Logotipos de IBM | |
---|---|
1947-1956 | |
1956-1972 | |
Desde 1972 |
International Business Machines ( IBM ), apodada "Big Blue", es una empresa multinacional de consultoría en tecnología informática y TI con sede en Armonk, Nueva York , Estados Unidos. IBM se originó a partir de la unión de varias empresas que trabajaban para automatizar las transacciones comerciales de rutina, incluidas las primeras empresas en construir máquinas de tabulación de datos basadas en tarjetas perforadas y en construir relojes de tiempo . En 1911, estas empresas se fusionaron en Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR).
Thomas J. Watson (1874-1956) se incorporó a la empresa en 1914 como director general y se convirtió en su presidente en 1915. En 1924, la empresa cambió su nombre a "International Business Machines". IBM se expandió a máquinas de escribir eléctricas y otras máquinas de oficina. Watson era un vendedor y se concentraba en construir una fuerza de ventas muy motivada y muy bien pagada que pudiera diseñar soluciones para clientes que no estaban familiarizados con la última tecnología. Su lema era " PIENSA ". Se recomendó a los clientes que no "doblaran, hilaran o mutilen" las tarjetas de cartón. Los primeros experimentos de IBM con computadoras en las décadas de 1940 y 1950 fueron avances modestos en el sistema basado en tarjetas. Su gran avance se produjo en la década de 1960 con su familia de computadoras mainframe System / 360 . IBM ofrecía una gama completa de acuerdos de hardware, software y servicios, de modo que los usuarios, a medida que crecían sus necesidades, se quedaran con "Big Blue". Dado que la mayoría del software fue escrito a medida por programadores internos y se ejecutaría en una sola marca de computadoras, era demasiado costoso cambiar de marca. Tras ignorar a los fabricantes de clones y enfrentarse a una demanda federal antimonopolio, el gigante vendió reputación y seguridad, así como hardware, y fue la corporación estadounidense más admirada de los años setenta y ochenta.
Los últimos años de la década de 1980 y principios de la de 1990 fueron difíciles para IBM (las pérdidas en 1993 superaron los $ 8 mil millones), ya que el gigante de las computadoras centrales no logró adaptarse lo suficientemente rápido a la revolución de las computadoras personales. [1] Las máquinas de escritorio tenían la potencia necesaria y eran mucho más fáciles tanto para los usuarios como para los administradores que las computadoras centrales multimillonarias. IBM introdujo una línea popular de microcomputadoras, pero era demasiado popular. Los fabricantes de clones vendieron menos que IBM, mientras que las ganancias fueron para fabricantes de chips como Intel o empresas de software como Microsoft .
Después de una serie de reorganizaciones, IBM sigue siendo una de las empresas de informática e integradores de sistemas más grandes del mundo. [2] Con más de 400.000 empleados en todo el mundo a partir de 2014, [3] IBM tiene más patentes que cualquier otra empresa de tecnología con sede en EE. UU. Y tiene doce laboratorios de investigación en todo el mundo. [4] [5] La empresa cuenta con científicos, ingenieros, consultores y profesionales de ventas en más de 175 países. [6] Los empleados de IBM han ganado cinco premios Nobel , cuatro premios Turing , cinco medallas nacionales de tecnología y cinco medallas nacionales de ciencia . [7]
Cronología
Década de 1880-1924: el origen de IBM
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1890 | ||
1895 | ||
1900 | ||
1905 | ||
1910 | ||
1915 | 4 | 1,672 |
1920 | 14 | 2,731 |
1925 | 13 | 3.698 |
Las raíces de IBM se remontan a la década de 1880, a partir de cuatro empresas predecesoras: [8] [9] [10] [11]
- The Bundy Manufacturing Company fue el primer fabricante de relojes cronometradores . La empresa fue fundada en 1889 por Harlow Bundy en Binghamton, Nueva York .
- The Tabulating Machine Company fue el primer fabricante de máquinas de procesamiento de datos basadas en tarjetas perforadas . Herman Hollerith comenzó a construir las máquinas en 1884 y fundó la Compañía de Máquinas Tabuladoras en 1896 en Washington, DC.
- La International Time Recording Company fue fundada en 1900 por George Winthrop Fairchild en Jersey City, Nueva Jersey , y se reincorporó en 1901 en Binghamton. La empresa se trasladó en 1906 a la cercana Endicott, Nueva York .
- La Computing Scale Company of America se fundó en 1901 en Dayton, Ohio .
El 16 de junio de 1911, estas cuatro empresas se fusionaron en un nuevo holding llamado Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR), con sede en Endicott . [12] [13] [14] [15] La fusión fue diseñada por el destacado financiero Charles Flint . Flint siguió siendo miembro de la junta de CTR hasta su jubilación en 1930. [16] En el momento de la fusión, CTR tenía 1.300 empleados y oficinas y plantas en Endicott y Binghamton, Nueva York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Washington DC; y Toronto, Ontario.
Después de la fusión, las empresas individuales continuaron operando utilizando sus nombres establecidos, como subsidiarias de CTR, hasta que se eliminó la sociedad de cartera en 1933. [17] Las divisiones fabricaron una amplia gama de productos, incluidos sistemas de cronometraje para empleados, balanzas , cortadoras de carne automáticas, molinillos de café y equipos de tarjeta perforada . Las líneas de productos eran muy diferentes; Flint declaró que la consolidación "aliada":
... en lugar de depender para obtener ganancias de una sola industria, poseería tres líneas de negocio separadas y distintas, de modo que, en tiempos normales, los intereses y los fondos de amortización de sus bonos podrían obtenerse mediante cualquiera de estas líneas independientes, mientras que en En tiempos anormales, la consolidación tendría tres oportunidades en lugar de una para cumplir con sus obligaciones y pagar dividendos. [18]
De las empresas que se fusionaron para formar CTR, la más significativa tecnológicamente fue The Tabulating Machine Company , fundada por Herman Hollerith y especializada en el desarrollo de equipos de procesamiento de datos de tarjetas perforadas . La serie de patentes de Hollerith sobre tecnología de máquinas de tabulación, solicitada por primera vez en 1884, se basó en su trabajo en la Oficina del Censo de EE. UU . De 1879 a 1882. Hollerith inicialmente estaba tratando de reducir el tiempo y la complejidad necesarios para tabular el censo de 1890 . Su desarrollo de tarjetas perforadas en 1886 estableció el estándar de la industria para los próximos 80 años de tabulación y computación de entrada de datos. [19]
En 1896, The Tabulating Machine Company arrendó algunas máquinas a una empresa ferroviaria [20], pero rápidamente se centró en los desafíos del mayor esfuerzo estadístico de su época: el censo de 1900 en EE . Después de ganar el contrato con el gobierno y completar el proyecto, Hollerith se enfrentó al desafío de mantener la empresa en años sin censos. Volvió a apuntar a empresas privadas en los Estados Unidos y en el extranjero, tratando de identificar aplicaciones industriales para sus máquinas automáticas de perforación, tabulación y clasificación. En 1911, Hollerith, ahora de 51 años y con problemas de salud, vendió el negocio a Flint por $ 2,3 millones (de los cuales Hollerith obtuvo $ 1,2 millones), quien luego fundó CTR. Cuando los negocios diversificados de CTR resultaron difíciles de manejar, Flint pidió ayuda a la ex ejecutivo Nº 2 en la National Cash Register Company (NCR), Thomas J. Watson, Hna . Watson se convirtió en Gerente General de CTR en 1914 y Presidente en 1915. Basándose en su experiencia gerencial en NCR, Watson implementó rápidamente una serie de tácticas comerciales efectivas: generosos incentivos de ventas, un enfoque en el servicio al cliente, una insistencia en el cuidado y la oscuridad. - Vendedores con trajes y un fervor evangélico por inculcar el orgullo y la lealtad de la empresa en cada trabajador. A medida que la fuerza de ventas se convirtió en una rama de la empresa altamente profesional y conocedora, Watson centró su atención en proporcionar soluciones de tabulación a gran escala para empresas, dejando el mercado de productos de oficina pequeña a otros. También destacó la importancia del cliente, un principio duradero de IBM. La estrategia resultó exitosa, ya que, durante los primeros cuatro años de Watson, los ingresos se duplicaron a $ 2 millones y las operaciones de la compañía se expandieron a Europa, América del Sur, Asia y Australia.
Al timón durante este período, Watson jugó un papel central en el establecimiento de lo que se convertiría en la organización y cultura de IBM. Lanzó una serie de iniciativas que demostraron una fe inquebrantable en sus trabajadores. Contrató al primer trabajador discapacitado de la compañía en 1914, formó el primer departamento de educación de empleados de la compañía en 1916 y en 1915 presentó su eslogan favorito, " PIENSA ", que rápidamente se convirtió en el mantra corporativo. Watson impulsó el espíritu de la empresa al alentar a cualquier empleado con una queja a que se acercara a él oa cualquier otro ejecutivo de la empresa: su famosa política de puertas abiertas. También patrocinó equipos deportivos de empleados, salidas familiares y una banda de la empresa, creyendo que los empleados eran más productivos cuando contaban con el apoyo de familias y comunidades saludables y solidarias. Estas iniciativas, cada una de ellas profundamente arraigada en el sistema de valores personales de Watson, se convirtieron en aspectos centrales de la cultura de IBM durante el resto del siglo.
"A Watson nunca le había gustado el torpe título con guiones del CTR" y decidió reemplazarlo con el título más amplio "International Business Machines". [21] Primero como el nombre de una subsidiaria canadiense de 1917, luego como una línea en los anuncios. Finalmente, el 14 de febrero de 1924, el nombre se utilizó para el propio CTR.
Eventos clave
- 1890-1895: Tarjetas perforadas de Hollerith utilizadas para el censo de 1890 . Los US Census Bureau contratos para utilizar Herman Hollerith 's tecnología de tarjetas perforadas de tabulación en el 1890 Censo de Estados Unidos . Ese censo se completó en 6 años y se estima que le ahorró al gobierno $ 5 millones. [22] El censo anterior de 1880 había requerido 8 años. Los años requeridos no son directamente comparables; los dos diferían en: tamaño de la población, datos recopilados, recursos (recuento de personal de la oficina del censo, máquinas, ...) e informes preparados. La población total de 62,947,714, el recuento familiar o en bruto , se anunció después de solo seis semanas de procesamiento (las tarjetas perforadas no se usaron para esta tabulación). [23] [24] Las tarjetas perforadas de Hollerith se convierten en el estándar de tabulación de la industria para la entrada de datos durante los próximos 70 años. The Tabulating Machine Company de Hollerith se consolida más tarde en lo que se convierte en IBM.
- 1906: Hollerith Tipo I tabulador . El primer tabulador con panel de control y alimentación de tarjetas automática. [25]
- 1911: Formación . Charles Flint , un destacado organizador fiduciario, diseña la fusión de cuatro empresas: The Tabulating Machine Company , International Time Recording Company , Computing Scale Company of America y Bundy Manufacturing Company . Las empresas fusionadas fabrican y venden o alquilan maquinaria como balanzas comerciales, registradores de tiempo industriales, cortadoras de carne y queso, tabuladores y tarjetas perforadas. El nuevo holding, Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company , tiene su sede en Endicott. Incluyendo las subsidiarias fusionadas, CTR tenía 1.300 empleados con oficinas y plantas en Endicott y Binghamton, Nueva York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; y Washington, DC [26] [27]
- 1914: llega Thomas J. Watson . Thomas J. Watson Sr., una sentencia de cárcel de un año pendiente - ver NCR - es nombrado gerente general de CTR. Menos de un año después, se anuló el veredicto de la corte. Se redactó un decreto de consentimiento que Watson se negó a firmar, apostando a que no habría un nuevo juicio. Asume la presidencia de la firma el lunes 15 de marzo de 1915. [28]
- 1914: Primer empleado discapacitado . Las empresas de CTR contratan a su primer empleado discapacitado. [29]
- 1915: carteles de "PIENSA" . Los carteles "THINK", basados en el lema acuñado por Thomas J. Watson, Sr. mientras trabajaba en NCR y promovidos por John Henry Patterson (propietario de NCR), se utilizan en las empresas por primera vez. [30]
- 1916: Educación de los empleados . CTR invierte en los empleados de su subsidiaria, creando un programa educativo. Durante las próximas dos décadas, el programa se expandiría para incluir educación en administración, clubes de estudio voluntarios y la construcción de IBM Schoolhouse en 1933. [31]
- 1917: CTR en Brasil . Estrenada en Brasil en 1917, invitada por el Gobierno brasileño para realizar el censo, CTR abrió una oficina en Brasil [32]
- 1920: Tabulador de impresión First Tabulating Machine Co. Con tabuladores anteriores, los resultados se mostraban y debían copiarse a mano. [33]
- 1923: CTR Alemania . CTR adquiere la propiedad mayoritaria de la empresa de tabulación alemana Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Groupe ( Dehomag ).
- 1924: Corporación de Máquinas de Negocios Internacionales . "A Watson nunca le había gustado el torpe título con guiones de Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company" y eligió el nuevo nombre tanto por sus aspiraciones como para escapar de los confines del "aparato de oficina". El nuevo nombre se utilizó por primera vez para la subsidiaria canadiense de la compañía en 1917. El 14 de febrero de 1924, el nombre de CTR se cambió formalmente a International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). [21] Los nombres de las filiales no cambiaron; no habría productos etiquetados por IBM hasta 1933 (abajo) cuando las subsidiarias se fusionan en IBM.
1925-1929: crecimiento inicial de IBM
Nuestros productos son conocidos en todas las zonas. Nuestra reputación brilla como una joya. Hemos luchado para abrirnos camino y nuevos campos que estamos seguros de conquistar también. Para la IBM en constante evolución
- "Ever Onward", cancionero de empleados de IBM [34]
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1925 | 13 | 3.698 |
Watson impuso reglas estrictas para los empleados, incluido un código de vestimenta de trajes oscuros, camisas blancas y corbatas a rayas, y nada de alcohol, ya sea que trabajen o no. Lideró el canto en reuniones de canciones como "Ever Onward" del cancionero oficial de IBM. [34] La compañía lanzó un periódico para empleados, Business Machines, que unificó la cobertura de todos los negocios de IBM en una sola publicación. [35] IBM introdujo el Quarter Century Club, [36] para honrar a los empleados con 25 años de servicio a la empresa, y lanzó el Club del Cien Por Ciento, para recompensar al personal de ventas que cumplió con sus cuotas anuales. [37] En 1928, debutó el programa Suggestion Plan, que otorgaba recompensas en efectivo a los empleados que aportaban ideas viables sobre cómo mejorar los productos y procedimientos de IBM. [38]
IBM y sus empresas predecesoras fabricaron relojes y otros productos de registro del tiempo durante 70 años, que culminaron con la venta en 1958 de IBM Time Equipment Division a Simplex Time Recorder Company , [40] IBM fabricó y vendió equipos tales como registradores de marcación, registradores de trabajo, grabación cerraduras de puertas, sellos de tiempo y registradores de tráfico. [41] [42]
La compañía también expandió su línea de productos a través de ingeniería innovadora. Detrás de un grupo central de inventores - James W. Bryce , Clair Lake, [43] Fred Carroll, [44] y Royden Pierce [45] - IBM produjo una serie de importantes innovaciones de productos. En los años optimistas que siguieron a la Primera Guerra Mundial, el personal de ingeniería e investigación de CTR desarrolló mecanismos nuevos y mejorados para satisfacer las crecientes necesidades de sus clientes. En 1920, la empresa introdujo el primer sistema completo de control del horario escolar [46] y lanzó su primer tabulador de impresión. [47] Tres años más tarde, la compañía introdujo el primer perforador eléctrico, [48] y Carroll Rotary Press de 1924 produjo tarjetas perforadas a velocidades nunca antes vistas. [35] En 1928, la compañía celebró su primera clase de educación en ingeniería para clientes, demostrando un reconocimiento temprano de la importancia de adaptar las soluciones a las necesidades del cliente. [49] También introdujo la tarjeta perforada de 80 columnas en 1928, que duplicó su capacidad de información. [49] Este nuevo formato, pronto denominado "Tarjeta IBM", se convirtió y siguió siendo un estándar de la industria hasta la década de 1970.
Eventos clave
- 1925: primer tabulador vendido a Japón . En mayo de 1925, Morimura-Brothers firmó un acuerdo de agencia única con IBM para importar tabuladores Hollerith a Japón. El primer tabulador de Hollerith en Japón se instaló en Nippon Pottery (ahora Noritake ) en septiembre de 1925, convirtiéndose en el cliente número uno de IBM en Japón. [50] [51] [52]
- 1927: IBM Italia . IBM abre su primera oficina en Italia en Milán y comienza a vender y operar con Bancos y Seguros Nacionales.
- 1928: un tabulador que puede restar, Universidad de Columbia, tarjeta de 80 columnas . El primer tabulador de Hollerith que pudo restar, el tabulador de Hollerith Tipo IV. [53] IBM comienza su colaboración con Benjamin Wood, Wallace John Eckert y la Oficina de Estadística de la Universidad de Columbia. [54] [55] Se presenta la tarjeta perforada Hollerith de 80 columnas . Sus orificios rectangulares están patentados, lo que pone fin a la compatibilidad del proveedor (de la tarjeta anterior de 45 columnas; Remington Rand pronto introduciría una tarjeta de 90 columnas). [56]
1930-1938: la gran depresión
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1930 | 19 | 6.346 |
1935 | 21 | 8.654 |
La Gran Depresión de la década de 1930 presentó un desafío económico sin precedentes, y Watson enfrentó el desafío de frente, continuando invirtiendo en personas, manufactura e innovación tecnológica a pesar de los difíciles tiempos económicos. En lugar de reducir el personal, contrató empleados adicionales en apoyo del plan de la Administración de Recuperación Nacional del presidente Franklin Roosevelt, no solo vendedores, por los que bromeó diciendo que tenía una debilidad de por vida, sino también ingenieros. Watson no solo mantuvo a su fuerza laboral empleada, sino que también aumentó sus beneficios. IBM fue una de las primeras corporaciones en proporcionar seguros de vida grupales (1934), beneficios para sobrevivientes (1935) y vacaciones pagadas (1936). Aumentó su apuesta por su fuerza laboral al abrir IBM Schoolhouse en Endicott para brindar educación y capacitación a los empleados de IBM. Y aumentó considerablemente las capacidades de investigación de IBM mediante la construcción de un moderno laboratorio de investigación en el sitio de fabricación de Endicott.
Con toda esta inversión interna, Watson estaba, en esencia, apostando por el futuro. Fue la primera apuesta de IBM 'Bet the Company', pero el riesgo valió la pena. Las fábricas de Watson, que funcionaron a toda máquina durante seis años sin un mercado al que vender, crearon un enorme inventario de equipos de tabulación no utilizados, lo que agotó los recursos de IBM. Para reducir la fuga de efectivo, la división de escala de Dayton (el negocio de equipos de servicios de alimentos) en dificultades se vendió en 1933 a Hobart Manufacturing a cambio de existencias. [57] [58] Cuando la Ley de Seguridad Social de 1935 , etiquetada como "la mayor operación contable de todos los tiempos" [59] , se presentó a licitación, IBM fue el único postor que pudo proporcionar rápidamente el equipo necesario. La apuesta de Watson le supuso a la empresa un contrato gubernamental histórico para mantener los registros de empleo de 26 millones de personas. El desempeño exitoso de IBM en el contrato pronto condujo a otras órdenes gubernamentales, y para el final de la década, IBM no solo había negociado con seguridad la Depresión, sino que se había elevado a la vanguardia de la industria. La decisión de Watson durante la era de la Depresión de invertir fuertemente en desarrollo técnico y capacidades de ventas, educación para expandir la amplitud de esas capacidades y su compromiso con la línea de productos de procesamiento de datos sentó las bases para 50 años de crecimiento y éxitos de IBM.
