights groups and Gazans have accused the Hamas government in the Gaza Strip of restricting freedom of the press and forcefully suppressing dissent. Both foreign and Palestinian journalists report harassment and other measures taken against them.[588][589] In September 2007 the Gaza Interior Ministry disbanded the Gaza Strip branch of the pro-Fatah Union of Palestinian Journalists, a move criticized by Reporters without borders.[590] In November of that year the Hamas government arrested a British journalist and for a time canceled all press cards in Gaza.[591][592] On February 8, 2008, Hamas banned distribution of the pro-Fatah Al-Ayyam newspaper, and closed its offices in the Gaza Strip because it ran a caricature that mocked legislators loyal to Hamas.[593][594] The Gaza Strip Interior Ministry later issued an arrest warrant for the editor.[595]
More widely, in late August 2007 the group was accused in The Telegraph, a conservative British newspaper, of torturing, detaining, and firing on unarmed protesters who had objected to policies of the Hamas government.[596] Also in late August, Palestinian health officials reported that the Hamas government had been shutting down Gaza clinics in retaliation for doctor strikes – The Hamas government confirmed the "punitive measure against doctors" because, in its view, they had incited other doctors to suspend services and go out on strike.[597] In September 2007 the Hamas government banned public prayers after Fatah supporters began holding worship sessions that quickly escalated into raucous protests against Hamas rule. Government security forces beat several gathering supporters and journalists.[598] In October 2008, the Hamas government announced it would release all political prisoners in custody in Gaza. Several hours after the announcement, 17 Fatah members were released.[599]
On August 2, 2012, the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) accused Hamas of harassing elected officials belong to the Palestinian Journalists' Syndicate (PJS) in Gaza. The IFJ said that journalists' leaders in Gaza have faced a campaign of intimidation, as well as threats designed to force them to stop their union work. Some of these journalists are now facing charges of illegal activities and a travel ban, due to their refusal "to give in to pressure". The IFJ said that these accusations are "malicious" and "should be dropped immediately". The IFJ explained that the campaign against PJS members began in March 2012, after their election, and included a raid organized by Hamas supporters who took over the PJS offices in Gaza with the help of the security forces, and subsequently evicted the staff and elected officials. Other harassment includes the targeting of individuals who were bullied into stopping union work. The IFJ backed the PJS and called on Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh to intervene to stop "his officials' unwarranted interference in journalists' affairs".[600] In November 2012, two Gazan journalists were prevented from leaving Gaza by Hamas. There were scheduled to participate in a conference in Cairo, Egypt. After being questioned by security forces, their passports were confiscated.[601] In 2016 Reporters Without Borders condemned Hamas for censorship and for torturing journalists. Reporters Without Borders Secretary-General Christophe Deloire said "As living conditions in the Gaza Strip are disastrous, Hamas wants to silence critics and does not hesitate to torture a journalist in order to control media coverage in its territory."[602]
Human rights abuses
In June 2011, the Independent Commission for Human Rights based in Ramallah published a report whose findings included that the Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip were subjected in 2010 to an "almost systematic campaign" of human rights abuses by the Palestinian Authority and Hamas, as well as by Israeli authorities, with the security forces belonging to the PA and Hamas being responsible for torture, arrests and arbitrary detentions.[603]
In 2012, the Human Rights Watch presented a 43-page long list of human rights violations committed by Hamas. Among actions attributed to Hamas, the HRW report mentions beatings with metal clubs and rubber hoses, hanging of alleged collaborationists with Israel, and torture of 102 individuals. According to the report, Hamas also tortured civil society activists and peaceful protesters. Reflecting on the captivity of Gilad Shalit, the HRW report described it as "cruel and inhuman". The report also slams Hamas for harassment of people based on so-called morality offenses and for media censorship.[604][605] In a public statement Joe Stork, the deputy Middle East director of HRW claimed, "after five years of Hamas rule in Gaza, its criminal justice system reeks of injustice, routinely violates detainees' rights and grants impunity to abusive security services." Hamas responded by denying charges and describing them as "politically motivated".[606]
On May 26, 2015, Amnesty International released a report saying that Hamas carried out extrajudicial killings, abductions and arrests of Palestinians and used the Al-Shifa Hospital to detain, interrogate and torture suspects during the Israel–Gaza conflict in 2014. It details the executions of at least 23 Palestinians accused of collaborating with Israel and torture of dozens of others, many victims of torture were members of the rival Palestinian movement, Fatah.[607][608]
In 2019, Osama Qawassmeh, a Fatah spokesman in the West Bank, accused Hamas of “kidnapping and brutally torturing Fatah members in a way that no Palestinian can imagine.” Qawassmeh accused Hamas of kidnapping and torturing 100 Fatah members in Gaza. The torture allegedly included the practice called "shabah" – the painful binding of the hands and feet to a chair. Also in 2019, Fatah activist from Gaza Raed Abu al-Hassin was beaten and had his two legs broken by Hamas security officers. Al-Hassin was taken into custody by Hamas after he participated in a pro-Abbas demonstration in the Gaza Strip.[609]
International support
Hamas has always maintained leadership abroad. The movement is deliberately fragmented to ensure that Israel cannot kill its top political and military leaders.[610] Hamas used to be strongly allied with both Iran and Syria. Iran gave Hamas an estimated $13–15 million in 2011 as well as access to long-range missiles. Hamas's political bureau was once located in the Syrian capital of Damascus before the start of the Syrian civil war. Relations between Hamas, Iran, and Syria began to turn cold when Hamas refused to back the government of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. Instead, Hamas backed the Sunni rebels fighting against Assad. As a result, Iran cut funding to Hamas, and Iranian ally Hezbollah ordered Hamas members out of Lebanon.[611] Hamas was then forced out of Syria. Since then, Hamas has tried to mend fences with Iran and Hezbollah.[611] Hamas contacted Jordan and Sudan to see if either would open up its borders to its political bureau, but both countries refused, although they welcomed many Hamas members leaving Syria.[612] In 2012, Hamas headquarters subsequently moved to Doha, Qatar.[613]
From 2012 to 2013, under the leadership of Muslim Brotherhood President Mohamed Morsi, Hamas had the support of Egypt. However, when Morsi was removed from office, his replacement Abdul Fattah al-Sisi outlawed the Muslim Brotherhood and destroyed the tunnels Hamas built into Egypt. The United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia are likewise hostile to Hamas. Like Egypt, they designated the Brotherhood as a terrorist organization and Hamas was viewed as its Palestinian equivalent.[611]
Qatar and Turkey
According to Middle East experts, now Hamas has two firm allies: Qatar and Turkey. Both give Hamas public and financial assistance estimated to be in the hundreds of millions of dollars. Shashank Joshi, senior research fellow at the Royal United Services Institute, says that "Qatar also hosts Hamas's political bureau which includes Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal." Meshaal also visits Turkey frequently to meet with Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[611] Erdogan has dedicated himself to breaking Hamas out of its political and economic seclusion. On U.S. television, Erdogan said in 2012 that "I don't see Hamas as a terror organization. Hamas is a political party."[610]
In 2007, Qatar was, with Turkey, the only country to back Hamas after the group ousted the Palestinian Authority from the Gaza Strip.[611] The relationship between Hamas and Qatar strengthened in 2008 and 2009 when Khaled Meshaal was invited to attend the Doha Summit where he was seated next to the then Qatari Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, who pledged $250 million to repair the damage caused by Israel in the Israeli war on Gaza.[612] These events caused Qatar to become the main player in the "Palestinian issue". Qatar called Gaza's blockade unjust and immoral, which prompted the Hamas government in Gaza, including former Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh, to thank Qatar for their "unconditional" support. Qatar then began regularly handing out political, material, humanitarian and charitable support for Hamas.[612]
In 2012, Qatar's former Emir, Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani, became the first head of state to visit Gaza under Hamas rule. He pledged to raise $400 million for reconstruction. Some have argued that the money Qatar gives to reconstruct Palestine is an excuse to pour even more money into Hamas.[613] Qatar's reason for funding Hamas, which is shared by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, is alleged that Islamist groups are growing and will eventually play a role in the region; thus it is important for Qatar (and Turkey) to maintain ties. During the Arab Spring, for example, Qatar backed the Muslim Brotherhood, the Egyptian Islamist group whose offshoot is Hamas.[614] Other sources say that advocating for Hamas is politically beneficial to Turkey and Qatar because the Palestinian cause draws popular support amongst their citizens at home.[615]