Su enfoque declarado en la expansión internacional demostró ser un componente igualmente clave del crecimiento y el éxito de la empresa en el siglo XX. Watson, habiendo sido testigo de los estragos que la Primera Guerra Mundial causó en la sociedad y los negocios, imaginó el comercio como un obstáculo para la guerra. Consideraba que los intereses comerciales y la paz eran mutuamente compatibles. De hecho, estaba tan convencido de la conexión entre los dos que hizo grabar su eslogan "Paz mundial a través del comercio mundial" en el exterior de la nueva sede mundial de IBM (1938) en la ciudad de Nueva York. [60] El eslogan se convirtió en un mantra empresarial de IBM, y Watson hizo campaña incansable por el concepto con líderes empresariales y gubernamentales globales. Se desempeñó como anfitrión gubernamental informal y no oficial para los líderes mundiales cuando visitaron Nueva York y recibió numerosos premios de gobiernos extranjeros por sus esfuerzos para mejorar las relaciones internacionales a través de la formación de lazos comerciales.
Eventos clave
- 1931: La primera máquina de tarjetas perforadas Hollerith que podía multiplicarse, la primera máquina de contabilidad alfabética Hollerith . El Puñetazo Multiplicador Hollerith 600. [61] La primera máquina de contabilidad alfabética Hollerith - aunque no es un alfabeto completo, el modelo B del tabulador alfabético fue seguido rápidamente por el alfabeto completo ATC. [56]
- 1931: supermáquina informática . El término Super Computing Machine es utilizado por el periódico New York World para describir el Columbia Difference Tabulator , una máquina única basada en tabuladores de propósito especial fabricada para la Oficina de Estadística de Columbia, una máquina tan masiva que fue apodada Packard . [62] [63] El Packard atrajo a usuarios de todo el país: "la Fundación Carnegie, Yale, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Ohio State, Harvard, California y Princeton". [64]
- 1933: Las empresas subsidiarias se fusionan en IBM . El nombre de Tabulating Machine Company, y otros, desaparecen cuando las empresas subsidiarias se fusionan con IBM. [65] [66]
- 1933: Paneles de control extraíbles . IBM presenta paneles de control extraíbles. [67]
- 1933: semana de 40 horas . IBM presenta la semana de 40 horas para las ubicaciones de fabricación y oficinas.
- 1933: Electromatic máquina de escribir Co. comprado . Las máquinas de escribir eléctricas, adquiridas principalmente para conseguir importantes patentes en manos de IBM de forma segura , se convertirían en uno de los productos más conocidos de IBM. [68] En 1958, IBM obtenía el 8% de sus ingresos de la venta de máquinas de escribir eléctricas. [69]
- 1934 - Seguro de vida colectivo . IBM crea un plan de seguro de vida grupal para todos los empleados con al menos un año de servicio. [70]
- 1934: Eliminación del trabajo a destajo . Watson, Sr., asigna un salario a los empleados de la fábrica de IBM, eliminando el trabajo a destajo y brindando a los empleados y sus familias un grado adicional de estabilidad económica. [71]
- 1934: IBM 801 . Se presenta la máquina IBM 801 Bank Proof para compensar cheques bancarios. Un nuevo tipo de máquina de prueba, la 801 enumera y separa los cheques, los respalda y registra los totales. Mejora drásticamente la eficiencia del proceso de compensación de cheques. [72]
- 1935: Administración del Seguro Social . Durante la Gran Depresión, IBM mantiene sus fábricas produciendo nuevas máquinas incluso cuando la demanda es escasa. Cuando el Congreso aprueba la Ley de Seguridad Social en 1935, IBM, con su exceso de inventario, está en consecuencia en posición de ganar el histórico contrato con el gobierno, que se llama "la mayor operación contable de todos los tiempos". [73]
- 1936: La Corte Suprema dictamina que IBM solo puede establecer especificaciones de tarjetas perforadas . IBM inicialmente requería que sus clientes usaran solo tarjetas fabricadas por IBM con máquinas IBM, que fueron arrendadas, no vendidas. IBM consideraba que su negocio era proporcionar un servicio y que las tarjetas eran parte de la máquina. En 1932, el gobierno llevó a IBM a los tribunales por este tema. IBM luchó hasta llegar a la Corte Suprema y perdió en 1936; el fallo judicial de que IBM solo podía establecer especificaciones de tarjetas. [74]
- 1937: Computación científica . El centro de datos de la máquina de tabulación establecido en la Universidad de Columbia, dedicado a la investigación científica, se llama Oficina de Computación Astronómica Thomas J. Watson . [75]
- 1937: El primer alzador, el IBM 077 Collator . [76]
- 1937: IBM produce de 5 a 10 millones de tarjetas perforadas todos los días . Para 1937 ... IBM tenía 32 prensas en funcionamiento en Endicott, NY, imprimiendo, cortando y apilando de cinco a 10 millones de tarjetas perforadas todos los días. [77]
- 1937: máquina de puntuación de prueba IBM 805 . De IBM Rey Johnson diseña el IBM 805 Prueba de la máquina que anota para acelerar enormemente el proceso de calificación de exámenes. La innovadora tecnología de detección de marcas de lápiz del 805 da lugar a la frase omnipresente "Por favor, complete completamente el óvalo". [78]
- 1937: conferencia de Berlín . Como presidente de la Cámara de Comercio Internacional , Watson Sr., preside el 9º Congreso de la ICC en Berlín. Mientras está allí, acepta una cruz al mérito del águila alemana con la medalla de estrella del gobierno nazi en honor a sus actividades en nombre de la paz mundial y el comercio internacional (más tarde la devolvió). [79] [80]
- 1937: vacaciones pagadas, vacaciones pagadas . IBM anuncia una política de pago a los empleados por seis vacaciones anuales y se convierte en una de las primeras empresas estadounidenses en otorgar pago por vacaciones. También comienzan las vacaciones pagadas ". [81]
- 1937: IBM Japón . Se estableció Japón Wattoson Statistics Accounting Machinery Co., Ltd. (日本 ワ ッ ト ソ ン 統計 会計 機械 株式会社, ahora IBM Japón). [51]
- 1938: Nueva sede . Cuando IBM dedica su nueva sede mundial en 590 Madison Avenue, Nueva York, Nueva York, en enero de 1938, la compañía tiene operaciones en 79 países. [60]
1939-1945: Segunda Guerra Mundial
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1940 | 45 | 12,656 |
1945 | 138 | 18,257 |
En las décadas previas al inicio de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, IBM tenía operaciones en muchos países que estarían involucrados en la guerra, tanto del lado de los Aliados como del Eje. IBM tenía una filial lucrativa en Alemania, de la que era propietaria mayoritaria, así como operaciones en Polonia, Suiza y otros países de Europa. Como ocurre con la mayoría de las otras empresas propiedad del enemigo en los países del Eje, estas filiales fueron tomadas por los nazis y otros gobiernos del Eje al principio de la guerra. Mientras tanto, la sede en Nueva York trabajó para ayudar al esfuerzo de guerra estadounidense.
IBM en América
La línea de productos de IBM [82] pasó de equipos de tabulación y dispositivos de registro de tiempo a miradores de bombas Sperry y Norden , el rifle automático Browning y la carabina M1 , y piezas de motor; en total, más de tres docenas de artículos de artillería importantes y 70 productos en total. Watson estableció una ganancia nominal del uno por ciento en esos productos y utilizó las ganancias para establecer un fondo para las viudas y los huérfanos de las víctimas de la guerra de IBM. [83]
Las fuerzas militares aliadas utilizaron ampliamente el equipo de tabulación de IBM para unidades móviles de registros, balística, contabilidad y logística, y otros fines relacionados con la guerra. Hubo un uso extensivo de las máquinas de tarjetas perforadas de IBM para los cálculos realizados en Los Alamos durante el Proyecto Manhattan para el desarrollo de las primeras bombas atómicas . [84] Durante la guerra, IBM también construyó la Calculadora Automática Controlada por Secuencia, también conocida como Harvard Mark I para la Marina de los Estados Unidos, la primera calculadora electromecánica a gran escala en los Estados Unidos.
En 1933, IBM había adquirido los derechos de Radiotype, una máquina de escribir IBM Electric conectada a un transmisor de radio. [85] "En 1935, el almirante Richard E. Byrd envió con éxito un mensaje de prueba de Radiotype a 11.000 millas de la Antártida a una estación receptora de IBM en Ridgewood, Nueva Jersey" [86] Seleccionado por el Cuerpo de Señales para su uso durante la guerra, las instalaciones de Radiotype se gestionaron a 50.000.000 de palabras al día. [87]
Para satisfacer las demandas de productos durante la guerra, IBM amplió enormemente su capacidad de fabricación. IBM añadió nuevos edificios en su planta de Endicott , Nueva York (1941) y abrió nuevas instalaciones en Poughkeepsie, Nueva York (1941), Washington, DC (1942), [88] y San José, California (1943). [89] La decisión de IBM de establecer una presencia en la costa oeste aprovechó la creciente base de investigación en electrónica y otras innovaciones de alta tecnología en la parte sur del Área de la Bahía de San Francisco, un área que llegó a ser conocida muchas décadas más tarde como Silicon. Valle .
IBM fue, a petición del gobierno, el subcontratista del proyecto de tarjetas perforadas de los campos de internamiento japoneses . [90]
El equipo de IBM fue utilizado para criptografía por organizaciones del Ejército y la Marina de los EE. UU., Arlington Hall y OP-20-G y organizaciones aliadas similares que utilizan tarjetas perforadas Hollerith ( Oficina Central y Oficina Combinada del Lejano Oriente ).
IBM en Alemania y la Europa ocupada por los nazis
Los nazis hicieron un uso extensivo del equipo de Hollerith y la subsidiaria alemana de propiedad mayoritaria de IBM, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen GmbH (Dehomag), suministró este equipo desde principios de la década de 1930. Este equipo fue fundamental para los esfuerzos nazis de categorizar a los ciudadanos tanto de Alemania como de otras naciones que cayeron bajo el control nazi a través de censos en curso. Estos datos del censo se utilizaron para facilitar la redada de judíos y otros grupos objetivo, y para catalogar sus movimientos a través de la maquinaria del Holocausto , incluido el internamiento en los campos de concentración.
Al igual que con cientos de empresas de propiedad extranjera que operaban en Alemania en ese momento, Dehomag quedó bajo el control de las autoridades nazis antes y durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Un nazi, Hermann Fellinger, fue designado por los alemanes como custodio de la propiedad del enemigo y puesto a la cabeza de la subsidiaria Dehomag.
El historiador y autor Edwin Black , en su libro más vendido sobre el tema, sostiene que la incautación de la filial alemana fue una artimaña. Escribe: "La empresa no fue saqueada, sus máquinas alquiladas no fueron incautadas y [IBM] siguió recibiendo dinero canalizado a través de su subsidiaria en Ginebra". [91] En su libro, sostiene que IBM fue un proveedor activo y entusiasta del régimen nazi mucho después de que deberían haber dejado de tratar con ellos. Incluso después de la invasión de Polonia , IBM continuó prestando servicios y expandiendo sus servicios al Tercer Reich en Polonia y Alemania. [91] La incautación de IBM se produjo después de Pearl Harbor y la Declaración de Guerra de Estados Unidos, en 1941.
IBM respondió que el libro se basaba en hechos y documentos "bien conocidos" que previamente había puesto a disposición del público y que no había nuevos hechos o hallazgos. [92] IBM también negó haber retenido documentos relevantes. [93] Escribiendo en el New York Times, Richard Bernstein argumentó que Black exagera la culpabilidad de IBM. [94]
Eventos clave
- 1942: Formación para discapacitados . IBM lanza un programa para capacitar y emplear a personas discapacitadas en Topeka , Kansas. Las clases del próximo año comienzan en la ciudad de Nueva York, y pronto se le pide a la compañía que se una al Comité del Presidente para el Empleo de Discapacitados. [95]
- 1943: Primera vicepresidenta . IBM nombra a su primera vicepresidenta. [96]
- 1944: ASCC . IBM presenta la primera computadora de cálculo a gran escala del mundo, la Calculadora de control de secuencia automática ( ASCC ). Diseñado en colaboración con la Universidad de Harvard, el ASCC, también conocido como Mark I, utiliza relés electromecánicos para resolver problemas de suma en menos de un segundo, multiplicación en seis segundos y división en 12 segundos. [97]
- 1944: United Negro College Fund . El presidente de IBM, Thomas J. Watson, Sr., se une al Comité Asesor del United Negro College Fund (UNCF), e IBM contribuye a los esfuerzos de recaudación de fondos de UNCF. [98]
- 1945: primer laboratorio de investigación de IBM . La primera instalación de investigación de IBM, el Laboratorio de Computación Científica Watson, se abre en una fraternidad renovada cerca de la Universidad de Columbia en Manhattan. En 1961, IBM traslada su sede de investigación al Centro de Investigación TJ Watson en Yorktown Heights, Nueva York. [99]
1946-1959: recuperación de la posguerra, auge de la informática empresarial, exploración espacial, la Guerra Fría
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1950 | 266 | 30,261 |
1955 | 696 | 56,297 |
1960 | 1.810 | 104,241 |
IBM se había expandido tanto al final de la guerra que la empresa se enfrentaba a una situación potencialmente difícil: ¿qué pasaría si el gasto militar se reducía drásticamente? Una forma en que IBM abordó esa preocupación fue acelerar su crecimiento internacional en los años posteriores a la guerra, que culminó con la formación de la World Trade Corporation en 1949 para administrar y hacer crecer sus operaciones en el extranjero. Bajo el liderazgo del hijo menor de Watson, Arthur K. 'Dick' Watson, el WTC eventualmente produciría la mitad de los resultados de IBM en la década de 1970.
A pesar de presentar su primera computadora un año después del UNIVAC de Remington Rand en 1951, en cinco años IBM tenía el 85% del mercado. Un ejecutivo de UNIVAC se quejó de que "no sirve de mucho construir una mejor trampa para ratones si el otro tipo que vende trampas para ratones tiene cinco veces más vendedores". [34] Con la muerte del Padre Fundador Thomas J. Watson, Sr. el 19 de junio de 1956 a la edad de 82 años, IBM experimentó su primer cambio de liderazgo en más de cuatro décadas. El manto de director ejecutivo recayó en su hijo mayor, Thomas J. Watson, Jr. , Presidente de IBM desde 1952.
El nuevo director ejecutivo se enfrentó a una tarea abrumadora. La empresa se encontraba en medio de un período de rápidos cambios tecnológicos, con tecnologías informáticas nacientes (computadoras electrónicas, almacenamiento en cinta magnética, unidades de disco, programación) que creaban nuevos competidores e incertidumbres en el mercado. Internamente, la empresa estaba creciendo a pasos agigantados, creando presiones organizativas y desafíos de gestión importantes. Al carecer de la fuerza de personalidad que Watson Sr. había utilizado durante mucho tiempo para unir a IBM, Watson Jr. y sus altos ejecutivos se preguntaban en privado si la nueva generación de liderazgo estaba a la altura del desafío de administrar una empresa durante este período tumultuoso. [100] "Estamos", escribió un antiguo ejecutivo de IBM en 1956, "en grave peligro de perder nuestros valores" eternos "que son tan válidos en los días electrónicos como en los contadores mecánicos".
Watson Jr. respondió reestructurando drásticamente la organización pocos meses después de la muerte de su padre, creando una estructura de gestión moderna que le permitió supervisar más eficazmente la empresa en rápido movimiento. [101] Codificó prácticas y filosofía de IBM bien conocidas pero no escritas en políticas y programas corporativos formales, como las Tres Creencias Básicas de IBM y Open Door and Speak Up! Quizás el más significativo fue su guía de la primera carta de política de igualdad de oportunidades de la compañía en existencia en 1953, un año antes de la decisión de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos en Brown vs. Board of Education y 11 años antes de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964 . [102] Continuó expandiendo las capacidades físicas de la empresa: en 1952 IBM San José lanzó un laboratorio de desarrollo de almacenamiento que fue pionero en las unidades de disco. Más tarde seguirían instalaciones importantes en Rochester, Minnesota; Greencastle, Indiana; Kingston, Nueva York; y Lexington, Kentucky. Preocupado porque IBM tardó demasiado en adaptar la tecnología de transistores, Watson solicitó una política corporativa con respecto a su uso, lo que resultó en esta declaración inequívoca de política de desarrollo de productos de 1957: "Será política de IBM utilizar circuitos de estado sólido en todos los desarrollos de máquinas. Además, no se anunciarán nuevas máquinas o dispositivos comerciales que utilicen principalmente circuitos de tubos ". [103]
Watson Jr. también continuó asociándose con el gobierno de los Estados Unidos para impulsar la innovación computacional. El surgimiento de la Guerra Fría aceleró la creciente conciencia del gobierno sobre la importancia de la informática digital e impulsó importantes proyectos de desarrollo informático apoyados por el Departamento de Defensa en la década de 1950. De estos, ninguno era más importante que el sistema de defensa aérea de detección temprana del interceptor SAGE .
En 1952, IBM comenzó a trabajar con el Laboratorio Lincoln del MIT para finalizar el diseño de una computadora de defensa aérea. La fusión de las culturas de ingeniería académica y empresarial resultó problemática, pero las dos organizaciones finalmente elaboraron un diseño en el verano de 1953, e IBM se adjudicó el contrato para construir dos prototipos en septiembre. [104] En 1954, IBM fue nombrado como el principal contratista de hardware para el desarrollo de SAGE para la Fuerza Aérea de los Estados Unidos. Al trabajar en este enorme sistema informático y de comunicaciones, IBM obtuvo acceso a una investigación pionera que se estaba realizando en el Instituto de Tecnología de Massachusetts sobre la primera computadora digital en tiempo real. Esto incluyó trabajar en muchos otros avances de la tecnología informática, como la memoria de núcleo magnético , un gran sistema operativo en tiempo real, una pantalla de video integrada , pistolas de luz , el primer lenguaje informático algebraico efectivo, conversión de analógico a digital y de digital a analógico. técnicas, transmisión de datos digitales a través de líneas telefónicas , duplexación , multiprocesamiento y redes distribuidas geográficamente . IBM construyó cincuenta y seis computadoras SAGE al precio de US $ 30 millones cada una, y en el pico del proyecto dedicó más de 7,000 empleados (20% de su fuerza laboral en ese momento) al proyecto. SAGE tuvo la huella informática más grande de la historia y continuó en servicio hasta 1984. [105]
Sin embargo, más valioso para IBM a largo plazo que las ganancias de los proyectos gubernamentales fue el acceso a la investigación de vanguardia en computadoras digitales que se realizaba bajo los auspicios militares. Sin embargo, IBM se olvidó de ganar un papel aún más dominante en la industria naciente al permitir que RAND Corporation se hiciera cargo del trabajo de programación de las nuevas computadoras, porque, según un participante del proyecto, Robert P. Crago, "no pudimos imagínense dónde podríamos absorber a dos mil programadores en IBM cuando este trabajo terminaría algún día, lo que demuestra lo bien que estábamos entendiendo el futuro en ese momento ". [106] IBM utilizaría su experiencia en el diseño de redes masivas integradas en tiempo real con SAGE para diseñar su sistema de reserva de aerolíneas SABRE , que tuvo mucho éxito.
Estas asociaciones gubernamentales, combinadas con la investigación pionera en tecnología informática y una serie de productos comercialmente exitosos (la serie 700 de sistemas informáticos de IBM, el IBM 650, el IBM 305 RAMAC (con memoria de unidad de disco) y el IBM 1401) permitieron a IBM emerger de la década de 1950 como la empresa de tecnología líder en el mundo. Watson Jr. había respondido a sus dudas sobre sí mismo. En los cinco años transcurridos desde el fallecimiento de Watson Sr., IBM era dos veces y media más grande, su stock se había quintuplicado y de las 6000 computadoras en funcionamiento en los Estados Unidos, más de 4000 eran máquinas IBM. [107]
Eventos clave
- 1946: IBM 603 . IBM anuncia IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, el primer producto comercial que incorpora circuitos aritméticos electrónicos. El 603 usaba tubos de vacío para realizar la multiplicación mucho más rápidamente que los dispositivos electromecánicos anteriores. Había comenzado su desarrollo como parte de un programa para hacer una "supercalculadora" que funcionaría más rápido que el IBM ASCC de 1944 mediante el uso de componentes electrónicos. [108]
- 1946: máquina de escribir de caracteres chinos . IBM presenta una máquina de escribir eléctrica de caracteres ideográficos chinos, que permite a un usuario experimentado escribir a una velocidad de 40 a 45 palabras chinas por minuto. La máquina utiliza un cilindro en el que están grabadas 5.400 tipos de caracteres ideográficos. [109]
- 1946: Primer vendedor negro . IBM contrata a su primer vendedor negro, 18 años antes de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964 . [110]
- 1948: IBM SSEC . Se anuncia la primera máquina calculadora digital a gran escala de IBM, la Calculadora Electrónica de Secuencia Selectiva. El SSEC es la primera computadora que puede modificar un programa almacenado y contó con 12,000 tubos de vacío y 21,000 relés electromecánicos. [111]
- Década de 1950: exploración espacial . Desde el desarrollo de tablas de balística durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial hasta el diseño y desarrollo de misiles intercontinentales y el lanzamiento y seguimiento de satélites y vuelos espaciales tripulados lunares y de transbordadores, IBM ha sido contratista de la NASA y la industria aeroespacial. [112]
- 1952: IBM 701 . IBM lanza su sombrero al círculo empresarial de la informática al presentar el 701, su primer ordenador electrónico a gran escala fabricado en grandes cantidades. El 701, recordó más tarde el presidente de IBM, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., es "la máquina que nos llevó al negocio de la electrónica". [113]
- 1952: Columna de vacío de cinta magnética . IBM presenta la columna de vacío con unidad de cinta magnética , lo que hace posible que la cinta magnética frágil se convierta en un medio de almacenamiento de datos viable. El uso de la columna de vacío en el sistema IBM 701 señala el comienzo de la era del almacenamiento magnético, ya que la tecnología se adopta ampliamente en toda la industria. [114]
- 1952: Primer laboratorio de investigación de California . IBM abre su primer laboratorio de la costa oeste en San José, California: el área que décadas más tarde se conocerá como " Silicon Valley ". En cuatro años, el laboratorio comienza a dejar su huella al inventar la unidad de disco duro . [113]
- 1953: Carta de política de igualdad de oportunidades . Thomas J. Watson, Jr., publica la primera carta escrita de política de igualdad de oportunidades de la compañía: un año antes de la decisión de la Corte Suprema de los EE. UU. En Brown vs. Board of Education y 11 años antes de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964 . [102]
- 1953: IBM 650 . IBM anuncia la máquina de procesamiento de datos de tambor magnético IBM 650, una computadora electrónica de tamaño intermedio, para manejar cálculos comerciales y científicos. Un éxito tanto en universidades como en empresas, fue la computadora más popular de la década de 1950. En 1962 se comercializaron casi 2.000 IBM 650. [115]
- 1954: NORC . IBM desarrolla y construye la computadora electrónica más rápida y poderosa de su tiempo: la Computadora de Investigación de Artillería Naval (NORC): para la Oficina de Artillería de la Marina de los EE. UU . [116]
- 1956: Primera unidad de disco duro magnética . IBM presenta el primer disco duro magnético del mundo para almacenamiento de datos. El IBM 305 RAMAC (Método de acceso aleatorio de contabilidad y control) ofrece un rendimiento sin precedentes al permitir el acceso aleatorio a cualquiera de los millones de caracteres distribuidos en ambos lados de 50 discos de dos pies de diámetro. Producido en California, el primer disco duro de IBM almacenaba alrededor de 2000 bits de datos por pulgada cuadrada y costaba alrededor de $ 10,000 por megabyte. En 1997, el costo de almacenar un megabyte se había reducido a alrededor de diez centavos. [117]
- 1956: Decreto de consentimiento . El Departamento de Justicia de los Estados Unidos promulga un decreto por consentimiento contra IBM en 1956 para evitar que la compañía se convierta en un monopolio en el mercado de las máquinas de tabulación de tarjetas perforadas y, más tarde, de procesamiento electrónico de datos. El decreto requiere que IBM venda sus computadoras, así como las arriende, y dé servicio y venda partes para computadoras que IBM ya no posee. [118]
- 1956: Diseño corporativo . A mediados de la década de 1950, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., quedó impresionado por lo mal que IBM manejaba el diseño corporativo. Contrató al consultor de diseño Eliot Noyes para supervisar la creación de un Programa de Diseño Corporativo formal y le encargó a Noyes la creación de una apariencia y una sensación consistentes y de clase mundial en IBM. Durante las siguientes dos décadas, Noyes contrató a una gran cantidad de arquitectos, diseñadores y artistas influyentes para diseñar productos, estructuras, exhibiciones y gráficos de IBM. La lista de contactos de Noyes incluye figuras icónicas como Eero Saarinen , Marcel Breuer , Mies van der Rohe , John Bolles , Paul Rand , Isamu Noguchi y Alexander Calder . [119]
- 1956: Primer laboratorio de investigación europeo . IBM abre su primer laboratorio de investigación fuera de Estados Unidos, en la ciudad suiza de Zurich . [120]
- 1956: Cambio de manos . Watson Sr. se retira y le entrega IBM a su hijo, Watson Jr. Senior muere poco después. [121]
- 1956: conferencia de Williamsburg . Watson Jr. reunió a unos 100 altos ejecutivos de IBM para una reunión especial de tres días en Williamsburg, Virginia. La reunión dio como resultado una nueva estructura organizativa que contó con un comité de gestión corporativa de seis miembros y delegó más autoridad al liderazgo de la unidad de negocios. Fue la primera reunión importante que IBM había celebrado sin Thomas J. Watson Sr., y marcó el surgimiento de la segunda generación de líderes de IBM. [122]
- 1956: Inteligencia artificial . Arthur L. Samuel , del laboratorio de IBM en Poughkeepsie, Nueva York, programa un IBM 704 para jugar a las damas (borradores en inglés) utilizando un método en el que la máquina puede "aprender" de su propia experiencia. Se cree que es el primer programa de "autoaprendizaje", una demostración del concepto de inteligencia artificial. [123]
- 1957: FORTRAN . IBM revoluciona la programación con la introducción de FORTRAN (Formula Translator), que pronto se convierte en el lenguaje de programación de computadoras más utilizado para trabajos técnicos. FORTRAN sigue siendo la base de muchos programas importantes de análisis numérico. [124]
- 1958: SABIO AN / FSQ-7 . La computadora SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) AN / FSQ-7 se construye bajo contrato con el Laboratorio Lincoln del MIT para el Sistema de Defensa Aérea de América del Norte. [125]
- 1958: La división de equipos de tiempo nacional de IBM se vende a Simplex . IBM anuncia la venta de la división de equipos de tiempo nacional (relojes y otros) a Simplex Time Recorder Company. La fuerza de servicio de equipos de tiempo de IBM se transferirá a la División de máquinas de escribir eléctricas. [126]
- 1958: Programa de puertas abiertas . Implementado por primera vez por Watson, Sr., en la década de 1910, la puerta abierta era una práctica tradicional de la empresa que concedía a los empleados audiencias de quejas con altos ejecutivos, hasta Watson Sr. IBM formalizó esta práctica en política en 1958 con la creación de la Programa de puertas abiertas. [127]
- 1959: ¡Habla! Otro ejemplo de la voluntad de IBM de solicitar y actuar sobre la retroalimentación de los empleados, el Speak Up! El programa se creó por primera vez en San José. [128]
- 1959: IBM 1401 . IBM presenta 1401, la primera computadora transistorizada de alto volumen, programa almacenado, memoria central. Su versatilidad para ejecutar aplicaciones empresariales de todo tipo lo ayudó a convertirse en el modelo de computadora más popular del mundo a principios de la década de 1960. [129]
- 1959: IBM 1403 . IBM presenta la impresora de cadena 1403, que inicia la era de la impresión de impacto de gran volumen y alta velocidad. La 1403 no será superada en calidad de impresión hasta el advenimiento de la impresión láser en la década de 1970. [130]
1960–1969: la era System / 360, desagregación de software y servicios
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1955 | 696 | 56,297 |
1960 | 1.810 | 104,241 |
1965 | 3.750 | 172,445 |
1970 | 7.500 | 269,291 |
El 7 de abril de 1964, IBM presentó el revolucionario System / 360 , la primera gran "familia" de computadoras en utilizar software intercambiable y equipos periféricos, una desviación de la línea de productos existente de IBM de máquinas incompatibles, cada una de las cuales fue diseñada para resolver clientes específicos. requisitos. [131] La idea de una máquina de uso general se consideró una apuesta en ese momento. [132]
En dos años, el System / 360 se convirtió en el mainframe dominante en el mercado y su arquitectura se convirtió en un estándar industrial de facto. Durante este tiempo, IBM se transformó de un fabricante de tamaño mediano de equipos de tabulación y máquinas de escribir a la compañía de computadoras más grande del mundo. [133]
En 1969, IBM "separó" el software y los servicios de las ventas de hardware. Hasta ese momento, los clientes no pagaban por el software o los servicios por separado del precio muy alto del hardware. El software se proporcionó sin cargo adicional, generalmente en forma de código fuente. Los servicios (ingeniería de sistemas, educación y capacitación, instalación de sistemas) se proporcionaron sin cargo a discreción de la sucursal de IBM. Esta práctica existió en toda la industria. La separación de IBM es ampliamente reconocida por haber conducido al crecimiento de la industria del software. [134] [135] [136] [137] Después de la separación, el software de IBM se dividió en dos categorías principales: Programación de control del sistema (SCP), que seguía siendo gratuito para los clientes, y Productos de programa (PP), por los que se cobraba. Esto transformó la propuesta de valor del cliente para las soluciones informáticas, dando un valor monetario significativo a algo que hasta entonces había sido esencialmente gratuito. Esto ayudó a permitir la creación de la industria del software. De manera similar, los servicios de IBM se dividieron en dos categorías: información general, que permaneció gratuita y se proporcionó a discreción de IBM, y asistencia en el trabajo y capacitación del personal del cliente, que estaban sujetos a un cargo separado y estaban abiertos a personas ajenas a él. Clientes de IBM. Esta decisión amplió enormemente el mercado de empresas de servicios informáticos independientes.
La compañía comenzó cuatro décadas de patrocinio olímpico con los Juegos de Invierno de 1960 en Squaw Valley, California. Se convirtió en un líder reconocido en responsabilidad social corporativa, se unió a los programas federales de igualdad de oportunidades en 1962, abrió una planta de fabricación en el centro de la ciudad en 1968 y creó un programa de proveedores minoritarios. Lideró los esfuerzos para mejorar la seguridad de los datos y proteger la privacidad. Estableció estándares de emisiones ambientales al aire / agua que excedían los dictados por la ley y logró que todas sus instalaciones cumplieran con esos estándares. Abrió uno de los centros de investigación más avanzados del mundo en Yorktown, Nueva York. Sus operaciones internacionales crecieron rápidamente, produciendo más de la mitad de los ingresos de IBM a principios de la década de 1970 y, a través de la transferencia de tecnología, dieron forma a la forma en que los gobiernos y las empresas operaban en todo el mundo. Su personal y tecnología desempeñaron un papel integral en el programa espacial y el aterrizaje de los primeros hombres en la luna en 1969. Ese mismo año, cambió la forma en que comercializaba su tecnología a los clientes, separando el hardware del software y los servicios, lanzando de manera efectiva los miles de millones de hoy. -industria de software y servicios en dólares. Consulte la separación de software y servicios a continuación. Fue enormemente rentable, con un aumento de casi cinco veces en ingresos y ganancias durante la década de 1960.
En 1967, Thomas John Watson, Jr. , quien había sucedido a su padre como presidente, anunció que IBM abriría una planta de fabricación a gran escala en Boca Raton para producir su computadora de tamaño mediano System / 360 Modelo 20. El 16 de marzo de 1967, un titular en Boca Raton News [138] anunciaba "IBM contratará 400 para fin de año". El plan era que IBM alquilara instalaciones para comenzar a fabricar computadoras hasta que se pudiera desarrollar el nuevo sitio. Unos meses más tarde, comenzó la contratación de aprendices de control de montaje y producción. Juan Rianda de IBM se mudó de Poughkeepsie, Nueva York, para convertirse en el primer gerente de planta en las nuevas operaciones de Boca de IBM. Para diseñar su nuevo campus, IBM encargó al arquitecto de renombre internacional Marcel Breuer (1902-1981), quien trabajó en estrecha colaboración con el arquitecto estadounidense Robert Gatje (1927-2018). En septiembre de 1967, el equipo de Boca celebró un hito al enviar su primer IBM System / 360 Model 20 a la ciudad de Clearwater, la primera computadora en su producción. Un año después, los sistemas informáticos IBM 1130 se estaban produciendo y enviando desde el edificio 203. Para 1969, la fuerza laboral de IBM en Boca había llegado a 1,000. Ese número de empleos creció a alrededor de 1.300 en el próximo año cuando se agregó un Laboratorio de Ingeniería de Desarrollo de Sistemas a las operaciones de la división.
Eventos clave
- 1961: IBM 7030 Stretch . IBM entrega su primera supercomputadora 7030 Stretch. Stretch no alcanza sus objetivos de diseño originales y no es un éxito comercial. Pero es un producto visionario que es pionero en numerosas tecnologías informáticas revolucionarias que pronto serán ampliamente adoptadas por la industria informática. [139] [140]
- 1961: Centro de Investigación Thomas J. Watson . IBM traslada su sede de investigación de Poughkeepsie, NY al condado de Westchester, NY, abriendo el Centro de Investigación Thomas J. Watson, que sigue siendo la instalación de investigación más grande de IBM, centrada en semiconductores, informática, ciencias físicas y matemáticas. El laboratorio que IBM estableció en la Universidad de Columbia en 1945 se cerró y se trasladó al laboratorio de Yorktown Heights en 1970. [141]
- 1961: máquina de escribir IBM Selectric . IBM presenta la línea de productos de máquinas de escribir Selectric. Los modelos posteriores de Selectric cuentan con memoria, dando lugar a los conceptos de procesamiento de texto y autoedición. La máquina ganó numerosos premios por su diseño y funcionalidad. Selectrics y sus descendientes acapararon finalmente el 75 por ciento del mercado estadounidense de máquinas de escribir eléctricas utilizadas en los negocios. [142] IBM reemplazó la línea Selectric por IBM Wheelwriter en 1984 y transfirió su negocio de máquinas de escribir a la recién creada Lexmark en 1991. [143]
- 1961: Generador de programas de informes . IBM ofrece su Report Program Generator, una aplicación que permite a los usuarios de IBM 1401 producir informes. Esta capacidad fue ampliamente adoptada en toda la industria, convirtiéndose en una característica que se ofrece en las generaciones posteriores de computadoras. Desempeñó un papel importante en la introducción exitosa de computadoras en las pequeñas empresas. [144]
- 1962: Creencias básicas . Basándose en las políticas establecidas de IBM, Thomas J. Watson, Jr. , Codifica tres creencias básicas de IBM: respeto por el individuo, servicio al cliente y excelencia. [145]
- 1962: SABRE . Dos mainframes IBM 7090 formaron la columna vertebral del sistema de reservas SABRE de American Airlines. Como el primer sistema de reservaciones de aerolíneas que funciona en vivo a través de líneas telefónicas, SABRE vinculó computadoras de alta velocidad y comunicaciones de datos para manejar el inventario de asientos y los registros de pasajeros. [146]
- 1964: IBM System / 360 . En el anuncio de producto más importante en la historia de la compañía hasta la fecha, IBM presenta IBM System / 360: un nuevo concepto en computadoras que crea una "familia" de computadoras pequeñas a grandes, incorporando microelectrónica IBM Solid Logic Technology (SLT) y utilizando la misma instrucciones de programación. El concepto de una "familia" compatible de computadoras transforma la industria. [147]
- 1964: Procesamiento de textos . IBM presenta IBM Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter , un producto que fue pionero en la aplicación de dispositivos de grabación magnéticos a la mecanografía y dio lugar al procesamiento de texto de escritorio. Conocida entonces como "mecanografía avanzada", la función de revisar el texto almacenado mejoró la eficiencia de la oficina al permitir que los mecanógrafos escribieran a la velocidad de "borrador" sin la presión de preocuparse por los errores. [148]
- 1964: Nueva sede corporativa . IBM traslada su sede corporativa de la ciudad de Nueva York a Armonk, Nueva York. [149]
- 1965: vuelos espaciales de Géminis . En todos los vuelos espaciales Gemini se utiliza una computadora de guía IBM de 59 libras a bordo, incluido el primer encuentro de la nave espacial. Los científicos de IBM completan el cálculo más preciso de la órbita de la Luna y desarrollan una técnica de fabricación para conectar cientos de circuitos en una oblea de silicio. [150]
- 1965: Feria Mundial de Nueva York . Se cierra el IBM Pavilion en la Feria Mundial de Nueva York, habiendo recibido a más de 10 millones de visitantes durante sus dos años de existencia. [151]
- 1966: Memoria dinámica de acceso aleatorio (DRAM) . IBM inventa celdas DRAM de un transistor que permiten grandes aumentos en la capacidad de memoria. Los chips DRAM se convierten en el pilar de los sistemas modernos de memoria para computadoras: nace el "petróleo crudo" de la era de la información. [152]
- 1966: IBM System / 4 Pi . IBM envía su primera computadora System / 4Pi, diseñada para cumplir con los requisitos del Departamento de Defensa de EE . UU . Y la NASA. Más de 9000 unidades de los sistemas 4Pi se entregan en la década de 1980 para su uso en el aire, el mar y el espacio. [153]
- 1966: Sistema de gestión de información de IBM (IMS) . IBM diseñó el Sistema de Gestión de la Información (IMS) con Rockwell y Caterpillar a partir de 1966 para el programa Apollo , donde se utilizó para inventariar la gran lista de materiales (BOM) para el cohete lunar Saturno V y el vehículo espacial Apolo.
- 1967: geometría fractal . El investigador de IBM Benoit Mandelbrot concibe la geometría fractal: el concepto de que las formas aparentemente irregulares pueden tener una estructura idéntica en todas las escalas. Esta nueva geometría permite describir matemáticamente los tipos de irregularidades existentes en la naturaleza. El concepto tiene un gran impacto en los campos de la ingeniería, la economía, la metalurgia, el arte, las ciencias de la salud y los gráficos y la animación por computadora. [154]
- 1968: Sistema de control de información del cliente de IBM (CICS) . IBM presenta el monitor de transacciones CICS. CICS sigue siendo hasta el día de hoy el monitor de transacciones más popular de la industria. [155]
- 1969: Antimonopolio . El gobierno de Estados Unidos lanza lo que se convertiría en una demanda antimonopolio de 13 años contra IBM. La demanda se convierte en una agotadora guerra de desgaste, y finalmente se abandona en 1982, [156] después de que la participación de IBM en el mercado de mainframe descendiera del 70% al 62%. [157]
- 1969: desagregación . IBM adopta una nueva política de marketing que cobra por separado la mayoría de las actividades de ingeniería de sistemas, futuros programas informáticos y cursos de educación del cliente. Esta "separación" da lugar a una industria de software y servicios multimillonaria. [158]
- 1969: Tarjetas de banda magnética . El American National Standards Institute convierte la tecnología de banda magnética desarrollada por IBM en un estándar nacional, lo que impulsa la industria de las tarjetas de crédito. Dos años más tarde, la Organización Internacional de Normalización adopta el diseño de IBM, convirtiéndolo en un estándar mundial. [159]
- 1969: Primer alunizaje . El personal y las computadoras de IBM ayudan a la NASA a aterrizar a los primeros hombres en la Luna.