Some began to label Qatar a terrorist haven in part because it is harboring Hamas leader Meshaal.[614] They also harbor Husam Badran, former leader of Hamas's military wing in the northern West Bank.[citation needed] Husam Badran, current media spokesman for Hamas, was the instigator of several of the deadliest suicide bombings of the second intifada, including the Dolphinarium discotheque bombing in Tel Aviv, which killed 21 people.[616] Turkey has also been criticized for housing terrorists including Saleh al-Arouri, the senior Hamas official, known for his ability to mastermind attacks from abroad. Al-Arouri is alleged to have orchestrated the June 2014 abduction and killing of three Israeli teenagers and to have started the 50-day war between Israel and Palestine, and now lives in Turkey.[617]
Speaking in reference to Qatar's support for Hamas, during a 2015 visit to Palestine, Qatari official Mohammad al-Emadi, said Qatar is using the money not to help Hamas but rather the Palestinian people as a whole. He acknowledges however that giving to the Palestinian people means using Hamas as the local contact. Emadi said, "You have to support them. You don't like them, don't like them. But they control the country, you know."[618] Some argue that Hamas's relations with Qatar are putting Hamas in an awkward position because Qatar has become part of the regional Arab problem. However, Hamas claims that having contacts with various Arab countries establishes positive relations which will encourage Arab countries to do their duty toward the Palestinians and support their cause by influencing public opinion in the Arab world.[612] In March 2015, Hamas has announced its support of the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh.[619]
In May 2018, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan tweeted to the Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu that Hamas is not a terrorist organization but a resistance movement that defends the Palestinian homeland against an occupying power. During that period there were conflicts between Israeli troops and Palestinian protestors in the Gaza Strip, due to the decision of the United States to move their embassy to Jerusalem.[620]
China
After the Hamas victory in 2006, China did not label it a "terrorist organization" and welcomed Hamas' foreign minister, Mahmoud al-Zahar, to Beijing for the China-Arab Cooperation Forum ignoring protests by both the United States and Israel but receiving praise from Mahmoud Abbas.[621][622] China has harshly criticised Israel for its economic blockade of Gaza since 2007 when Hamas assumed control of the territory.[621][623] Chinese foreign ministry spokesman Liu Jianchao stated, “We believe that the Palestinian government is legally elected by the people there and it should be respected”.[624] In April 2011, a spokesman from China's foreign ministry embraced the Hamas-Fatah agreement to form an interim government.[625]
In 2014, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi called on Israel to lift its blockade and advised both Israel and Hamas to cease fighting. He reaffirmed support from China to the Palestinian people's right to establish an independent state. He told a joint press conference, “China will grant $1.5 million in emergency humanitarian aid to the people of Gaza.”[626]
In June 2018, China voted in support of a United Nations Security Council resolution vetoed by the US that criticized Israel of excessive, disproportionate and indiscriminate force by the Israeli forces against Palestinian civilians in Gaza during the 2018 Gaza border protests. Later the same day, China abstained from voting on a US drafted resolution that blamed Hamas for the escalated violence.[627][628]
Public opinion about Hamas
Prior to 2006, Hamas was well regarded by Palestinians for its efficiency and perceived lack of corruption compared to Fatah.[629][630] Public opinions of Hamas have deteriorated after it took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007. Prior to the takeover, 62% of Palestinians had held a favorable view of the group, while a third had negative views. According to a 2014 Pew Research just prior to the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, only about a third had positive opinions and more than half viewed Hamas negatively. Furthermore, 68% of Israeli Arabs viewed Hamas negatively.[631]
Hamas popularity surged after the war in 2014 with polls reporting that 81 percent of Palestinians felt that Hamas had "won" that war.[632][633]
In Lebanon, 65% see Hamas negatively. In Jordan and Egypt, roughly 60% see Hamas negatively, and in Turkey, 80% have a negative opinion of Hamas. In Tunisia, 42% have a negative opinion of Hamas, while 56% of Bangladeshis and 44% of Indonesians have a negative opinion of Hamas.[631]
Legal action against Hamas
In the United States