1970-1974: los desafíos del éxito
Año | Ingresos brutos (en $ m) | Empleados |
---|---|---|
1965 | 3.750 | 172,445 |
1970 | 7.500 | 269,291 |
1975 | 14.430 | 288,647 |
La Década Dorada de la década de 1960 fue un acto difícil de seguir, y la década de 1970 tuvo un comienzo preocupante cuando el director ejecutivo Thomas J. Watson Jr. sufrió un ataque cardíaco y se retiró en 1971. Por primera vez desde 1914, casi seis décadas, IBM no tendría un Watson al mando. Además, después de un solo cambio de liderazgo durante esos casi 60 años, IBM resistiría dos en dos años. T. Vincent Learson sucedió a Watson como CEO, luego se retiró rápidamente al alcanzar la edad de jubilación obligatoria de 60 en 1973. Después de Learson en la oficina del CEO estaba Frank T. Cary, un IBMer de 25 años [160] que había ejecutado los datos con mucho éxito división de procesamiento en la década de 1960.
Datamation en 1971 declaró que "la perpetua y ominosa fuerza llamada IBM continúa". [161] El dominio de la empresa le permitió mantener los precios altos y rara vez actualizar los productos, [162] todos construidos solo con componentes de IBM. [163] Durante el mandato de Cary como director general, IBM System / 370 se introdujo en 1970 como el nuevo mainframe de IBM. El S / 370 no resultó tan revolucionario tecnológicamente como su predecesor, el System / 360. Desde la perspectiva de los ingresos, mantuvo con creces el estado de vaca de efectivo del 360. [164] Un esfuerzo menos exitoso para replicar la revolución del mainframe 360 fue el proyecto Future Systems . Entre 1971 y 1975, IBM investigó la viabilidad de una nueva y revolucionaria línea de productos diseñados para hacer obsoletos todos los productos existentes con el fin de restablecer su supremacía técnica. Este esfuerzo fue cancelado por la alta dirección de IBM en 1975. Pero para entonces había consumido la mayor parte de los recursos de diseño y planificación técnica de alto nivel, poniendo así en peligro el progreso de las líneas de productos existentes (aunque algunos elementos de FS se incorporaron más tarde a los productos reales). . [165] Otras innovaciones de IBM durante la década de 1970 incluyeron la unidad de disco IBM 3340 - introducida en 1973 y conocida como "Winchester" por el nombre del proyecto interno de IBM - era una tecnología de almacenamiento avanzada que duplicaba con creces la densidad de información en las superficies del disco. La tecnología de Winchester fue adoptada por la industria y utilizada durante las siguientes dos décadas.
Algunas tecnologías de IBM de la década de 1970 surgieron para convertirse en facetas familiares de la vida cotidiana. IBM desarrolló la tecnología de banda magnética en la década de 1960 y se convirtió en un estándar de la industria de tarjetas de crédito en 1971. El disquete inventado por IBM , también introducido en 1971, se convirtió en el estándar para almacenar datos de computadoras personales durante las primeras décadas de la era de las PC. El científico de IBM Research Edgar 'Ted' Codd escribió un artículo fundamental que describe la base de datos relacional , una invención que la revista Forbes describió como una de las innovaciones más importantes del siglo XX. El IBM 5100 , 50 libras. y $ 9000 de movilidad personal, se introdujo en 1975 y presagió, al menos en función, si no en tamaño, precio o unidades vendidas, la computadora personal de los años ochenta. La estación de caja del supermercado 3660 de IBM, introducida en 1973, utilizaba tecnología holográfica para escanear los precios de los productos a partir del ahora omnipresente código de barras UPC, que a su vez se basó en una patente de IBM de 1952 que se convirtió en un estándar de la industria de abarrotes. También en 1973, los clientes bancarios comenzaron a realizar retiros, transferencias y otras consultas de cuentas a través de IBM 3614 Consumer Transaction Facility, una de las primeras formas de los cajeros automáticos actuales .
IBM tenía un papel innovador en tecnologías omnipresentes que también eran menos visibles. En 1974, IBM anunció Systems Network Architecture (SNA), un protocolo de red para sistemas informáticos. El SNA es un conjunto uniforme de reglas y procedimientos para las comunicaciones informáticas para liberar a los usuarios de las complejidades técnicas de comunicarse a través de redes informáticas locales, nacionales e internacionales. SNA se convirtió en el sistema más utilizado para el procesamiento de datos hasta que se aprobaron estándares de arquitectura más abiertos en la década de 1990. En 1975, el investigador de IBM Benoit Mandelbrot concibió la geometría fractal, un nuevo concepto geométrico que hizo posible describir matemáticamente los tipos de irregularidades existentes en la naturaleza. Los fractales tuvieron un gran impacto en la ingeniería, la economía, la metalurgia, el arte y las ciencias de la salud, y son parte integral del campo de los gráficos por computadora y la animación.
Un esfuerzo comercial menos exitoso para IBM fue su entrada en el mercado de las fotocopiadoras de oficina en la década de 1970, después de rechazar la oportunidad de comprar la tecnología de xerografía . [34] La empresa fue inmediatamente demandada por Xerox Corporation por infracción de patente. Aunque Xerox poseía las patentes para el uso de selenio como fotoconductor, los investigadores de IBM perfeccionaron el uso de fotoconductores orgánicos que evitaron las patentes de Xerox. El litigio duró hasta finales de la década de 1970 y finalmente se resolvió. A pesar de esta victoria, IBM nunca ganó terreno en el mercado de las fotocopiadoras y se retiró del mercado en la década de 1980. Los fotoconductores orgánicos ahora se utilizan ampliamente en fotocopiadoras.
Durante todo este período, IBM estuvo litigando la demanda antimonopolio presentada por el Departamento de Justicia en 1969. Pero en una jurisprudencia relacionada, el caso histórico de Honeywell contra Sperry Rand en un tribunal federal de EE . UU. Concluyó en abril de 1973. La patente de 1964 para la ENIAC , la primera computadora digital electrónica de uso general del mundo, se consideró inválida e inaplicable por una variedad de razones, poniendo así la invención de la computadora digital electrónica en el dominio público. Además, se dictaminó que IBM había creado un monopolio a través de su acuerdo de intercambio de patentes de 1956 con Sperry-Rand.
American antitrust laws did not affect IBM in Europe, where as of 1971[update] it had fewer competitors and more than 50% market share in almost every country. Customers preferred IBM because it was, Datamation said, "the only truly international computer company", able to serve clients almost anywhere. Rivals such as ICL, CII, and Siemens began to cooperate to preserve a European computer industry.[161]
Key events
- 1970: System/370. IBM announces System/370 as successor to System/360.
- 1970: Relational databases. IBM introduces relational databases which call for information stored within a computer to be arranged in easy-to-interpret tables to access and manage large amounts of data. Today, nearly all database structures are based on the IBM concept of relational databases.
- 1970: Office copiers. IBM introduces its first of three models of xerographic copiers. These machines mark the first commercial use of organic photoconductors which since grew to become the dominant technology.
- 1971: Speech recognition. IBM achieves its first operational application of speech recognition, which enables engineers servicing equipment to talk to and receive spoken answers from a computer that can recognize about 5,000 words. Today, IBM's ViaVoice recognition technology has a vocabulary of 64,000 words and a 260,000-word back-up dictionary.[166]
- 1971: Floppy disk. IBM introduces the floppy disk. Convenient and highly portable, the floppy becomes a personal computer industry standard for storing data.[167]
- 1973: Winchester storage technology. The IBM 3340 disk unit—known as "Winchester" after IBM's internal project name—is introduced, an advanced technology which more than doubled the information density on disk surfaces. It featured a smaller, lighter read/write head that was designed to ride on an air film only 18 millionths of an inch thick. Winchester technology was adopted by the industry and used for the next two decades.[168]
- 1973: Nobel Prize. Dr. Leo Esaki, an IBM Fellow who joined the company in 1960, shares the 1973 Nobel Prize in physics for his 1958 discovery of the phenomenon of electron tunneling. His discovery of the semiconductor junction called the Esaki diode finds wide use in electronics applications. More importantly, his work in the field of semiconductors lays a foundation for further exploration in the electronic transport of solids.[169]
- 1974: SNA. IBM announces Systems Network Architecture (SNA), a networking protocol for computing systems. SNA is a uniform set of rules and procedures for computer communications to free computer users from the technical complexities of communicating through local, national, and international computer networks. SNA becomes the most widely used system for data processing until more open architecture standards were approved in the 1990s.[170]
1975–1992: Information revolution, rise of software and PC industries
Year | Gross income (in $m) | Employees |
---|---|---|
1975 | 14,430 | 288,647 |
1980 | 26,210 | 341,279 |
1985 | 50,050 | 405,535 |
1990 | 69,010 | 373,816 |
1995 | 71,940 | 225,347 |
President of IBM John R. Opel became CEO in 1981.[171] His company was one of the world's largest and had a 62% share of the mainframe computer market that year.[157] While frequently relocated employees and families still joked that IBM stood for "I've Been Moved", and employees of acquisitions feared that hordes of formal IBM employees would invade their more casual offices,[172] IBM no longer required white shirts for male employees, who still wore conservative suits when meeting customers. Former employees such as Gene Amdahl used their training to found and lead many competitors[34] and suppliers.[173]
Expecting Japanese competition, IBM in the late 1970s began investing in manufacturing to lower costs, offering volume discounts and lower prices to large customers, and introducing new products more frequently.[162] The company also sometimes used non-IBM components in products,[163] and sometimes resold others' products as its own.[174] In 1980 it introduced its first computer terminal compatible with non-IBM equipment,[175] and Displaywriter was the first new product less expensive than the competition.[157] IBM's share of the overall computer market, however, declined from 60% in 1970 to 32% in 1980.[176] Perhaps distracted by the long-running antitrust lawsuit,[34] the "Colossus of Armonk" completely missed the fast-growing minicomputer market during the 1970s,[174][177][178][179] and was behind rivals such as Wang, Hewlett-Packard (HP), and Control Data in other areas.[176]
In 1979 BusinessWeek asked, "Is IBM just another stodgy, mature company?" By 1981 its stock price had declined by 22%.[176] IBM's earnings for the first half the year grew by 5.3%—one third of the inflation rate—while those of minicomputer maker Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) grew by more than 35%.[175] The company began selling minicomputers,[180] but in January 1982 the Justice Department ended the antitrust suit because, The New York Times reported, the government "recognized what computer experts and securities analysts had long since concluded: I.B.M. no longer dominates the computer business".[157]
IBM wished to avoid the same outcome with the new personal computer industry.[179] The company studied the market for years and, as with UNIVAC, others like Apple Computer entered it first;[34] IBM did not want a product with a rival's logo on corporate customers' desks.[181] The company opened its first retail store in November 1980,[182] and a team in the Boca Raton, Florida office built the IBM PC using commercial off-the-shelf components. The new computer debuted on August 12, 1981[163] from the Entry Systems Division led by Don Estridge. IBM immediately became more of a presence in the consumer marketplace, thanks to the memorable Little Tramp advertising campaign. Though not a spectacular machine by technological standards of the day, the IBM PC brought together all of the most desirable features of a computer into one small machine. It had 128 kilobytes of memory (expandable to 256 kilobytes), one or two floppy disks and an optional color monitor. And it had the prestige of the IBM brand. It was not cheap, but with a base price of US$1,565 it was affordable for businesses – and many businesses purchased PCs. Reassured by the IBM name, they began buying microcomputers on their own budgets aimed at numerous applications that corporate computer departments did not, and in many cases could not, accommodate. Typically, these purchases were not by corporate computer departments, as the PC was not seen as a "proper" computer. Purchases were often instigated by middle managers and senior staff who saw the potential – once the revolutionary VisiCalc spreadsheet, the killer app, had been surpassed by a far more powerful and stable product, Lotus 1-2-3.
IBM's dominance of the mainframe market in Europe and the US encouraged existing customers to buy the PC,[181][183] and vice versa; as sales of what had been an experiment in a new market became a substantial part of IBM's financials, the company found that customers also bought larger IBM computers.[184][177][172] Unlike the BUNCH and other rivals IBM quickly adjusted to the retail market,[181][185] with its own sales force competing with outside retailers for the first time.[172] By 1985 IBM was the world's most profitable industrial company,[172] and its sales of personal computers were larger than that of minicomputers despite having been in the latter market since the early 1970s.[180]
By 1983 industry analyst Gideon Gartner warned that IBM "is creating a dangerous situation for competitors in the marketplace".[34] The company helped others by defining technical standards and creating large new software markets,[184][186][162] but the new aggressiveness that began in the late 1970s helped it dominate areas like computer leasing and computer-aided design.[162] Free from the antitrust case, IBM was present in every computer market other than supercomputers, and entered communications[186] by purchasing Rolm—the first acquisition in 18 years—and 18% of MCI.[172] The company was so important to component suppliers that it urged them to diversify. When IBM (61% of revenue) abruptly reduced orders from Miniscribe shares of not only Miniscribe but that of uninvolved companies that sold to IBM fell, as investors feared their vulnerability.[173] IBM was also vulnerable when suppliers could not fulfill orders;[187] customers and dealers also feared becoming overdependent.[181][162]
The IBM PC AT's 1984 debut startled the industry. Rivals admitted that they did not expect the low price of the sophisticated product. IBM's attack on every area of the computer industry and entry into communications caused competitors, analysts, and the press to speculate that it would again be sued for antitrust.[188][189][172] Datamation and others said that the company's continued growth might hurt the United States, by suppressing startups with new technology.[162] Gartner Group estimated in 1985 that of the 100 largest data-processing companies, IBM had 41% of all revenue and 69% of profit. Its computer revenue was about nine times that of second-place DEC, and larger than that of IBM's six largest Japanese competitors combined. The 22% profit margin was three times the 6.7% average for the other 99 companies. Competitors complained to Congress, ADAPSO discussed the company with the Justice Department, and European governments worried about IBM's influence but feared affecting its more than 100,000 employees there at 19 facilities.[162]
However, the company soon lost its lead in both PC hardware and software, thanks in part to its unprecedented (for IBM) decision to contract PC components to outside companies like Microsoft and Intel. Up to this point in its history, IBM relied on a vertically integrated strategy, building most key components of its systems itself, including processors, operating systems, peripherals, databases and the like. In an attempt to accelerate the time-to-market for the PC, IBM chose not to build a proprietary operating system and microprocessor. Instead, it sourced these vital components from Microsoft and Intel respectively. Ironically, in a decade which marked the end of IBM's monopoly, it was this fateful decision by IBM that passed the sources of its monopolistic power (operating system and processor architecture) to Microsoft and Intel, paving the way for rise of PC compatibles and the creation of hundreds of billions of dollars of market value outside of IBM.
John Akers became IBM's CEO in 1985. During the 1980s, IBM's significant investment in building a world class research organization produced four Nobel Prize winners in physics, achieved breakthroughs in mathematics, memory storage and telecommunications, and made great strides in expanding computing capabilities. In 1980, IBM Research legend John Cocke introduced Reduced Instruction Set Technology (RISC). Cocke received both the National Medal of Technology and the National Medal of Science for his innovation, but IBM itself failed to recognize the importance of RISC, and lost the lead in RISC technology to Sun Microsystems. In 1984 the company partnered with Sears to develop a pioneering online home banking and shopping service for home PCs that launched in 1988 as Prodigy. Despite a strong reputation and anticipating many of the features, functions, and technology that characterize the online experience of today, the venture was plagued by extremely conservative management decisions, and was eventually sold in the mid-1990s. The IBM token-ring local area network, introduced in 1985, permitted personal computer users to exchange information and share printers and files within a building or complex. In 1988, IBM partnered with the University of Michigan and MCI Communications to create the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet), an important step in the creation of the Internet. But within five years the company backed away from this early lead in Internet protocols and router technologies in order to support its existing SNA cash cow, thereby missing a boom market of the 1990s. Still, IBM investments and advances in microprocessors, disk drives, network technologies, software applications, and online commerce in the 1980s set the stage for the emergence of the connected world in the 1990s.
But by the end of the decade, IBM was clearly in trouble. It was a bloated organization of some 400,000 employees that was heavily invested in low margin, transactional, commodity businesses. Technologies IBM invented and or commercialized – DRAM, hard disk drives, the PC, electric typewriters – were starting to erode. The company had a massive international organization characterized by redundant processes and functions – its cost structure couldn't compete with smaller, less diversified competitors. And then the back-to-back revolutions – the PC and the client-server – did the unthinkable. They combined to dramatically undermine IBM's core mainframe business. The PC revolution placed computers directly in the hands of millions of people. It was followed by the client/server revolution, which sought to link all of those PCs (the "clients") with larger computers that labored in the background (the "servers" that served data and applications to client machines). Both revolutions transformed the way customers viewed, used and bought technology. And both fundamentally rocked IBM. Businesses' purchasing decisions were put in the hands of individuals and departments – not the places where IBM had long-standing customer relationships. Piece-part technologies took precedence over integrated solutions. The focus was on the desktop and personal productivity, not on business applications across the enterprise. As a result, earnings – which had been at or above US$5 billion since the early 1980s, dropped by more than a third to US$3 billion in 1989. A brief spike in earnings in 1990 proved illusory as corporate spending continued to shift from high-profit margin mainframes to lower margin microprocessor-based systems. In addition, corporate downsizing was in full swing.
Akers tried to stop the bleeding – desperate moves and radical changes were considered and implemented. As IBM assessed the situation, it was clear that competition and innovation in the computer industry were now taking place along segmented, versus vertically integrated lines, where leaders emerged in their respective domains. Examples included Intel in microprocessors, Microsoft in desktop software, Novell in networking, HP in printers, Seagate in disk drives and Oracle Corporation in database software. IBM's dominance in personal computers was challenged by the likes of Compaq and later Dell. Recognizing this trend, management, with the support of the Board of Directors, began to implement a plan to split IBM into increasingly autonomous business units (e.g. processors, storage, software, services, printers, etc.) to compete more effectively with competitors that were more focused and nimble and had lower cost structures.
IBM also began shedding businesses that it felt were no longer core. It sold its typewriter, keyboard, and printer business – the organization that created the popular "Selectric" typewriter with its floating "golf ball" type element in the 1960s – to the investment firm of Clayton, Dubilier & Rice Inc. and became an independent company, Lexmark Inc.
These efforts failed to halt the slide. A decade of steady acceptance and widening corporate growth of local area networking technology, a trend headed by Novell Inc. and other vendors, and its logical counterpart, the ensuing decline of mainframe sales, brought about a wake-up call for IBM. After two consecutive years of reporting losses in excess of $1 billion, on January 19, 1993, IBM announced a US$8.10 billion loss for the 1992 financial year, which was then the largest single-year corporate loss in U.S. history.[190] All told, between 1991 and 1993, the company posted net losses of nearly $16 billion. IBM's three-decade-long Golden Age, triggered by Watson Jr. in the 1950s, was over. The computer industry now viewed IBM as no longer relevant, an organizational dinosaur. And hundreds of thousands of IBMers lost their jobs, including CEO John Akers.
Key events
- mid-1970s: IBM VNET. VNET was an international computer networking system deployed in the mid-1970s, providing email and file-transfer for IBM. By September 1979, the network had grown to include 285 mainframe nodes in Europe, Asia, and North America.
- 1975: Fractals. IBM researcher Benoit Mandelbrot conceives fractal geometry—the concept that seemingly irregular shapes can have identical structure at all scales. This new geometry makes it possible to describe mathematically the kinds of irregularities existing in nature. Fractals later make a great impact on engineering, economics, metallurgy, art, and health sciences, and are also applied in the field of computer graphics and animation.[191]
- 1975: IBM 5100 Portable computer. IBM introduces the 5100 Portable Computer, a 50 lb. desktop machine that put computer capabilities at the fingertips of engineers, analysts, statisticians, and other problem-solvers. More "luggable" than portable, the 5100 can serve as a terminal for the System/370 and costs from $9000 to $20,000.[192]
- 1976: Space Shuttle. The Enterprise, the first vehicle in the U.S. Space Shuttle program, makes its debut at Palmdale, California, carrying IBM AP-101 flight computers and special hardware built by IBM.
- 1976: Laser printer. The first IBM 3800 printer is installed. The 3800 is the first commercial printer to combine laser technology and electrophotography. The technology speeds the printing of bank statements, premium notices, and other high-volume documents, and remains a workhorse for billing and accounts receivable departments.[193]
- 1977: Data Encryption Standard. IBM-developed Data Encryption Standard (DES), a cryptographic algorithm, is adopted by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards as a national standard.[194]
- 1979: Retail checkout. IBM develops the Universal Product Code (UPC) in the 1970s as a method for embedding pricing and identification information on individual retail items. In 1979, IBM applies holographic scanner technology in IBM's supermarket checkout station to read the UPC stripes on merchandise, one of the first major commercial uses of holography. IBM's support of the UPC concept helps lead to its widespread acceptance by retail and other industries around the world.[195]
- 1979: Thin film recording heads. Instead of using hand-wound wire structures as coils for inductive elements, IBM researchers substitute thin film "wires" patterned by optical lithography. This leads to higher performance recording heads at a reduced cost and establishes IBM's leadership in "areal density": storing the most data in the least space. The result is higher-capacity and higher-performance disk drives.[196]
- 1979: Overcoming barriers to technology use. Since 1946, with its announcement of Chinese and Arabic ideographic character typewriters, IBM has worked to overcome cultural and physical barriers to the use of technology. As part of these ongoing efforts, IBM introduces the 3270 Kanji Display Terminal; the System/34 Kanji System with an ideographic feature, which processes more than 11,000 Japanese and Chinese characters; and the Audio Typing Unit for sight-impaired typists.
- 1979: First multi-function copier/printer. A communication-enabled laser printer and photocopier combination was introduced, the IBM 6670 Information Distributor. This was the first multi-function (copier/printer) device for the office market.
- 1980: Thermal conduction modules. IBM introduces the 3081 processor, the company's most powerful to date, which features Thermal Conduction Modules. In 1990, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., awards its 1990 Corporate Innovation Recognition to IBM for the development of the Multilayer Ceramic Thermal Conduction Module for high performance computers.[197]
- 1980: Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) architecture. IBM successfully builds the first prototype computer employing IBM Fellow John Cocke's RISC architecture. RISC simplified the instructions given to computers, making them faster and more powerful. Today, RISC architecture is the basis of most workstations and widely viewed as the dominant computing architecture.[198]
- 1981: IBM PC. The IBM Personal Computer goes mass market and helps revolutionize the way the world does business. A year later, Time Magazine gives its "Person of the Year" award to the Personal Computer.[199]
- 1981: LASIK surgery. Three IBM scientists invent the excimer laser surgical procedure that later forms the basis of LASIK and PRK corrective eye surgeries.[200]
- 1982: Antitrust suit. The United States antitrust suit against IBM, filed in 1969, is dismissed as being "without merit."[201]
- 1982: Trellis-coded modulation. Trellis-coded modulation (TCM) is first used in voice-band modems to send data at higher rates over telephone channels. Today, TCM is applied in a large variety of terrestrial and satellite-based transmission systems as a key technique for achieving faster and more reliable digital transmission.[202]
- 1983: IBM PCjr. IBM announces the widely anticipated PCjr., IBM's attempt to enter the home computing marketplace. The product, however, fails to capture the fancy of consumers due to its lack of compatibility with IBM PC software, its higher price point, and its unfortunate ‘chiclet’ keyboard design. IBM terminates the product after 18 months of disappointing sales.[203]
- 1984: IBM 3480 magnetic tape system. The industry's most advanced magnetic tape system, the IBM 3480, introduces a new generation of tape drives that replace the familiar reel of tape with an easy-to-handle cartridge. The 3480 was the industry's first tape system to use "thin-film" recording head technology.
- 1984: Sexual discrimination. IBM adds sexual orientation to the company's non-discrimination policy. IBM becomes one of the first major companies to make this change.[204]
- 1984: ROLM partnership/acquisition. IBM acquires ROLM Corporation for $1.25 billion.[172] Based in Santa Clara, CA (subsequent to an existing partnership),[205] IBM intended to develop digital telephone switches to compete directly with Northern Telecom and AT&T.[206] Two of the most popular systems were the large scale PABX coined ROLM CBX and the smaller PABX coined ROLM Redwood. ROLM is later acquired by Siemens AG in 1989–1992.[207][208]
- 1985: MCI. IBM acquires 18% of MCI Communications, the United States's second-largest long-distance carrier, in June 1985.[172]
- 1985: RP3. Sparked in part by national concerns over losing its technology leadership crown in the early 1980s, IBM re-enters the supercomputing field with the RP3 (IBM Research Parallel Processor Prototype). IBM researchers worked with scientists from the New York University's Courant Institute of Mathematical Science to design RP3, an experimental computer consisting of up to 512 processors, linked in parallel and connected to as many as two billion characters of main memory. Over the next five years, IBM provides more than $30 million in products and support to a supercomputer facility established at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.[209]
- 1985: Token Ring Network. IBM's Token Ring technology brings a new level of control to local area networks and quickly becomes an industry standard for networks that connect printers, workstations and servers.[210]
- 1986: IBM Almaden Research Center. IBM Research dedicates the Almaden Research Center in California. Today, Almaden is IBM's second-largest laboratory focused on storage systems, technology and computer science.[211]
- 1986: Nobel Prize: Scanning tunneling microscopy. IBM Fellows Gerd K. Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer of the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory win the 1986 Nobel Prize in physics for their work in scanning tunneling microscopy. Drs. Binnig and Rohrer are recognized for developing a powerful microscopy technique which permits scientists to make images of surfaces so detailed that individual atoms may be seen.[212]
- 1987: Nobel Prize: High-Temperature Superconductivity. J. Georg Bednorz and IBM Fellow Alex Müller of the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory receive the 1987 Nobel Prize for physics for their breakthrough discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in a new class of materials. They discover superconductivity in ceramic oxides that carry electricity without loss of energy at much higher temperatures than any other superconductor.[213]
- 1987: Antivirus tools. As personal computers become vulnerable to attack from viruses, a small research group at IBM develops, practically overnight, a suite of antivirus tools. The effort leads to the establishment of the High Integrity Computing Laboratory (HICL) at IBM. HICL goes on to pioneer the science of theoretical and observational computer virus epidemiology.[214]
- 1987: Special needs access. IBM Researchers demonstrate the feasibility for blind computer users to read information directly from computer screens with the aid of an experimental mouse. And in 1988 the IBM Personal System/2 Screen Reader is announced, permitting blind or visually impaired people to hear the text as it is displayed on the screen in the same way a sighted person would see it. This is the first in the IBM Independence Series of products for computer users with special needs.[215]
- 1988: IBM AS/400. IBM introduces the IBM Application System/400 (AS/400), a new family of easy-to-use computers designed for small and intermediate-sized companies. As part of the introduction, IBM and IBM Business Partners worldwide announce more than 1,000 software packages in the biggest simultaneous applications announcement in computer history. The AS/400 quickly becomes one of the world's most popular business computing systems.[216]
- 1988: National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET). IBM collaborates with the Merit Network, MCI Communications, the State of Michigan, and the National Science Foundation to upgrade and expand the 56K bit per second NSFNET to 1.5M bps (T1) and later 45M bps (T3). This partnership provides the network infrastructure and lays the groundwork for the explosive growth of the Internet in the 1990s. The NSFNET upgrade boosts network capacity, not only making it faster, but also allowing more intensive forms of data, such as the graphics now common on the World Wide Web, to travel across the Internet.[217]
- 1989: Silicon germanium transistors. The replacing of expensive and exotic materials like gallium arsenide with silicon germanium (known as SiGe), championed by IBM Fellow Bernie Meyerson, creates faster chips at lower costs. Introducing germanium into the base layer of an otherwise all-silicon bipolar transistor allows for significant improvements in operating frequency, current, noise and power capabilities.[218]
- 1990: System/390. IBM makes its most comprehensive product announcement in 25 years by introducing the System/390 family. IBM incorporates complementary metal oxide silicon (CMOS) based processors into System/390 Parallel Enterprise Server in 1995, and in 1998 the System/390 G5 Parallel Enterprise Server 10-way Turbo model smashed the 1,000 MIPS barrier, making it the world's most powerful mainframe.[219]
- 1990: RISC System/6000. IBM announces the RISC System/6000, a family of nine workstations that are among the fastest and most powerful in the industry. The RISC System/6000 uses Reduced instruction set computing technology, an innovative computer design pioneered by IBM that simplifies processing steps to speed the execution of commands.[220]
- 1990: Moving individual atoms. Donald M. Eigler, a physicist and IBM Fellow at the IBM Almaden Research Center demonstrated the ability to manipulate individual atoms using a scanning tunneling microscope, writing I-B-M using 35 individual xenon atoms.[221]
- 1990: Environmental programs'. IBM joins 14 other leading U.S. corporations in April to establish a worldwide program designed to achieve environmental, health and safety goals by continuously improving environmental management practices and performance. IBM has invested more than $1 billion since 1973 to provide environmental protection for the communities in which IBM facilities are located.[222]
- 1991: Services business. IBM reenters the computer services business through the formation of the Integrated Systems Solution Corporation. Still in compliance with the provisions of the 1956 Consent Decree, in just four ISSC becomes the second largest provider of computer services. The new business becomes one of IBM's primary revenue streams.[223]
- 1992: Thinkpad. IBM introduces a new line of notebook computers. Housed in a distinctive black case and featuring the innovative TrackPoint device nestled in the middle of the keyboard, the ThinkPad is an immediate hit and goes on to collect more than 300 awards for design and quality.[224]
1993–2018: IBM's near disaster and rebirth
Year | Gross income (in $m) | Employees |
---|---|---|
1985 | 50,050 | 405,535 |
1990 | 69,010 | 373,816 |
1995 | 71,940 | 225,347 |
2000 | 85,090 | 316,303 |
2005 | 91,400 | 329,373 |
2010 | 99,870 | 426,751 |
In April 1993, IBM hired Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. as its new CEO. For the first time since 1914 IBM had recruited a leader from outside its ranks. Gerstner had been chairman and CEO of RJR Nabisco for four years, and had previously spent 11 years as a top executive at American Express. Gerstner brought with him a customer-oriented sensibility and the strategic-thinking expertise that he had honed through years as a management consultant at McKinsey & Co. Recognizing that his first priority was to stabilize the company, he adopted a triage mindset and took quick, dramatic action. His early decisions included recommitting to the mainframe, selling the Federal Systems Division to Loral in order to replenish the company's cash coffers, continuing to shrink the workforce (reaching a low of 220,000 employees in 1994), and driving significant cost reductions within the company. Most importantly, Gerstner decided to reverse the move to spin off IBM business units into separate companies. He recognized that one of IBM's enduring strengths was its ability to provide integrated solutions for customers – someone who could represent more than piece parts or components. Splitting the company would have destroyed that unique IBM advantage.[225]
These initial steps worked. IBM was in the black by 1994, turning a profit of $3 billion. Stabilization was not Gerstner's endgame – the restoration of IBM's once great reputation was. To do that, he needed to devise a winning business strategy.[226] Over the next decade, Gerstner crafted a business model that shed commodity businesses and focused on high-margin opportunities. IBM divested itself of low margin industries (DRAM, IBM Network, personal printers, and hard drives). The company regained the business initiative by building upon the decision to keep the company whole – it unleashed a global services business that rapidly rose to become a leading technology integrator. Crucial to this success was the decision to become brand agnostic – IBM integrated whatever technologies the client required, even if they were from an IBM competitor.[227] IBM augmented this services business with the 2002 acquisition of the consultancy division of PricewaterhouseCoopers for $3.5 billion US.[228]
Another high margin opportunity IBM invested heavily in was software, a strategic move that proved equally visionary. Starting in 1995 with its acquisition of Lotus Development Corp., IBM built up its software portfolio from one brand, DB2, to five: DB2, Lotus, WebSphere, Tivoli, and Rational. Content to leave the consumer applications business to other firms, IBM's software strategy focused on middleware – the vital software that connects operating systems to applications. The middleware business played to IBM's strengths, and its higher margins improved the company's bottom line significantly as the century came to an end.[229]
Not all software that IBM developed was successful. While OS/2 was arguably technically superior to Microsoft Windows 95, OS/2 sales were largely concentrated in networked computing used by corporate professionals. OS/2 failed to develop much penetration in the consumer and stand-alone desktop PC segments. There were reports that it could not be installed properly on IBM's own Aptiva series of home PCs.[230] Microsoft made an offer in 1994 where if IBM ended development of OS/2 completely, then it would receive the same terms as Compaq for a license of Windows 95. IBM refused and instead went with an "IBM First" strategy of promoting OS/2 Warp and disparaging Windows, as IBM aimed to drive sales of its own software and hardware. By 1995, Windows 95 negotiations between IBM and Microsoft, which were difficult, stalled when IBM purchased Lotus Development whose Lotus SmartSuite would have directly competed with Microsoft Office. As a result, IBM received their license later than their competitors which hurt sales of IBM PCs. IBM officials later conceded that OS/2 would not have been a viable operating system to keep them in the PC business.[231][232]
While IBM hardware and technologies were relatively de-emphasized in Gerstner's three-legged business model, they were not relegated to secondary status. The company brought its world-class research organization to bear more closely on its existing product lines and development processes. While Internet applications and deep computing overtook client servers as key business technology priorities, mainframes returned to relevance. IBM reinvigorated their mainframe line with CMOS technologies, which made them among the most powerful and cost-efficient in the marketplace.[233] Investments in microelectronics research and manufacturing made IBM a world leader in specialized, high margin chip production – it developed 200 mm wafer processes in 1992, and 300 mm wafers within the decade.[234] IBM-designed chips are currently used in PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Wii game consoles. IBM also regained the lead in supercomputing with high-end machines based upon scalable parallel processor technology.
Equally significant in IBM's revival was its successful reentry into the popular mindset. Part of this revival was based on IBM technology. On October 5, 1992, at the COMDEX computer expo, IBM announced the first ThinkPad laptop computer, the 700C. The ThinkPad, a premium machine which then cost US$4350, included a 25 MHz Intel 80486SL processor, a 10.4-inch active matrix display, removable 120 MB hard drive, 4 MB RAM (expandable to 16 MB) and a TrackPoint II pointing device.[235] The striking black design by noted designer Richard Sapper made the ThinkPad an immediate hit with the digerati, and the cool factor of the ThinkPad brought back some of the cachet to the IBM brand that was lost in the PC wars of the 1980s. Instrumental to this popular resurgence was the 1997 chess match between IBM's chess-playing computer system Deep Blue and reigning world chess champion Garry Kasparov. Deep Blue's victory was a historic first for a computer over a reigning world champion. Also helping the company reclaim its position as a technology leader was its annual domination of supercomputer rankings[236] and patent leadership statistics.[237] Ironically, a serendipitous contributor in reviving the company's reputation was the Dot-com bubble collapse in 2000, where many of the edgy technology high flyers of the 1990s failed to survive the downturn. These collapses discredited some of the more fashionable Internet-driven business models that stodgy IBM was previously compared against.
Another part of the successful reentry into the popular mindset was the company's revival of the IBM brand. The company's marketing during the economic downturn was chaotic, presenting many different, sometimes discordant voices in the marketplace. This brand chaos was attributable in part to the company having 70 different advertising agencies in its employ. In 1994, IBM eliminated this chaos by consolidating its advertising in one agency. The result was a coherent, consistent message to the marketplace.[238]
As IBM recovered its financial footing and its industry leadership position, the company remained aggressive in preaching to the industry that it was not the Old IBM, that it had learned from its near-death experiences, and that it had been fundamentally changed by them. It sought to redefine the Internet age in ways that played to traditional IBM strengths, couching the discussion in business-centric manners with initiatives like e-commerce and On Demand.[239] And it supported open source initiatives, forming collaborative ventures with partners and competitors alike.[240]
Change was manifested in IBM in other ways as well. The company revamped its varied philanthropic practices to bring a sharp focus on improving K-12 education. It ended its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee after a successful engagement at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia. On the human resources front, IBM's adoption and integration of diversity principles and practices was cutting edge. It added sexual orientation to its non-discrimination practices in 1984, in 1995 created executive diversity task forces, and in 1996 offered domestic partner benefits to its employees. The company is routinely listed as among the best places for employees, employees of color, and women to work.[241] And in 1996, the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame inducted three IBMers as part of its inaugural class of 10 women: Ruth Leach Amonette, the first woman to hold an executive position at IBM; Barbara Grant, PhD, first woman to be named an IBM site general manager; and Linda Sanford, the highest – placed technical woman in IBM. Fran Allen – an early software pioneer and another IBM hero for her innovative work in compilers over the decades – was inducted in 1997.[242]
Gerstner retired at the end of 2002, and was replaced by long-time IBMer Samuel J. Palmisano.