The charitable trust Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development was accused in December 2001 of funding Hamas.[634][635][636]}} The U.S. Justice Department filed 200 charges against the foundation. The case first ended in a mistrial, in which jurors acquitted on some counts and were deadlocked on charges ranging from tax violations to providing material support for terrorists. In a retrial, on November 24, 2008, the five leaders of the Foundation were convicted on 108 counts.[637]
Several U.S. organizations were either shut down or held liable for financing Hamas in early 2001, groups that have origins from the mid-1990s, among them the Holy Land Foundation (HLF), Islamic Association for Palestine (IAP), and Kind Hearts. The U.S. Treasury Department specially designated the HLF in 2001 for terror ties because from 1995 to 2001 the HLF transferred "approximately $12.4 million outside of the United States with the intent to contribute funds, goods, and services to Hamas." According to the Treasury Department, Khaled Meshal identified one of HLF's officers, Mohammed El-Mezain as "the Hamas leader for the U.S." In 2003, IAP was found liable for financially supporting Hamas, and in 2006, Kind Hearts had their assets frozen for supporting Hamas.[638]
In 2004, a federal court in the United States found Hamas liable in a civil lawsuit for the 1996 murders of Yaron and Efrat Ungar near Bet Shemesh, Israel. Hamas was ordered to pay the families of the Ungars $116 million.[639] The Palestinian Authority settled the lawsuit in 2011. The settlement terms were not disclosed.[640] On August 20, 2004, three Palestinians, one a naturalized American citizen, were charged with a "lengthy racketeering conspiracy to provide money for terrorist acts in Israel".[641] The indicted included Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook, who had left the US in 1997.[642] On February 1, 2007, two men were acquitted of contravening United States law by supporting Hamas. Both men argued that they helped move money for Palestinian causes aimed at helping the Palestinian people and not to promote terrorism.[643]
In January 2009, a Federal prosecutor accused the Council on American-Islamic Relations of having links to a charity designated as a support network for Hamas.[644] The Justice Department identified CAIR as an "un-indicted co-conspirator" in the Holy Land Foundation case.[645] Later, a federal appeals court removed that label for all parties and instead, named them "joint venturers".[646] CAIR was never charged with any crime, and it complained that the designation had tarnished its reputation.[647]
In Germany
A German federal court ruled in 2004 that Hamas was a unified organisation whose humanitarian aid work could not be separated from its "terrorist and political activities".[648] In July 2010, Germany also outlawed Frankfurt-based International Humanitarian Aid Organization (IHH e.V.), saying it had used donations to support Hamas-affiliated relief projects in Gaza.[649][650] While presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian assistance, German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said, IHH e.V. had "exploited trusting donors' willingness to help by using money that was given for a good purpose for supporting what is, in the final analysis, a terrorist organization".[649][650][651] A spokesperson for the Islamic Human Rights Commission described the decision as "a victory for those who seek to stigmatise all Islamic activism as supporting terrorism".[652]
See also
- 25th anniversary of Hamas
- Hamastan
- Human rights in the Palestinian National Authority
- List of political parties in the Palestinian National Authority
Notes and references
Notes
- ^ "Hamas considers Palestine the main front of jihad and viewed the uprising as an Islamic way of fighting the Occupation. The leaders of the organization argued that Islam gave the Palestinian people the power to confront Israel and described the Intifada as the return of the masses to Islam. Since its inception, Hamas has tried to reconcile nationalism and Islam. [...] Hamas claims to speak as a nationalist movement but with an Islamic-nationalist rather than a secular nationalist agenda."[10]
- ^ "Hamas is primarily a religious movement whose nationalist world view is shaped by its religious ideology."[11]
- ^ "Hamas is a radical Islamic fundamentalist organization that has stated that its highest priority is a Jihad (holy war) for the liberation of Palestine."[13]
- ^ "In fundamentalist movements, support is usually gained at the price of conformity, by publicly renouncing any tactic that could offset the group's normative values. However, as one will notice, many policy devices that Hamas uses have enabled its leaders to manipulate normative rules in a pragmatic fashion. [...] Hamas, then, does not live up to its world image of a one-track organization with monolithic, unshakable, fundamentalist interests."[14] "Hamas has given numerous indications that, in practice, it has ceased to be a fanatic and fundamentalist organization, unable to distinguish between principle and practice. It has demonstrated a willingness to change its positions on fundamental issues and even to take public stands in contradiction of its Islamic Charter."[15]