Key events
- 1993: Billion-dollar losses. IBM misreads two significant trends in the computer industry: personal computers and client-server computing: and as a result loses more than $8 billion in 1993, its third straight year of billion-dollar losses. Since 1991, the company has lost $16 billion, and many feel IBM is no longer a viable player in the industry.[243]
- 1993: Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.. Gerstner arrives as IBM's chairman and CEO on April 1, 1993. For the first time since the arrival of Thomas J. Watson, Sr., in 1914, IBM has a leader pulled from outside its ranks. Gerstner had been chairman and CEO of RJR Nabisco for four years and had previously spent 11 years as a top executive at American Express.[244]
- 1993: IBM Scalable POWERparallel system. IBM introduces the Scalable POWERparallel System, the first in a family of microprocessor-based supercomputers using RISC System/6000 technology. IBM pioneers the breakthrough scalable parallel system technology of joining smaller, mass-produced computer processors rather than relying on one larger, custom-designed processor. Complex queries could then be broken down into a series of smaller jobs that are run concurrently ("in parallel") to speed their completion.[245]
- 1994: Turnaround. IBM reports a profit for the year, its first since 1990. Over the next few years, the company successfully charts a new business course, one that focuses less on its traditional strengths in hardware, and more on services, software, and its ability to craft technology solutions.[246]
- 1994: IBM RAMAC Array Storage Family. The IBM RAMAC Array Family is announced. With features like highly parallel processing, multi-level cache, RAID 5, and redundant components, RAMAC represents a major advance in information storage technology. Consisting of the RAMAC Array Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) and the RAMAC Array Subsystem, the products become one of IBM's most successful storage product launches ever, with almost 2,000 systems shipped to customers in its first three months of availability.[247]
- 1994: Speech recognition. IBM releases the IBM Personal Dictation System (IPDS), the first wave of speech recognition products for the personal computer. It is later renamed VoiceType, and its capabilities are expanded to include control of computer applications and desktops simply by talking to them, without touching a keyboard. In 1997 IBM announces ViaVoice Gold, software that gives people a hands-free way to dictate text and navigate the desktop with the power of natural, continuous speech.[248]
- 1995: Lotus Development Corporation acquisition. IBM acquires all of the outstanding shares of the Lotus Development Corporation, whose pioneering Notes software enables greater collaboration across an enterprise and whose acquisition makes IBM the world's largest software company.[249]
- 1995: Glueball calculation. IBM scientists complete a two-year calculation – the largest single numerical calculation in the history of computing – to pin down the properties of an elusive elementary particle called a "glueball." The calculation was carried out on GF11, a massively parallel computer at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center.[250]
- 1996: IBM Austin Research Laboratory opens. Based in Austin, Texas, the lab is focused on advanced circuit design as well as new design techniques and tools for very high performance microprocessors.[251]
- 1996: Atlanta Olympics. IBM suffers a highly public embarrassment when its IT support of the Olympic Games in Atlanta experiences technical difficulties.[252]
- 1996: Domestic partner benefits. IBM announces Domestic Partner Benefits for gay and lesbian employees.[253]
- 1997: Deep Blue. The 32-node IBM RS/6000 SP supercomputer, Deep Blue, defeats World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov in the first known instance of a computer vanquishing a reigning world champion chess player in a tournament-style competition.[254]
- 1997: eBusiness. IBM coins the term and defined an enormous new industry by using the Internet as a medium for real business and institutional transformation. e-business becomes synonymous with doing business in the Internet age.[255]
- 1998: CMOS Gigaprocessor. IBM unveils the first microprocessor that runs at 1 billion cycles per second. IBM scientists develop new Silicon on insulator chips to be used in the construction of a mainstream processor. The breakthrough ushers in new circuit designs and product groups.[256]
- 1999: Blue Gene. IBM Research starts a computer architecture cooperative project with the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the United States Department of Energy (which is partially funding the project), and academia to build new supercomputers (4) capable of more than one quadrillion operations per second (one petaflop). Nicknamed "Blue Gene," the new supercomputers perform 500 times faster than other powerful supercomputers and can simulate folding complex proteins.[257]
- 2000: Quantum mirage nanotechnology. IBM scientists discover a way to transport information on the atomic scale that uses electrons instead of conventional wiring. This new phenomenon, called the Quantum mirage effect, enables data transfer within future nanoscale electronic circuits too small to use wires. The quantum mirage technique is a unique way of sending information through solid forms and could do away with wiring that connects nanocircuit components.[258]
- 2000: IBM ASCI White – Fastest supercomputer. IBM delivers the world's most powerful computer to the US Department of Energy, powerful enough to process an Internet transaction for every person on Earth in less than a minute. IBM built the supercomputer to accurately test the safety and effectiveness of the nation's aging nuclear weapons stockpile. This computer is 1,000 times more powerful than Deep Blue, the supercomputer that beat Garry Kasparov in chess in 1997.[259]
- 2000: Flexible transistors. IBM created flexible transistors, combining organic and inorganic materials as a medium for semiconductors. This technology enables things like an "electronic newspaper", so lightweight and inexpensive that leaving one behind on the airplane or in a hotel lobby is no big deal. By eliminating the limitations of etching computer circuits in silicon, flexible transistors make it possible to create a new generation of inexpensive computer displays that can be embedded into curved plastic or other materials.[260]
- 2000: Sydney Olympics. After a successful engagement at the 2000 Olympic games in Sydney, IBM ends its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee.[261]
- 2001: Holocaust controversy. A controversial book, IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation by Edwin Black, accuses IBM of having knowingly assisted Nazi authorities in the perpetuation of the Holocaust through the provision of tabulating products and services. Several lawsuits are filed against IBM by Holocaust victims seeking restitution for their suffering and losses. All lawsuits related to this issue were eventually dropped without recovery.[262]
- 2001: Carbon nanotube transistors. IBM researchers build the world's first transistors out of carbon nanotubes – tiny cylinders of carbon atoms that are 500 times smaller than silicon-based transistors and 1,000 times stronger than steel. The breakthrough is an important step in finding materials that can be used to build computer chips when silicon-based chips can't be made any smaller.[263]
- 2001: Low power initiative. IBM launches its low-power initiative to improve the energy efficiency of IT and accelerates the development of ultra-low power components and power-efficient servers, storage systems, personal computers and ThinkPad notebook computers.[264]
- 2001: Greater density & chip speeds. IBM is first to mass-produce computer hard disk drives using a revolutionary new type of magnetic coating – "pixie dust" – that eventually quadruples data density of current hard disk drive products. IBM also unveils "strained silicon," a breakthrough that alters silicon to boost chip speeds by up to 35 percent.[265][266]
- 2002: The Hard disk drive business is sold to Hitachi.[267]
- 2003: Blue Gene/L. The BLUE GENE team unveils a proto-type of its Blue Gene/L computer roughly the size of a standard dishwasher that ranks as the 73rd most powerful supercomputer in the world. This cubic meter machine is a small scale model of the full Blue Gene/L built for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, which will be 128 times larger when it's unveiled two years later.[268]
- 2005: Crusade Against Cancer. IBM joins forces with Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC), the Molecular Profiling Institute and the CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center to collaborate on cancer research by building state-of-the-art integrated information management systems.[269]
- 2005: The PC division is sold. The PC division (including Thinkpads) is sold to Chinese manufacturer, Lenovo.[270]
- 2006: Translation software. IBM delivers an advanced speech-to-speech translation system to U.S. forces in Iraq using bidirectional English to Arabic translation software that improves communication between military personnel and Iraqi forces and citizens. The breakthrough software offsets the current shortage of military linguists.[271]
- 2007: Renewable energy. IBM is recognized by the US EPA for its leading green power purchases in the US and for its support and participation in EPA's Fortune 500 Green Power Challenge. IBM ranked 12th on the EPA's list of Green Power Partners for 2007. IBM purchased enough renewable energy in 2007 to meet 4% of its US electricity use and 9% of its global electricity purchases. IBM's commitment to green power helps cut greenhouse gas emissions.[272]
- 2007: River watch using IBM Stream Computing. In a unique collaboration, The Beacon Institute and IBM created the first technology-based river monitoring network. The River and Estuary Observatory Network (REON) allows for minute-to-minute monitoring of New York's Hudson River via an integrated network of sensors, robotics and computational technology. This first-of-its-kind project is made possible by IBM's "Stream Computing," a fundamentally new computer architecture that can examine thousands of information sources to help scientists better understand what is happening as it happens.[273][274]
- 2007: Patent power. IBM has been granted more US patents than any other company. From 1993 to 2007, IBM was awarded over 38,000 US patents and has invested about $5 billion a year in research, development, and engineering since 1996. IBM's current active portfolio is about 26,000 patents in the US and over 40,000 patents worldwide is a direct result of that investment.[275]
- 2008: IBM Roadrunner No.1 Supercomputer. For a record-setting ninth consecutive time, IBM takes the No.1 spot in the ranking of the world's most powerful supercomputers with the IBM computer built for the Roadrunner project at Los Alamos National Laboratory. It is the first in the world to operate at speeds faster than one quadrillion calculations per second and remains the world speed champion for over a year. The Los Alamos system is twice as energy-efficient as the No. 2 computer at the time, using about half the electricity to maintain the same level of computing power.[276]
- 2008: Green power. IBM opens its "greenest" data center in Boulder, Colorado. The energy-efficient facility is part of a $350 million investment by IBM in Boulder to help meet customer demand for reducing energy costs. The new data center features leading-edge technologies and services, including high-density computing systems with virtualization technology. Green Power centers allow IBM and its customers to cut their carbon footprint.[277]
- 2011: Watson. IBM's supercomputer Watson competed on the TV show Jeopardy! against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter and won convincingly. The competition was presented by PBS.[278]
- June 16, 2011: IBM founded 100 years ago. Mark Krantz and Jon Swartz in USA Today state It has remained at the forefront through the decades... the fifth-most-valuable U.S. company [today] ... demonstrated a strength shared by most 100-year-old companies: the ability to change. ... survived not only the Depression and several recessions, but technological shifts and intense competition as well.[279]
- October 28, 2018 Red Hat acquisition for $34 billion On October 28, 2018, IBM announced its intent to acquire Red Hat for US$34 billion, in one of its largest-ever acquisitions. The company will operate out of IBM's Hybrid Cloud division.[280][281][282][283][284]
2019–present
The 2019 acquisition of Red Hat enabled IBM to change its focus on future platforms, according to IBM Chief Executive Arvind Krishna.[285]
In October 2020, IBM announced it is splitting itself into two public companies.[286] IBM will focus on high-margin cloud computing and artificial intelligence, built on the foundation of the 2019 Red Hat acquisition. The legacy Managed Infrastructure Services unit will be spun off into a new public company "NewCo, yet to be formally named" to manage clients’ IT infrastructure and accounts,and have 4,600 clients in 115 countries, with a backlog of $60 billion.[287]
This new focus on hybrid cloud, separating IBM from its other business units, will be larger than any of its previous divestitures, and welcomed by investors.[288][289][290]
Poder de mercado y antimonopolio del siglo XX
IBM dominated the electronic data processing market for most of the 20th century, initially controlling over 70 percent of the punch card and tabulating machine market and then achieving a similar share in the computer market.[291] IBM asserted that its successes in achieving and maintaining such market share were due to its skill, industry and foresight; governments and competitors asserted that the maintenance of such large shares was at least in part due to anti-competitive acts such as unfair prices, terms and conditions, tying, product manipulations and creating FUD (Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt) in the marketplace.[292] IBM was thus the defendant in more than twenty government and private antitrust actions during the 20th century. IBM lost only one of these matters but did settle others in ways that profoundly shaped the industry as summarized below. By the end of the 20th century, IBM was no longer so dominant in the computer industry. Some observers suggest management's attention to the many antitrust lawsuits of the 1970s was at least in part responsible for its decline.[291]
1936 Consent Decree
In 1932 U.S. Government prosecutors asserted as anti-competition tying IBM's practice of requiring customers who leased its tabulating equipment to purchase punched cards used on such equipment. IBM lost[293] and in the resulting 1936 consent decree, IBM agreed to no longer require only IBM cards and agreed to assist alternative suppliers of cards in starting production facilities that would compete with IBM's; thereby create a separate market for the punched cards and in effect for subsequent computer supplies such as tapes and disk packs.[294]
1956 Consent Decree
On January 21, 1952 the U.S. Government filed a lawsuit which resulted in a consent decree entered as a final judgment on January 25, 1956.[295] The government's goal to increase competition in the data processing industry was effected through several provisions in the decree:[296]
- IBM was required to sell equipment on terms that would place purchasers at a disadvantage with respect to customers leasing the same equipment from IBM. Prior to this decree, IBM had only rented its equipment. This created markets both for used IBM equipment[296] and enabled lease financing of IBM equipment by third parties (leasing companies).[296]
- IBM was required to provide parts and information to independent maintainers of purchased IBM equipment,[296] enabling and creating a demand for such hardware maintenance services.
- IBM was required to sell data processing services through a subsidiary that could be treated no differently than any company independent of IBM, enabling competition in the data processing services business.
- IBM was required to grant non-exclusive, non-transferable, worldwide licenses for any and all patents at reasonable royalty rates to anyone, provided the licensee cross-licensed its patents to IBM on similar terms.[295] This removed IBM patents as a barrier to competition in the data processing industry and enabled the emergence of manufacturers of equipment plug compatible to IBM equipment.
While the decree did little to limit IBM's future dominance of the then-nascent computer industry, it did enable competition in segments such as leasing, services, maintenance, and equipment attachable to IBM systems and reduced barriers to entry through mandatory reasonable patent cross-licensing.
The decree's terms remained in effect until 1996; they were phased out over the next five years.[297]
1968-1984 Multiple Government and Private Antitrust Complaints
In 1968 the first of a series of antitrust suits against IBM was filed by Control Data Corp (CDC). It was followed in 1969 by the US government's antitrust complaint, then by 19 private US antitrust complaints and one European complaint. In the end IBM settled a few of these matters but mainly won. The US government's case sustained by four US Presidents and their Attorneys General was dropped as “without merit” in 1982 by William Baxter, US President Reagans’ Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice.[298]
1968-1973 Control Data Corp. v. IBM
CDC filed an antitrust lawsuit against IBM in Minnesota's federal court alleging that IBM had monopolized the market for computers in violation of section 2 of the Sherman Act by among other things announcing products it could not deliver.[299] A 1965 internal IBM memo by an IBM attorney noted that Control Data had publicly blamed its declining earnings on IBM, "and its frequent model and price changes. There was some sentiment that the charges were true." [300] In 1973 IBM settled the CDC case for about $80 million in cash and the transfer of assets including the IBM Service Bureau Corp to CDC.[299]
1969-1982 U.S. v. IBM
On January 17, 1969, the United States of America filed a complaint in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, alleging that IBM violated the Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general-purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business. Subsequently, the US government alleged IBM violated the antitrust laws in IBM's actions directed against leasing companies and plug-compatible peripheral manufacturers.
In June 1969 IBM unbundled its software and services in what many observers believed was in anticipation of and a direct result of the 1969 US Antitrust lawsuit. Overnight a competitive software market was created.[301]
Among the major violations asserted[302] were:
- Anticompetitive price discrimination such as giving away software services.
- Bundling of software with "related computer hardware equipment" for a single price.
- Predatorily priced and preannounced specific hardware "fighting machines".
- Developed and announced specific hardware products primarily for the purpose of discouraging customers from acquiring competing products.
- Announced certain future products knowing that it was unlikely to be able to ship such products within the announced time frame.
- Engaged in below cost and discount conduct in selected markets in order to injure peripheral manufacturers and leasing companies.
It was in some ways one of the great single firm monopoly cases of all times. IBM produced 30 million pages of materials during discovery; it submitted its executives to a series of pretrial depositions. Trial began six years after the complaint was filed and then it battled in court for another six years. The trial transcript contains over 104,400 pages with thousands of documents placed in the record. It ended on January 8, 1982 when William Baxter, the then Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice dropped the case as “without merit.”[298]
1969-1981 Private antitrust lawsuits
The U.S.'s 1969 antitrust lawsuit was followed by about 18 private antitrust complaints all but one of which IBM ultimately won. Some notable lawsuits include:
Greyhound Computer Corp.
Greyhound a leasing company filed a case under Illinois’ state antitrust law in Illinois state court.[303] This case went to trial in federal court in 1972 in Arizona with a directed verdict for IBM on the antitrust claims; however, the court of appeals in 1977 reversed the decision. Just before the retrial was to start in January 1981, IBM and Greyhound settled the case for $17.7 million.[299]
Telex Corp.
Telex, a peripherals equipment manufacturer filed suit on January 21, 1972, charging that IBM had monopolized and had attempted to monopolize the worldwide manufacture, distribution, sales, and leasing of electronic data processing equipment including the relevant submarket of plug-compatible peripheral devices. After a non-jury trial in 1973, IBM was found guilty “possessing and exercising monopoly power” over the “plug-compatible peripheral equipment market,” and ordered to pay triple damages of $352.5‐million and other relief including disclosure of peripheral interface specifications. Separately Telex was found guilty of misappropriated IBM trade secrets.[304] The judgment against IBM was overturned on appeal and on October 4, 1975, both parties announced they were terminating their actions against each other.[305]
Other private lawsuits
Other private lawsuits ultimately won by IBM include California Computer Products Inc.,[306] Memorex Corp.,[307] Marshall Industries, Hudson General Corp., Transamerica Corporation[308] and Forro Precision, Inc.
1980-1984 European Union
The European Economic Communities Commission on Monopolies initiated proceedings against IBM under article 86 of the Treaty of Rome for exploiting its domination of the continent's computer business and abusing its dominant market position by engaging in business practices designed to protect its position against plug-compatible manufacturers. The case was settled in 1984 with IBM agreeing to change its business practices with regard to disclosure of device interface information.[309]
Productos y tecnologias
- See List of IBM products
Evolution of IBM's computer hardware
The story of IBM's hardware is intertwined with the story of the computer industry – from vacuum tubes, to transistors, to integrated circuits, to microprocessors and beyond. The following systems and series represent key steps:
- IBM mainframe - overview
- IBM SSEC – 1948, the first operational machine able to treat its instructions as data
- IBM Card Programmed Calculator – 1949
- IBM 700 series – 1952–1958
- IBM NORC – 1954, the first supercomputer[310]
- IBM 650 – 1954, the world's first mass-produced computer
- SAGE AN/FSQ-7 – 1958, half an acre of floor space, 275 tons, up to three megawatts, ... the largest computers ever built
- IBM 7000 series – 1959–1964, transistorized evolution of IBM 700 series
- IBM 1400 series – 1959, "... by the mid-1960s nearly half of all computer systems in the world were 1401-type systems."[311]
- IBM System/360 – 1964, the first family of computers designed to cover the complete range of applications, small to large, commercial and scientific
- IBM System/3
- IBM System/370
- IBM System/38
- IBM Series/1
- IBM 801 RISC processor
- IBM PC
- PowerPC
- IBM System i was earlier IBM AS/400 then IBM eServer iSeries
- IBM RS/6000
- IBM zSeries was earlier IBM System/390
- Cell processor
- IBM Watson (computer)
Components
- History of IBM magnetic disk drives
- Magnetic tape data storage#IBM formats
Evolution of IBM's operating systems
IBM operating systems have paralleled hardware development. On early systems, operating systems represented a relatively modest level of investment, and were essentially viewed as an adjunct to the hardware. By the time of the System/360, however, operating systems had assumed a much larger role, in terms of cost, complexity, importance, and risk.
Mainframe operating systems include:
- OS family, including: OS/360, OS/MFT, OS/MVT, OS/VS1, OS/VS2, MVS, OS/390, z/OS
- DOS family, including: DOS/360, DOS/VS, DOS/VSE, z/VSE
- VM family, including: CP/CMS (See: History of CP/CMS), VM/370, VM/XA, VM/ESA, z/VM
- Special purpose systems, including: TPF, z/TPF
Other significant operating systems include:
- IBM AIX
- IBM i (previously known as OS/400 and i5/OS)
- PowerLinux, Linux on IBM Z
High-level languages
Early IBM computer systems, like those from many other vendors, were programmed using assembly language. Computer science efforts through the 1950s and early 1960s led to the development of many new high-level languages (HLL) for programming. IBM played a complicated role in this process. Hardware vendors were naturally concerned about the implications of portable languages that would allow customers to pick and choose among vendors without compatibility problems. IBM, in particular, helped create barriers that tended to lock customers into a single platform.
IBM had a significant role in the following major computer languages:
- FORTRAN – for years, the dominant language for mathematics and scientific programming
- PL/I – an attempt to create a "be all and end all" language
- COBOL – eventually the ubiquitous, standard language for business applications
- APL – an early interactive language with a mathematical notation
- PL/S – an internal systems programming language proprietary to IBM
- RPG – an acronym for 'Report Program Generator', developed on the IBM 1401 to produce reports from data files. General Systems Division enhanced the language to HLL status on its midrange systems to rival with COBOL.
- SQL – a relational query language developed for IBM's System R; now the standard RDBMS query language
- Rexx – a macro and scripting language based on PL/I syntax originally developed for Conversational Monitor System (CMS) and authored by IBM Fellow Mike Cowlishaw
IBM and AIX/UNIX/Linux/SCO
IBM developed a schizophrenic relationship with the UNIX and Linux worlds. The importance of IBM's large computer business placed strange pressures on all of IBM's attempts to develop other lines of business. All IBM projects faced the risk of being seen as competing against company priorities. This was because, if a customer decided to build an application on an RS/6000 platform, this also meant that a decision had been made against a mainframe platform. So despite having some excellent technology, IBM often placed itself in a compromised position.
A case in point is IBM's GFIS products for infrastructure management and GIS applications. Despite long having a dominant position in such industries as electric, gas, and water utilities, IBM stumbled badly in the 1990s trying to build workstation-based solutions to replace its old mainframe-based products. Customers were forced to move on to new technologies from other vendors; many felt betrayed by IBM.
IBM embraced open source technologies in the 1990s. It later became embroiled in a complex litigation with SCO group over intellectual property rights related to the UNIX and Linux platforms.
BICARSA (Billing, Inventory Control, Accounts Receivable, & Sales Analysis)
1983 saw the announcement of the System/36, the replacement for the System/34. And in 1988, IBM announced the AS/400, intended to represent a point of convergence for both System/36 customers and System/38 customers. The 1970s had seen IBM develop a range of Billing, Inventory Control, Accounts Receivable, & Sales Analysis (BICARSA ) applications for specific industries: construction (CMAS), distribution (DMAS), and manufacturing (MMAS), all written in the RPG II language. By the end of the 1980s, IBM had almost completely withdrawn from the BICARSA applications marketplace. Because of developments in the antitrust cases against IBM brought by the US government and European Union, IBM sales representatives were now able to work openly with application software houses as partners. (For a period in the early 1980s, a 'rule of three' operated, which obliged IBM sales representatives, if they were to propose a third-party application to a customer, to also list at least two other third-party vendors in the IBM proposal. This caused some amusement to the customer, who would typically have engaged in intense negotiations with one of the third parties and probably not have heard of the other two vendors.)
Non-computer lines of business
IBM has largely been known for its overtaking UNIVAC's early 1950s public fame, then leading in the computer industry for much of the latter part of the century. However, it has also had roles, some significant, in other industries, including:
- IBM was the largest supplier of unit record equipment (punched cards, keypunches, accounting machines, ...) in the first part of the 20th century.
- Food services (meat and coffee grinders, computing cheese slicers, computing scales) – founding to 1934, sold to Hobart Manufacturing Co.[312]
- Time recorders (punch clocks, school, and factory clocks) – founding to 1958, sold to Simplex Time Recorder Company.[40] See IBM: History of the Time Equipment Division and its Products and this 1935 catalog - International Time Recording Catalog
- Typewriters, personal printers. See IBM Electric typewriter, IBM Selectric typewriter. IBM divested in 1991, now part of Lexmark.[313]
- Copiers - 1970 to 1988. Sold to Eastman Kodak in 1988.
- Other office products such as dictation machines, word processors.
- Military products (Browning Automatic Rifle, bombsights) – IBM's World War II production
- Digital telephone switches – partnership (1983), acquisition (1984), and sale (1989–1992) of ROLM to Siemens AG[205][206][207][208]
- Stadium scoreboards
- Real estate (at one time owning vast tracts of undeveloped land on the U.S. east coast)
- Medical instruments: heart-lung machine, prostheses, IBM 2991 Blood Cell Washer, IBM 2997 Blood Cell Separator, IBM 5880 Electrocardiograph System
Organización
CEOs, Notable IBMers
- List of IBM CEOs
- IBM Fellow
For IBM's corporate biographies of former CEOs and many others see: IBM Archives Biographies Builders reference room
IBM Global Services
IBM Research
See also History of IBM research in Israel
IBM Federal Systems Division (FSD)
A significant part of IBM's operations were FSD's contracts with the U.S. Federal Government for a wide range of projects ranging from the Department of Defense to the National Security Agency. These projects spanned mundane administrative processing to top-secret supercomputing. In NASA's Apollo Program, the "brains" of each Saturn rocket was the Instrument Unit built by the IBM Space Systems Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Founded in 1957, FSD was sold to Loral in 1994.
International subsidiaries growth
IBM had subsidiaries and operations in 70 countries in its early years. They included Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, and others.
IBM service organizations
IBM's early dominance of the computer industry was in part due to its strong professional services activities. IBM's advantage in building software for its own computers eventually was seen as monopolistic, leading to antitrust proceedings. As a result, a complex, artificial "arms-length" relationship was created separating IBM's computer business from its service organizations. This situation persisted for decades. An example was IBM Global Services, a huge services firm that competed with the likes of Electronic Data Systems or Computer Sciences Corporation.
Ver también
- Category IBM articles
notas y referencias
- ^ Jim Spohrer, "IBM's service journey: A summary sketch." Industrial Marketing Management 60 (2017): 167-172.
- ^ CNET Networks, "IBM challenges partner Cisco".
- ^ "IBM, Fortune 500, 2015". Fortune. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
- ^ "IBM maintains patent lead, moves to increase patent quality". IBM. January 10, 2006.
- ^ "Worldwide IBM Research Locations". IBM. Retrieved September 26, 2014.
- ^ "2014 IBM Annual Report" (PDF). IBM. Retrieved September 26, 2015.
- ^ "Awards & Achievements". IBM. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
- ^ Bennett, Frank P.; Company (June 17, 1911). United States Investor. 22, Part 2. p. 1298 (26).
- ^ Belden, Martin; Belden, Marva (1961). The Life of Thomas J. Watson, Little, Brown; p.92
- ^ "IBM Archives: Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (1911–1924)".
- ^ Maney, Kevin; Hamm, Steve; O'Brien, Jeffrey M. (2011). Making the World Work Better - The ideas that shaped a century and a company, IBM Press; p.19
- ^ "Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co", Appendix to Hearings Before the Committee on Patents, House of Representatives, Seventy-Fourth Congress, on H. R. 4523, Part III, United States Government Printing Office, 1935 [Incorporation paperwork filed 16 June 1911]
- ^ Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer a History of the Information Machine – Second Edition, Westview Press, pages 37–39 2004
- ^ "IBM Archives: Chronological History of IBM 1880s". IBM. Retrieved September 27, 2015.
- ^ Rodgers, Williams (1969). THINK. Stein and Day. p. 83.
- ^ "IBM Archives: Charles R. Flint".
- ^ The last page of this ref shows continued use of established names. The 2nd ref shows the consolidation into IBM in 1933 The Inventory Simplified Archived October 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, published in 1923, states: "The Tabulating Machine Company - Division of - International Business Machines Corporation".
- ^ Flint, Charles R. (1923). Memories of an Active Life: Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax. G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 312.
- ^ Officemuseum.com – early Hollerith history, with good photographs of period equipment
- ^ Austrian, Geoffrey D. (1982). Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing. Columbia University Press. p. 138. ISBN 0-231-05146-8.
- ^ a b Belden (1962) p.125
- ^ Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895. Washington, D.C., July 29, 1895. Page 9: {{You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census.}} Carroll D. Wright Commissioner of Labor in Charge
- ^ Truesdell, Leon E. (1965) The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890-1940, US GPO, p.61
- ^ (Austrian, 1982, p.69)
- ^ "Computing at Columbia: Timeline – Early". Columbia.edu. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co, 14th day of June 1911
- ^ Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. pp. 24–27. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
- ^ Maney (2003) p.57
- ^ "Mullich, Joe; Hiring Without Limits Workforce Management June 2004, pp. 53–58". Workforce.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Rodgers, William; THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM Stein and Day, NY NY, p. 52.
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.57
- ^ "IBM Archives: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS, page 15" (PDF). IBM.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920". IBM. January 23, 2003.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Greenwald, John (July 11, 1983). "The Colossus That Works". TIME. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2019.
- ^ a b "IBM Archives: 1924". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "First quarter Century Club". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "Hundred Percent Club "main tent"". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1988". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM International Daily Dial Attendance Recorder". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b IBM Archives: Text of IBM's October 24, 1958 press release announcing the sale of its time equipment (clocks, et al.) business to Simplex Time Recorder Company.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Time Device". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM's swing era oldies (vol. 1)". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. pp. 8–34. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- ^ "IBM Archives/Business Machines: Fred M. Carroll". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Bashe (1986) pp.9–14
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920s". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1920". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Archive: 1923". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b "IBM Archives: 1928". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "History". morimura.co.jp. Morimura Brothers, Inc. Archived from the original on February 4, 2014. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ a b "History of Innovation on the 75th anniversary of founding IBM Japan". ibm.com. IBM. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ "IBM Highlights, 1885–1969" (PDF). ibm.com. IBM. Retrieved February 1, 2014.
- ^ "IBM 301 Accounting Machine (the Type IV)". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Columbia University Professor Ben Wood". Columbia.edu. December 2, 1954. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology. MIT. p. 67. ISBN 0-262-16147-8.
- ^ a b Pugh (1995) p.50
- ^ Rogers, William (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. Stein and Day. p. 108.
- ^ Maney, Kevin (2003). The Maverick and His Machine. Wiley. p. 154. ISBN 0-471-41463-8.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1930s". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b "IBM Archives: World Headquarters, N.Y. City". IBM Archives. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Bashe, Charles J.; Johnson, Lyle R; Palmer, John H.; Pugh, Emerson W. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT. p. 14. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- ^ Eames, Charles; Eames, Ray (1973). A Computer Perspective. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 95. The date given, 1920, should be 1931 (see the Columbia Difference Tabulator web site)
- ^ "Columbia Difference Tabulator". Columbia.edu. March 1, 1920. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Columbia Alumni News, Vol.XXIII, No.11, December 11, 1931, p.1
- ^ New York Times, July 15, 1933, All subsidiaries of the International Business Machines Corporation in this county have been merged with the parent company to obtain efficient operation.
- ^ William Rodgers (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. p. 83.
- ^ "Date". jeanbellec.pagesperso-orange.fr.
- ^ Rogers (1969) p.108
- ^ Typewriter#Early electric models
- ^ "Word Pro - 1406HA02.lwp" (PDF). Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Watson, Jr., Thomas J.; Petre, Peter (1990). Father, Son & Co.: my life at IBM and beyond. Bantam. p. 73. ISBN 0-553-07011-8.
- ^ "Industry Player Business Simulation Game". Industryplayer.com. Archived from the original on February 20, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Social Security Online, Research Note #6".
- ^ "International Business Machines Corp. v. United States, 298 U.S. 131 (1936)". Justia.
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.72
- ^ "IBM 077 Collator". 03.ibm.com. November 27, 1957. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archive: Endicott card manufacturing". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.70–71
- ^ Maney, Kevin (2003). The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr., and the Making of IBM. Wiley. pp. 207–210. ISBN 978-0-471-41463-6.
- ^ IBM and the Holocaust, Edwin Black, 2001 Crown / Random House. see index.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1937". 03.ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM 1940 product brochure" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 4, 2014.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1940s". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Feynman, Richard P.; Ralph Leighton (April 17, 1997). Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! (Adventures of a Curious Character). New York, New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-31604-9.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype (continued)". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype Installations". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: Washington Card Plant". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: San Jose Card Plant". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Tyson, Thomas N; Fleischman, Richard K. (June 2006). "Accounting for interned Japanese-American civilians during World War II: Creating incentives and establishing controls for captive workers". Accounting Historians Journal. Thomson Gale. 33 (1): 167. doi:10.2308/0148-4184.33.1.167.
- ^ a b "Edwin Black on IBM and the Holocaust". Writing.upenn.edu. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Press room - 2001-02-14. "IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit"". 03.ibm.com. February 14, 2001. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ IBM Press Room (March 29, 2002). "Addendum to IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit". Press Release. Armonk, New York: ibm.com. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ "'I.B.M. and the Holocaust': Assessing the Culpability". Nytimes.com. March 7, 2001. Retrieved June 16, 2011.
- ^ "Hawthorne, Nan; IBM Makes Inclusion a Global Priority eSight Careers Network". Esight.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Amonette, Ruth Leach; Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President Creative Arts Book ISBN 978-0-88739-219-1, pp. 86–89, 97.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.72–76
- ^ Encyclopaedia of Information Technology Atlantic Publishers & Distributors 2007, p. 590.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.127–129
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) p.284
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) p.285
- ^ a b Watson, Jr. (1990) p.306
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.230
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.210
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.216ff
- ^ Wendover, Robert (2003). High Performance Hiring. Thomson Crisp Learning. p. 179. ISBN 1-56052-666-1.
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) p.342
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.124
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1946". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Heritage". 03.ibm.com. Archived from the original on May 18, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.124–127
- ^ "IBM Archives: Space Flight Chronology". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b Pugh (1995) pp.223–224
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.222
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.178–182
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.161
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.224–228
- ^ "CNET". News.cnet.com. July 2, 1996. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Jessie Scanlon (January 29, 2007). "The Forgotten Pioneer of Corporate Design". Business Week.
- ^ "ZRL 50th Anniversary". Zurich.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) pp.271, 274–278
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.263–265
- ^ McCarthy, John/Feigenbaum, Ed; In Memoriam: Arthur Samuel: Pioneer in Machine Learning AI Magazine, Vol. 11, No. 3 1990
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.194–197
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.207–219
- ^ "IBM 1958 press release announcing the sale of the domestic time equipment business to Simplex Time Recorder Company" (PDF).
- ^ Mills, Daniel Quinn/ Friesen, G. Bruce; Broken Promises: An Unconventional View of What Went Wrong at IBM, Harvard Business Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-87584-654-5, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Thelen, Ed; Highlights of IBM History 1967 Archived January 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.265–268
- ^ "Columbia University Computing History". Columbia.edu. September 26, 2002. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ * E.W. Pugh, L.R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, IBM's 360 and early 370 systems, MIT Press, Cambridge MA and London, ISBN 0-262-16123-0
– extensive (819 pp.) treatment of IBM's offerings during this period - ^ Wise, T.A. (1966). "I.B.M.'s $5,000,000,000 Gamble". Fortune. Time Inc. LXXIV (4): 118–123, 224–228.
- ^ The other companies were sometimes referred to as "the BUNCH" (Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell, plus GE and RCA) "ibm-and-the-seven-dwarfs". Dvorak.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Burton Grad, A Personal Recollection: IBM's Unbundling of Software and Services, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jan–Mar 2002), pp. 64–71.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1960s". IBM. Retrieved November 12, 2010.
Rather than offer hardware, services and software exclusively in packages, marketers "unbundled" the components and offered them for sale individually. Unbundling gave birth to the multibillion-dollar software and services industries, of which IBM is today a world leader
- ^ Pugh, Emerson W. Origins of Software Bundling. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jan–Mar 2002): pp. 57–58.
- ^ Hamilton, Thomas W., IBM's unbundling decision: Consequences for users and the industry, Programming Sciences Corporation, 1969.
- ^ Posted by Deborah Hartz-Seeley on June 29, 2011 at 1:00pm; Blog, View. "Boca Raton: Exhibit chronicles computer giant's big footprint". thecoastalstar.com. Retrieved February 18, 2020.
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) pp.382–383
- ^ Simmons & Elsberry 1988, p. 160 .
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.240–242
- ^ "Eliot Fette Noyes, FIDSA". Industrial Design Society of America—About ID. Retrieved November 18, 2009.[dead link]
- ^ "IBM typewriter milestones". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ IBM RPG
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) p.302
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) p.347
- ^ Watson, Jr. (1990) pp.346–360
- ^ Dullea, Georgia; Is It a Boon for Secretaries—Or Just an Automated Ghetto? The New York Times, February 5, 1971, p. 32.
- ^ Fuchs, Marek; County Lines: Onward in Armonk, New York Times, February 24, 2002
- ^ IBM Gemini Guidance Computer, Fact Sheet at Johnson Space Center History Office, February 17, 1966.
- ^ Stanton, Jeffrey; IBM Pavilion
- ^ "MIT Inventor of the Week: Dennard". Web.mit.edu. September 5, 1932. Archived from the original on April 15, 2003. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ IBM System/4 Pi
- ^ Benoît Mandelbrot
- ^ "Cicswiki". Cicswiki. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Antitrust Suit Records, Hagley Museum and Library". Hagley.lib.de.us. Archived from the original on February 17, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b c d Salmans, Sandra (January 9, 1982). "Dominance Ended, I.B.M. Fights Back". The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
- ^ Gibson, Stanley (June 19, 1989). "Software industry born with IBM's unbundling". Computerworld. 23 (25): 6. Retrieved June 21, 2020.
- ^ Schoenherr, Steven; The History of Magnetic Recording Archived August 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, University of San Diego, November 5, 2002
- ^ Joined 1948, became CEO in 1973 according to Frank T. Cary at IBM Archive site.
- ^ a b Forest, Robert B. (December 15, 1971). "Close Cooperation: Europe's Best Hope". Datamation. pp. 26–33. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g Pollack, Andrew (January 20, 1985). "The Daunting Power of I.B.M." The New York Times. p. Section 3, Page 1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
- ^ a b c Cooper, Charles (August 10, 2001). "IBM's 'Dirty Dozen' remembers". ZDNet. Retrieved March 11, 2020.
- ^ Pugh (1995) p.304
- ^ Pugh (1995) pp.307–309
- ^ B.H. Juang & Lawrence R. Rabiner; Automatic Speech Recognition: A Brief History of the Technology Development, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Rutgers University and the University of California, Santa Barbara
- ^ Mary Bellis, About.com: The Invention of the Floppy Disk Drive
- ^ "Computer History Museum: Collections: Disk Drive Oral History Panel". Computerhistory.org. April 6, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Esaki". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "What is Systems Network Architecture (SNA)?". Publib.boulder.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "John R. Opel". IBM. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Sanger, David E. (July 7, 1985). "The Changing Image of I.B.M." The New York Times. p. Section 6, Page 13. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 11, 2020.
- ^ a b Sanger, David E. (April 22, 1984). "The Heady World of I.B.M. Suppliers". The New York Times. p. Section 3, Page 1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
- ^ a b Pollack, Andrew (August 13, 1981). "Big I.B.M.'s Little Computer". The New York Times. p. D1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
- ^ a b Libes, Sol (December 1981). "Bytelines". BYTE. pp. 314–318. Retrieved January 29, 2015.
- ^ a b c Burton, Kathleen (February 1983). "Anatomy of a Colossus, Part II". PC Magazine. p. 316. Retrieved October 21, 2013.
- ^ a b "I.B.M.'S Speedy Redirection". The New York Times. November 2, 1983. Retrieved February 25, 2011.
- ^ Camenker, Brian (November 1983). "The Making of the IBM PC". BYTE. pp. 254, 256. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
- ^ a b Sandler, Corey (November 1984). "IBM: Colossus of Armonk". Creative Computing. p. 298. Retrieved February 26, 2013.
- ^ a b Jeffery, Brian (September 30, 1985). "IBM's high-end micros encroaching on mini territory". Computerworld. pp. SR/20–21. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
- ^ a b c d Pollack, Andrew (March 27, 1983). "Big I.B.M. Has Done It Again". The New York Times. p. Section 3, Page 1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
- ^ Kleinfield, N. R. (October 31, 1981). "I.B.M.'S VENTURE INTO RETAILING". The New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2018.
- ^ Schrage, Michael (February 17, 1985). "IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on August 29, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2018.
- ^ a b Gens, Frank; Christiansen, Chris (November 1983). "Could 1,000,000 IBM PC Users Be Wrong?". BYTE. p. 135. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
- ^ Sanger, David E. (February 5, 1984). "Bailing Out of the Mainframe Industry". The New York Times. p. Section 3, Page 1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 2, 2020.
- ^ a b "Can Anybody Tackle IBM?". The Economist. November 26, 1983.
- ^ Sanger, David E. (January 18, 1985). "Computer Giant Finds Problems in Success". The New York Times. Retrieved February 25, 2011.
- ^ Sanger, David E. (November 19, 1984). "I.B.M. Entry Unchallenged at Show". The New York Times. p. D1. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
- ^ Rosenberg, Ronald (January 6, 1985). "When the Chips Are Down, Industry Elite Take Over; IBM, AT & T, Digital See Robust 1985, While Small Guys Still Shaking Out". The Boston Globe. p. 49.
- ^ "IBM Archives: 1993".
- ^ "History of Science.com". History of Science.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Obsolete Technology Website". Oldcomputers.net. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Mary Bellis, About.com: History of Computer Printers
- ^ Boone, J.V.; A Brief History of Cryptography, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 978-1-59114-084-9, p.97
- ^ Barcoding, Inc. "Barcoding, Inc.: Barcode History". Barcoding.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Daniel/Mee/Clark, Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years, p. 270
- ^ "IBM Archives: Thermal Conduction Module". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "John Cocke Biography". Domino.watson.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Mary Bellis, About.com: The History of the IBM PC
- ^ "History of Laser Surgery Online". Lasereyesurgeryonline.org. August 22, 2010. Archived from the original on February 27, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Hagley Museum and Library, IBM Antitrust Suit Records: Background". Hagley.lib.de.us. Archived from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Bastian, Boisseau, et al; IBM France La Gaude Laboratory Contributions to Telecommunications, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, April/June 2009, p.25.
- ^ "PCjr Sales Less Than Expected". The New York Times. April 20, 1984. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
- ^ "Meeting the Needs of the GLBT Business Community" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ a b IBM Archives: 1983. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.
- ^ a b IBM Archives: 1984. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.
- ^ a b IBM Archives: 1989. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.
- ^ a b IBM Archives: 1992. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: RP3". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Miller, Philip/ Cummins, Michael; LAN Technologies Explained, Digital Press, 2000 ISBN 978-1-55558-234-0, p. 283.