- ^ "One of the secrets behind the success of Hamas is that it is an Islamic and national movement at one and the same time."[17]
- ^ "In politics everything is possible. Iraq, for instance, has the Badr Brigade, which is a military arm of the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq and has joined the political process in the country. Members of the Badr Brigade have joined the security service in Iraq. In Iraq the USA has been trying to tackle the insurgent issue through negations. Hizbullah in Lebanon is a political party, and it also has its militant organisations. The Mujahideen, who were the leading militants in Afghanistan, have joined the political process in their country after more that 20 years of war. Being a militant and joining the political platform is not a sin. If we leave the Middle East and look at Sinn Fein, for example, in Northern Ireland, this group was fighting the British government and then, through engagement and direct negotiation, extremist influence was marginalised, and Sinn Fein found an opportunity to moderate itself."[18]
- ^ "The idea of a militant movement like Hamas possessing both political and military personas simultaneously is not especially new, with the IRA/Sinn Féin and the Lebanese movement Hezbollah being two often cited examples. However, this study argues that given the role that resistance plays in the Palestinian narrative, Hamas's dual resistance is a more comprehensive and integrated strategy than that possessed by other so-called hybrid or dual-status movements. This is because Hamas has managed to synergise its political and armed resistance efforts, and it does this to further its self-determination agendas."[19]
- ^ A two thirds majority was required for the motion to pass. 87 voted in favour, 58 against, 32 abstained and 16 did not vote.[24]
- ^ Dates differ, between December 1987 – January 1988, and August 1988[25]
- ^ This has been interpreted by one Israeli analyst as a means of gaining time to consolidate its grip on power.[30]
- ^ "Hamas remains frank about its ultimate goal — the establishment of Islamic rule across historic Palestine. However, in recent years it has modified this to offer Israel a long-term hudra (truce), in return for the establishment of an independent state in the West Bank, Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem, which Israel has occupied since the 1967 war. This offer was first made by Sheikh Yassin in the mid-1990s, and is regularly repeated by Hamas leaders in an effort to demonstrate that the movement can adapt to circumstances. 'We are with a state on the 1967 borders, based on a long-term truce,' said Khaled Meshaal, the head of Hamas's Political Bureau, in Damascus in May 2009. Meshaal assumed leadership of the movement after Israel assassinated Sheikh Yassin, but steadfastly refused to recognize Israel and loaded his offer with conditions. Defining 'long-term' as ten years, he said the proposed state must include 'East Jerusalem, the dismantling of settlements and the right of return of the Palestinian refugees'."[32]
- ^ 'most of Hamas' arsenal is homemade rockets that are decidedly incapable of inflicting mass civilian casualties, flattening apartment blocks, or causing conflagrations that consume entire cities. "Hamas' rockets can kill people and they have," a counter-intelligence veteran of the U.S., CIA who spent his career monitoring Israeli and Palestinian military capabilities, told me recently, "but compared to what the Israelis are using, the Palestinians are firing bottle rockets."[37]
- ^ 'Human Rights Watch has documented laws-of-war violations by Israeli forces in Gaza, including evidence of war crimes during Operation Cast Lead. However, laws-of-war violations by one party to a conflict do not justify violations by another, and reprisal attacks that target civilians are prohibited under any circumstances. Even assuming the rocket attacks were intended as reprisals for Israeli attacks that killed and injured civilians, they still are unlawful under the laws of war. The law governing reprisals—defined as otherwise unlawful actions that are considered lawful when used as an enforcement measure in reaction to an adversary’s unlawful acts—does not permit direct or indiscriminate attacks on civilians.'[36]
- ^ 'In a 1995 lecture, Sheikh Jamil Hamami, a party to the foundation of Hamas and a senior member of its West Bank leadership, expounded the importance of Hamas' dawa infrastructure as the soil from which militancy would flower.'[64]
- ^ 'Consistent attacks on army units by Hamas activists are as new as the use of anti-tank missiles against civilian homes by the Israeli military.'[79]
- ^ Matthew Levitt on the other hand claims that Hamas's welfare institutions act as a mere façade or front for the financing of terrorism, and dismisses the idea of two wings as a 'myth'.[89] He cites Ahmad Yassin stating in 1998: "We can not separate the wing from the body. If we do so, the body will not be able to fly. Hamas is one body."[90]
- ^ It is unclear whether these groups were set up in 1985 or 1986.
- ^ Abu Amr states the following people who attended that day: Dr. 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Rantisi (40), a physician residing in Khan Yunis; Dr. Ibrahim al-Yazuri (45), a pharmacist residing in Gaza city; Shaykh Salih Shehada (40), a University instructor from Beit Hanoun; 'Isa al-Nashshar (35), an engineer in Rafah; Muhammad Sham'a (50), a teacher in al-Shati refugee camp and 'Abd al-Fattah Dukhan ( 50), a school principal at al-Nusayrat refugee camp.[4]
- ^ 'In truth, the creation of Hamas as a separate entity from the Muslim Brotherhood was done precisely to prevent Israeli authorities from targeting the organizations' greater activities, in the hopes that it would leave them relatively immune. Moreover, Hamas was created essentially because the Islamicists connected to the Muslim Brotherhood feared that without their direct participation in the first Intifada, they would lose supporters to both the PIJ and the PLO, the latter of which was anxious to reassert itself in the Palestinian territories after being marginalized following its expulsion from Lebanon. As authors Mishal and Sela, explain, "The Mujamma's decision to adopt a 'jihad now' policy against 'enemies of Allah' (through the creation of Hamas) was thus largely a matter of survival.'[131][132]
- ^ In nutshell, the notion of "Palestine from the river to the sea" is nothing but the boundaries of Eretz Israel as imagined by the first Zionists. The notion was enshrined in the founding charter of the ruling Likud party, which states that "between the Sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty." One can thus entertain the chilling irony that Hamas owes its cherished slogan to the Zionists. After all, what is "free Palestine from the river to the sea" but a utopian parody of "Greater Israel"? [135]
- ^ Davis, de Búrca, and Dalacoura write that the Brigades were formed in 1991,[144][145][146] Najib & Friedrich write that they were formed in the summer of 1991,[127] and O'Malley that they were formed in 1992.[48]
- ^ Islah Jad writes: "The Arabic word isqat has various literal meanings, most pertinently to 'tumble' or 'fall,' as into a trap. In the Palestinian context, it refers specifically to the methods used by the Israelis to manipulate or seduce victims and force them to work against their people's national interests."[158]
- ^ 'Our most important objective must be to put an end to the plague of collaboration. To do so, we abduct collaborators, intimidate and interrogate them in order to uncover other collaborators and expose the methods that the enemy uses to lure Palestinians into collaboration in the first place. ...There's another group of collaborators who perform an even more loathsome role – the ones who help the enemy trap young men and women in blackmail schemes that force them to become collaborators. I regard the "isqat" of a single person as a greater crime than the killing of a demonstrator. If someone is guilty of causing repeated cases of isqat, then it is our religious duty to execute him. A third group of collaborators is responsible for the distribution of narcotics. They work on direct orders from the Security Services to distribute drugs as widely as possible. Their victims become addicted and soon find it unbearable to quit and impossible to afford more. They collaborate in order to get the drugs they crave. The dealers must also be executed.[160]
- ^ Hamas' former spokesman and Deputy Foreign Minister in Gaza, Ahmed Yousef, explained in a New York Times op-ed what this meant juridically. (A hudna) 'typically cover(s) 10 years and (is) recognized in Islamic jurisprudence as a legitimate and binding contract. A hudna extends beyond the Western concept of a ceasefire and obliges parties to use the period to seek a permanent, non-violent resolution to their differences'.[185]
- ^ "Aside from Hamas' stated goal to 'serve the people', this desire for security reform, again, perhaps is unsurprising given that Hamas was frequently the target of these apparatuses as an opposition movement. Hamas' security apparatus in the Gaza Strip is presently politicized as well, but it has managed to institute the rule of law and order which had eluded the previous Fatah-led forces, despite the Hamas government employing only a fraction of the resources and personnel. Indeed, Hamas streamlined the security forces, reducing the number of personnel from 56,887 prior to its armed seizure of the Gaza Strip in June 2007 to around 15,000 today. In contrast to its West Bank counterparts, moreover, the Hamas security sector is unambiguously under civilian control in line with Western modes of governance, and is thus, according to Sayigh, more accountable."[201]
- ^ :'(Yadlin) commented that if Fatah decided it had lost Gaza, there would be calls for Abbas to set up a separate regime in the West Bank. While not necessarily reflecting a consensus GOI (Government of Israel) view, Yadlin commented thgaty such a development would please Isreael since it would enable the IDF (Israel’s occupying force) to treat Gaza as a hostile country rather than having to deal with Hamas as a non-state actor.’[227]
- ^ 'The Charter was written in early 1988 by one individual and was made public without appropriate general Hamas consultation, revision or consensus, to the regret of Hamas's leaders in later years. The author of the Charter was one of the 'old guard' of the Muslim Brotherhood in the Gaza Strip, completely cut off from the outside world. All kinds of confusions and conflations between Judaism and Zionism found their way into the Charter, to the disservice of Hamas ever since, as this document has managed to brand it with charges of 'anti-Semitism' and a naïve world-view' Hamas leaders and spokespeople have rarely referred to the Charter or quoted from it, evidence that it has come to be seen as a burden rather than an intellectual platform that embraces the movement's principles.'[304]
- ^ 'The second major component in Palestine's sanctity, according to Hamas, is its designation as a waqf by the Caliph 'Umar b. al-Khattab. When the Muslim armies conquered Palestine in the year 638, the Hamas Charter says, the Caliph 'Umar b. al-Khattab decided not to divide the conquered land among the victorious soldiers, but to establish it as a waqf, belonging to the entire Muslim nation until the day of resurrection.'[310]
- ^ 'This ceasefire ended when Israel started targeting Hamas leaders for assassination in July 2003. Hamas retaliated with a suicide bombing in Israel on August 19, 2003, that killed 20 people, including 6 children. Since then Israelis have mounted an assassination campaign against the senior leadership of Hamas that has killed 13 Hamas members, including Ismail Abu Shanab, one of the most moderate leaders of Hamas. ... After each of these assassinations, Hamas has sent a suicide bomber into Israel in retaliation.'[33]
- ^ During the ongoing 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis self-declared President Juan Guaidó has tweeted that he considers Hamas, among others, to be a terrorist group.[487]
- ^ "In 2006, Norway explicitly distanced itself from the EU proscription regime, claiming that it was causing problems for its role as a 'neutral facilitator.'"[492]
- ^ "Many other states, including Russia, China, Syria, Turkey and Iran consider the (armed) struggle waged by Hamas to be legitimate."[501]
Citations
- ^ Levitt 2006, p. 44.
- ^ Abdelal 2016, p. 122.
- ^ Dalloul 2017.
- ^ a b c Abu Amr 1993, p. 10.
- ^ Litvak 1998, p. 151.
- ^ Barzak 2011.
- ^ AFP 2019.
- ^ Dunning 2016, p. 270.
- ^ Stepanova 2008, p. 113.
- ^ Cheema 2008, p. 465.
- ^ Litvak 2004, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Litvak 1998, pp. 151–152.
- ^ Cordesman 2002, p. 243.
- ^ Mishal 2003, pp. 574–584.
- ^ Klein 2007, p. 442.
- ^ Kear 2018, p. 22.
- ^ Litvak 2008, p. 153.
- ^ Zweiri 2006, p. 681.
- ^ Kear 2018, p. 7.
- ^ Charrett 2020, pp. 129–137.
- ^ Davis 2016, pp. 67–69.
- ^ Mukhimer 2012, pp. vii,58.
- ^ Sinai 2019, pp. 273–290.
- ^ DW 2018.
- ^ Jamal 2005, p. 197, n.21.
- ^ Milton-Edwards 2015, p. 93.
- ^ Lindholm Schulz 1999, p. 76.
- ^ Mattar 2005, p. 196.
- ^ Zweiri 2006, p. 683.
- ^ Inbar 2007, p. 193.
- ^ Inbar 2007, p. 132.
- ^ Milton-Edwards & Farrell 2013, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b Atkins 2004, p. 123.
- ^ Cordesman 2006, p. 326.
- ^ Clauset et al. 2010, pp. 6–33.
- ^ a b c Van Esveld 2009.
- ^ Perry 2014, p. 134.
- ^ Bregman 2016, p. 324.
- ^ a b c d Hueston, Pierpaoli & Zahar 2014, p. 67.
- ^ Erlanger, Steven (February 18, 2006). "Hamas Leader Faults Israeli Sanction Plan". The New York Times. Retrieved April 22, 2010.
- ^ "U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 26, 2014.
- ^ a b c
- Hamas The New York Times, June 18, 2010 "The pact did not succeed in restoring the flow of aid and did not last. Clashes between the two groups steadily escalated until gunmen loyal to Hamas took control of Gaza in June, ousting the remnants of Fatah."
- Backgrounder: Hamas Archived June 13, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Council of Foreign Relations. August 27, 2009, "In the summer of 2007, Hamas tensions with the Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, a Fatah man, came to a head and Hamas routed Fatah supporters, killing many and sending others fleeing to the West Bank. The result was a de facto geographic division of Palestinian-held territory, with Hamas holding sway in Gaza and Fatah maintaining the internationally recognized Palestinian Authority government in the West Bank town of Ramallah."
- ^ "Gaza may face economic disaster if blockade continues". USA Today. Associated Press. March 29, 2009. Retrieved October 9, 2013.
- ^ a b Jefferis 2016, p. 119.
- ^ Herzog 2006, p. 84.
- ^ Ahmed 2007, p. 170.
- ^ Dalacoura 2011, p. 67.
- ^ a b O'Malley 2015, p. 118.
- ^ Levitt 2006, pp. 10–11.
- ^ a b c Levitt 2006, pp. 11–12.
- ^ Roy 2013, p. 30.
- ^ Andrew Carey and Joe Sterling. "Ismail Haniya elected new Hamas leader". CNN.
- ^ Davis 2016, pp. 44–45.
- ^ A. Hovdenak, 'Hamas in Transition:The Failure of Sanctions,' in Michelle Pace, Peter Seeberg (eds.), The European Union's Democratization Agenda in the Mediterranean, Routledge, 2013 pp. 50–79 [64].
- ^ Peter Mandaville,Islam and Politics, Routledge, 2014 Rev.ed, p. 282.
- ^ a b Benedetta Berti, Armed Political Organizations: From Conflict to Integration, JHU Press, 2013 p. 88.
- ^ Mohammed Ayoob, Will the Middle East Implode?, John Wiley & Sons, 2014 p. 47.
- ^ Dunning 2016, p. 136.
- ^ Levitt 2006, pp. 16–23.
- ^ Phillips 2011, p. 78.
- ^ a b Shitrit 2015, p. 71.
- ^ a b Phillips 2011, p. 75.
- ^ Davis 2016, pp. 47ff.
- ^ Levitt 2006, p. 23.
- ^ Levitt 2006, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Mohsen Saleh, The Palestinian Strategic Report 2006, Al Manhal, 2007 p. 198.
- ^ James J.F. Forrest, 'Conclusion', in James Dingley, Combating Terrorism in Northern Ireland, Routledge, 2008 pp. 280–300 [290].
- ^ a b Phillips 2011, p. 81.
- ^ Levitt 2006, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Davis 2016, p. 48.
- ^ Davis 2016, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Sabry 2015, p. 65.
- ^ a b Najib & Friedrich 2007, p. 107.
- ^ Sabry 2015, p. 67.
- ^ Sabry 2015, p. 73.
- ^ a b c Guidère 2012, p. 173.
- ^ a b Najib & Friedrich 2007, p. 106.
- ^ Najib & Friedrich 2007, p. 105.
- ^ a b Roy 1993, p. 21.
- ^ Najib & Friedrich 2007, pp. 105–106.
- ^ Najib & Friedrich 2007, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Davis 2004, p. 100.
- ^ Herrick 2011, p. ?.
- ^ Mandaville, p. 282.
- ^ Levitt 2008, pp. 89ff..
- ^ John L.Esposito, Islam and Violence, Syracuse University Press 1998 p. 231.
- ^ Gunning 2007, pp. 123–155: p. 134
- ^ Kass & O'Neill 1997, p. 267.
- ^ Herrick 2011, p. 179.
- ^ a b Levitt 2006, p. 24.
- ^ Abu Amr 1993, p. 8.
- ^ Levitt 2006, p. 148.
- ^ Vittori 2011, p. 72.
- ^ a b c Vittori 2011, p. 73.
- ^ Levitt 2006, pp. 143–144.
- ^ Clarke 2015, p. 97.
- ^ Interpal and Development and the Al-Aqsa Charitable Foundation Fund. pp. 146, 154–59.
- ^ a b Marsh E. Burfeindt, 'Rapprochement with Iran', in Thomas A. Johnson (ed.), Power, National Security, and Transformational Global Events: Challenges Confronting America, China, and Iran. CRC Press. 2012. pp. 185–235 [198].
- ^ a b c d Jodi Vittori, Terrorist Financing and Resourcing, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011 pp. 72–74, 193 notes 50, 51.
- ^ Levitt 2006, p. 173.
- ^ Gleis & Berti 2012, p. 156.
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- Dalloul, Motasem A (December 14, 2017). "Interview with Dr Ibrahim Al-Yazouri, a founder of Hamas". Middle East Monitor.
- "Blowback: How Israel Went From Helping Create Hamas to Bombing It". The Intercept. February 19, 2018. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
- Higgins, Andrew (January 24, 2009). "How Israel Helped to Spawn Hamas". WSJ. Archived from the original on September 26, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
- Hirst, David (November 22, 1999). "Jordan curbs Hamas". The Guardian. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- Platt, Edward (August 30, 2010). "For Arabs in Israel, a house is not a home". New Statesman. Retrieved October 27, 2020.
- "The Hamas Way of Death". The New York Times. April 16, 1993.
- Rose, David (March 5, 2008). "The Proof Is in the Paper Trail". Vanity Fair. Retrieved August 1, 2011.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Data from Wikidata
- Official website (in Arabic)
- Hamas leaders CFR
- Hamas Charter
- The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) (includes interpretation)
- Hamas Shifts From Rockets to Public Relations The New York Times, July 23, 2009
- 22 years on the start of Hamas Al-Qassam Brigades' Information Office
- Fatah and Hamas Human Rights Violations in the Palestinian Occupied Territories in 2007 by Elizabeth Freed of Palestinian Human Rights Monitoring Group
- Sadiki, Larbi, Tests and contests: Hamas without Syria
- Sherifa Zuhur, Hamas and Israel: Conflicting Strategies of Group-Based Politics (PDF file) December 2008
- "Hamas threatens attacks on US: Terrorist warns 'Middle East is full of American targets'" Ynet News. December 24, 2006. Accessed July 20, 2014.