- ^ "ARC History". Almaden.ibm.com. Archived from the original on May 24, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Nobel Prize 1986". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Nobel Prize 1987". Nobelprize.org. October 14, 1987. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ O’Regan, Gerard; A Brief History of Computing Springer, 2008 ISBN 978-1-84800-083-4, p. 213.
- ^ "IBM PC - The first 10 years". Retrieved October 29, 2013.
- ^ "Search400.com Quiz: iSeries". Search400.techtarget.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "NSFNet: A Partnership for High Speed Networking". Livinginternet.com. June 15, 1987. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Arik Hesseldahl, 06.27.01, 11:30 am ET (June 27, 2001). "Hesseldahl, Arik; IBM Pushes The Silicon Edge Forbes.com 06.27.01, 11:30 am ET". Forbes. Retrieved April 24, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ "IBM System/390 Announcement". 03.ibm.com. September 5, 1990. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "The Centre for Computing History: IBM RS/6000". Computinghistory.org.uk. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IEEE Global History Network: Eigler". Ieeeghn.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "09-089 – Making Sustainability Sustainable: Passion and Process in Environmental Management at IBM" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 18, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "United States' Memorandum in Support of Partial Judgment Termination, United States District Court: Southern District of New York, September 11, 1995". Usdoj.gov. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Dell, Deborah/Purdy, J. Gerry; ThinkPad: A Different Shade of Blue Sams ISBN 978-0-672-31756-9
- ^ Gerstner, Jr., Louis V. (2002). Who Says Elephants Can't Dance?: Inside IBM's Historic Turnaround. New York, New York: Harper Business. p. 372. ISBN 0-06-052379-4.
- ^ Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.104
- ^ Gerstner, Jr. (2002) pp.108,130
- ^ Shankland, Stephen (July 30, 2002). "IBM grabs consulting giant for $3.5 billion". cnet.com. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
- ^ Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.145
- ^ Lewis, Peter H. (August 8, 1995). "PERSONAL COMPUTERS; OS/2 No Longer at Home at Home". The New York Times.
- ^ "Microsoft Urged IBM to Yank Smart Suite". PCWorld. June 7, 1999. Archived from the original on September 10, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "C. The Similar Experiences of Other Firms in Dealing with Microsoft". Albion.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.44ff
- ^ Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.151
- ^ Joe Wilcox (October 6, 2002). "IBM's ThinkPad turns 10". CNET News.com. Archived from the original on July 1, 2006.
- ^ Hans Meuer, Supercomputer 97 Conference in Mannheim. "Top500.org". Top500.org. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM.com". Domino.research.ibm.com. January 20, 2009. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.88ff
- ^ Phil Wainewright (November 4, 2002). "Big Blue's Vision is Self-Centered". ASPNews.com.
- ^ Ted Schadler (January 21, 2003). "Forrester Report: IBM's Open Source Stance". CNET.com.
- ^ "IBM.com". 03.ibm.com. Archived from the original on August 25, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Witi.com". Witi.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Burgess, John; IBM's $5 Billion Loss Highest in American Corporate History The Washington Post". Tech.mit.edu. January 20, 1993. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Mashberg, Tom; Gerstner Takes Charge at IBM Becomes 1st Outsider to Lead Firm The Boston Globe March 27, 1993[dead link]
- ^ Snir, M.; Scalable parallel systems: past, present and future (from an IBM perspective) mppoi, pp.33, 3rd Massively Parallel Processing Using Optical Interconnections (MPPOI '96), 1996
- ^ "History's Greatest Corporate Turnaround? The Man Who Rescued IBM From the Edge of Oblivion CNN.com Thursday, December 8, 2005". CNN. December 8, 2005. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Ships 1000th RAMAC Array Disk Storage The Free Library". Thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Corcoran, Cate; Dictation Package Takes Down 70 Words Per Minute InfoWorld November 8, 1993
- ^ "IBM Buys Lotus To Get Notes". AllBusiness.com. June 19, 1995. Archived from the original on March 31, 2009.
- ^ "Browne, Malcolm; 448 Computers Identify Particle Called Glueball New York Times December 19, 1995". The New York Times. December 19, 1995. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "ARL History". Research.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Thomas Wailgum (March 15, 2000). "Wailgum, Thomas; IT Disaster at the Atlanta Olympics CIO.com March 15, 2000". Cio.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Archives: Valuing Diversity – Heritage". 03.ibm.com. Archived from the original on August 25, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Endgame: It's All Work Now for Deep Blue, Chess Champ New York Times September 24, 1997
- ^ "IBM Corp – Shift To E-business Services". Ecommerce.hostip.info. Archived from the original on February 16, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM demonstrates world's first 1000 MHz microprocessor". 03.ibm.com. February 5, 1998. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Research - IBM Research - Blue Gene". arquivo.pt. Archived from the original on December 23, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
- ^ "IBM Scientists Discover Nanotech Communication Method". Almaden.ibm.com. February 3, 2000. Archived from the original on April 14, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Leander Kahney (June 29, 2000). "Kahney, Leander; IBM's Got a Big, Bad Computer". Wired. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Fairley, Peter; Flexible Transistors Technology Review February 1, 2001". Technologyreview.com. February 1, 2001. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Lisa DiCarlo, 08.23.00, 12:00 am ET (August 23, 2000). "DiCarlo, Lisa; IBM, Olympics Part Ways After 40 Years Forbes. com August 23, 2000". Forbes. Retrieved April 24, 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ IBM Faces Lawsuit Over Nazi Claim February 12, 2001 CNN.com[dead link]
- ^ "IBM Scientists Develop Breakthrough Carbon Nanotube Transistor Technology". 03.ibm.com. April 27, 2001. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Launches High-Powered Initiative for Low-Power Products and Services". 03.ibm.com. October 1, 2001. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM'S 'Pixie Dust' Breakthrough To Quadruple Disk Drive Density". 03.ibm.com. May 21, 2001. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM's Strained Silicon Breakthrough Image Page". Research.ibm.com. June 8, 2001. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Hitachi to Buy IBM's Hard Drive Business". https://www.pcmag.com/. June 5, 2002. Retrieved March 8, 2014. External link in
|publisher=
(help) - ^ "IBM and Department of Energy's NNSA Partner to Expand IBM's Blue Gene Research Project". Research.ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "Crusade Against Cancer 3A: Collaborations On The Anvil". Bio-medicine.org. April 20, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "CNET.com". News.cnet.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Real Time Voice Translation Software Heads to Iraq". Cio.com. December 1, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM ranks 12th on the U.S. EPA's Fortune 500 List of Green Power Partners for 2007". Ibm.com. February 12, 2008. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "The Beacon Institute". Bire.org. Archived from the original on February 27, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ "IBM Stream computing". Ibm.com. December 1, 2008. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Business Standard (January 15, 2009). "IBM tops patent leadership in 2008 too". Business-standard.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Hans Meuer, Supercomputer 97 Conference in Mannheim (June 19, 2009). "Top Two Slots on Newest TOP 500 List of Supercomputers Unchanged, but New Systems in Germany, Saudi Arabia are Shaking Things Up Top 500 Supercomputer Sites". Top500.org. Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Wallace, Alicia (June 17, 2008). "IBM Opens $350M Green Data Center". Daily Camera. Archived from the original on June 18, 2008.
- ^ "A Computer Called Watson". Ibm.com. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
- ^ Krantz, Mark; Swartz, Jon. IBM Shows secret to corporate longevity. USA Today. June 16, 2011. p.1B-3B
- ^ "IBM will acquire open-source cloud software company Red Hat". The Verge. Retrieved October 28, 2018.
- ^ Kolodny, Lora (October 28, 2018). "IBM to acquire Red Hat in deal valued at $34 billion". CNBC. Retrieved October 28, 2018.
- ^ Wattles, Jackie (October 28, 2018). "IBM to acquire cloud computing firm Red Hat for $34 billion". CNN.
- ^ "IBM to acquire software company Red Hat for $34 billion". Reuters. October 28, 2018.
- ^ "IBM to Acquire Linux Distributor Red Hat for $33.4 Billion". bloomberg.com. Retrieved October 28, 2018.
- ^ Rosenbush, Steven. "IBM's Red Hat Deal Laid Foundation for Split of Company Into Two Pieces". wsj.com. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
- ^ "IBM To Accelerate Hybrid Cloud Growth Strategy And Execute Spin-Off Of Market-Leading Managed Infrastructure Services Unit". ibm.com. IBM Corporation. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
- ^ Vengattil, Munsif. "IBM to break up 109-year old company to focus on cloud growth". reuters.com. Reuters. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
- ^ Asa Fitch and Dave Sebastian. "IBM to Spin Off Services Unit to Accelerate Cloud-Computing Pivot". wsj.com. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
- ^ Bendor-Samuel, Peter. "IBM Splits Into Two Companies". Forbes. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
- ^ Moorhead, Patrick. "IBM Spinning Off Infrastructure Managed Services Group To Focus On Cloud Is A Good Move". Forbes. Retrieved October 10, 2020.
- ^ a b Cortada, James W. (Spring 2018). "Change and Continuity at IBM: Key Themes in Histories of IBM". Business History Review. Harvard College. 92 (1): 117–148. doi:10.1017/S0007680518000041.
- ^ Yeager, Peter (2006). Corporate Crime. Transaction Publishers. p. 229. ISBN 9781412804936.
IBM’s skill, industry, and foresight, the judge pointed out, resulted in “a sophisticated, refined, highly organized, and methodologically processed” campaign to restrict the operations of many competitors.
- ^ "International Business Machines Corp. v. United States, 298 U.S. 131 (1936)". U.S. Supreme Court. April 27, 1936. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
- ^ Barak, Richman; Usselman, Steven (Spring 2014). "Elhauge on Tying: Vindicated by History". Tulsa Law Review. 49 (3): 111–125. SSRN 2775311.
- ^ a b "IBM 1956 CONSENT DECREE". U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York. January 25, 1956. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
- ^ a b c d Passell, Peter (June 9, 1994). "I.B.M. and the Limits of a Consent Decree". NY Times. Retrieved July 8, 2019.
- ^ "JUDGE SCHWARTZ PLEASES ALL IN IBM CONSENT DECREE CASE". Computer Business Review. July 9, 1996. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
- ^ a b Kerjan, Lilliane (February 1988). "ANTITRUST LAWS: the IBM and AT&T cases". Revue Française d'Études Américaines. Editions Belin. 35 (35): 89–102. doi:10.3406/rfea.1988.1304. JSTOR 20871797.
- ^ a b c Krohnke, Duane (July 30, 2011). "The IBM Antitrust Litigation". Retrieved May 26, 2019.
- ^ Behr, Peter (June 2, 1981). "IBM, Justice Rests Cases In Historic Antitrust Trial". Washington Post. Retrieved May 26, 2019.
- ^ "Software Becomes a Product". Computer History Museum. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
With software either custom made or given away free, there was a limited commercial market for it. At least, not until a lawsuit against IBM changed the game.
- ^ "UNITED STATES' MEMORANDUM ON THE 1969 CASE". United States Department Of Justice. October 5, 1995. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
- ^ Datamation, April 15, 1971, p.51
- ^ Smith, William D. (September 18, 1973). "I.B.M. Is Found Guilty in Antitrust Suit And Told to Pay Telex $352.5‐Million". NY Times. Retrieved May 26, 2019.
- ^ Smith f, William D (October 4, 1975). "I.B.M. and Telex Halt Litigation". NY Times. Retrieved May 26, 2019.
- ^ Datamation, March 1977, pp. 162-4, Directed verdict against CalComp on February 11, 1977.
- ^ "Memorex And I.B.M. In Mistrial". New York Times. July 6, 1978. Retrieved July 28, 2019.
The jury was deadlocked 9 to 2 in favor of Memorex.
- ^ "Transamerica Computer Co. v. International Business Machines Corp., 481 F. Supp. 965 (N.D. Cal. 1979)". December 20, 1979. Retrieved July 9, 2019.. Directed verdict after hung jury.
- ^ "The Multinational's Dilemma: The IBM Proceeding in Europe". Penn State International Law Review: Vol.3: No. 2, Article 6. 1985. Retrieved May 26, 2019.
- ^ da Cruz, Frank (October 18, 2004). "The IBM Naval Ordnance Research Calculator". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved October 20, 2006.
- ^ Spicer, Dag. "Back to Life: The story behind CHM's IBM 1401 Restoration" (PDF). Computer History Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 5, 2010. Retrieved May 27, 2011.
- ^ "Dayton scale factory". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
- ^ "IBM typewriter milestones". IBM. January 23, 2003. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
Otras lecturas
- Commentary, General Histories
- For more recent IBM subject books see: IBM#Further reading
- Henry Bakis (1977). IBM. Une multinationale régionale (in French). Presses Universitaires de Grenoble.
- Boyett, Joseph H.; Schwartz, Stephen; Osterwise, Laurence; Bauer, Roy (1993) The Quality Journey: How winning the Baldrige sparked the remaking of IBM, Dutton
- James W. Cortada (2019). IBM: The Rise and Fall and Reinvention of a Global Icon. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262039444.
- Richard Thomas DeLamarter (1986). Big Blue: IBM's Use and Abuse of Power. ISBN 0-396-08515-6.
- Engelbourg, Saul (1954) International Business Machines: A Business History, 385pp (doctoral dissertation). Reprinted by Arno, 1976
- Fisher, Franklin M.; McGowan, John J.; Greenwood, Joen E. (1983). Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM. MIT. ISBN 0-262-06086-8.
- Fisher, Franklin M.; McKie, James W.; Mancke, Richard B. (1983). IBM and the US Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. Praeger. ISBN 0-03-063059-2.
- Foy, Nancy (1975) The Sun Never Sets on IBM, William Morrow, 218pp (published in UK as The IBM World)
- IBM (1936) Machine Methods of Accounting This book is constructed from 18 pamphlets, the first of which (AM-01) is Development of International Business Machines Corporation - a 12-page 1936 IBM-written history of IBM.
- Malik, R. (1975) And Tomorrow the World: Inside IBM, Millington, 496pp
- Mills, D. Quinn (1988) The IBM Lesson: the profitable art of full employment, Times Books, 216pp
- Richardson, F.L.W. Jr.; Walker, Charles R. (1948). Human Relations in an Expanding Company. Labor and Management Center Yale University. Reprinted by Arno, 1977.
- Buck Rodgers (1986). The IBM Way. Harper & Row.
- William Rodgers (1969). THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM. ISBN 0-8128-1226-3.
- Robert Sobel (1981). IBM: Colossus in Transition. ISBN 0-8129-1000-1.
- Robert Sobel (2000) [1981]. Thomas Watson, Sr.: IBM and the Computer Revolution. ISBN 1-893122-82-4. *** A paperback reprint of IBM: Colossus in Transition.
- Robert Sobel (1986). IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future. ISBN 0-8128-3071-7.
- Technology
- For Punched card history, technology, see: Unit record equipment#Further reading
- For Herman Hollerith see: Herman Hollerith#Further reading
- Baker, Stephen (2012) Final Jeopardy: The Story of Watson, the Computer That Will Transform Our World, Mariner Books
- Baldwin, Carliss Y; Clark, Kim B. (2000) Design Rules: The Power of Modularity, vol.1, MIT. unique perspective on the 360 (Tedlow p. 305)
- Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R./Palmer, John H. (1986). IBM's Early Computers. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02225-7.
- Chposky, James; Leonsis, Ted (1988). Blue Magic: The People, Power, and Politics Behind The IBM Personal Computer. Facts on File.
- Dell, Deborah; Purdy, J. Gerry. ThinkPad: A Different Shade of Blue. Sams. ISBN 978-0-672-31756-9.
- Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8.
- Kelly, Brian W. (2004) Can the AS/400 Survive IBM?, Lets Go
- Killen, Michael (1988) IBM: The Making of the Common View, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
- Mills, H.D., O’Neill, D., Linger, R.C., Dyer, M., Quinnan, R.E. (1980) The Management of Software Engineering, IBM Systems Journal (SJ), Volume 19, Number 4, 1980, pages 414-477 http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/
- Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping and Industry and Its Technology. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
- Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16123-0.
- Pugh, Emerson W. (1984). Memories That Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to IBM System/360. MIT. p. 323. ISBN 0-262-16094-3.
- Soltis, Frank G. (2002) Fortress Rochester: The Inside Story of the IBM iSeries, 29th Street Press
- Yost, Jeffrey R. (2011) The IBM Century: Creating the IT Revolution, IEEE Computer Society
- Locations – Plants, Labs, Divisions, Countries
- Brennan, Jean Ford (1971). The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History. IBM. p. 68.
- DeLoca, Cornelius E.; Kalow, Samuel J. (1991) The Romance Division ... a different side of IBM , D & K Book, 223pp (history, strategy, key people in Electric Typewriter and successor Office Products Div)
- France, Boyd (1961) IBM in France, Washington National Planning Assoc
- Harvey, John (2008) Transition The IBM Story, Switzer (IBM IT services in Australia)
- Heide, Lars (2002) National Capital in the Emergence of a Challenger to IBM in France
- Jardine, Diane (ed) (2002) IBM @ 70: Blue Beneath the Southern Cross. Celebrating 70 Years of IBM in Australia, Focus
- Joseph, Allan (2010) Masked Intentions: Navigating a Computer Embargo on China, Trafford, 384pp
- Meredith, Suzanne; Aswad, Ed (2005) IBM in Endicott, Arcadia, 128pp
- Norberg, Arthur L.; Yost, Jeffrey R. (2006) IBM Rochester: A Half Century of Innovation, IBM
- Robinson, William Louis (2008) IBM's Shadow Force: The Untold Story of Federal Systems, The Secretive Giant that Safeguarded America, Thomas Max, 224pp
- Biographies, Memoirs
- For IBM's corporate biographies of former CEOs and many others see: IBM Archives Biographies Builders reference room
- Amonette, Ruth Leach (1999). Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President. Creative Arts Book Company. ISBN 0-88739-219-9.
- Beardsley, Max (2001) International Business Marionettes: An IBM Executive Struggles to Regain His Sanity after a Brutal Firing, Lucky Press
- Birkenstock, James W. (1999). Pioneering: On the Frontier of Electronic Data Processing, A Personal Memoir, self-published, 72pp
- Lewis M. Branscomb#Books by Lewis Branscomb
- Drandell, Milton (1990) IBM: The Other Side, 101 Former Employees Look Back, Quail
- Charles Ranlett Flint#Bibliography
- Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.#References
- Gould, Heywood (1971). Corporation Freak, Tower, 174pp ("...hired as an audio-visual consultant by the Advanced Systems Development Division ...")
- Herman Hollerith#Further reading
- Lamassonne, Luis A. (2001). My Life With IBM. Protea. ISBN 1-883707-65-X.
- Maisonrouge, Jacques (1985). Inside IBM: A Personal Story. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-039737-6.
- William W. Simmons#Selected publications
- Ulrich Steinhilper#IBM and later life
- Thomas, Charles (1993) Black and Blue: Profiles of Blacks in IBM, Atlanta Aaron, 181pp
- Thomas J. Watson#Further reading
- Thomas Watson, Jr.#Further reading
- Williamson, Gordon R. (2009) Memoirs of My Years with IBM: 1951-1986, Xlibris, 768pp[self-published source]
enlaces externos
- IBM Archives, History of IBM
- IBM at 100 – IBM reviews and reflects on its first 100 years
- THINK: Our History of Progress; 1890s to 2001. IBM
- Oral History with James W. Birkenstock, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Birkenstock was an adviser to the president and subsequently as Director of Product Planning and Market Analysis at IBM. In this oral history, Birkenstock discusses the metamorphosis of the company from leader of the tabulating machine industry to leader of the data processing industry. He describes his involvement with magnetic tape development in 1947, the involvement of IBM in the Korean War, the development of the IBM 701 computer (known internally as the Defense Calculator), and the emergence of magnetic core memory from the SAGE project. He then recounts the entry of IBM into the commercial computer market with the IBM 702. The end of the interview concerns IBM's relationship with other early entrants in the international computer industry, including litigation with Sperry Rand, its cross-licensing agreements, and cooperation with Japanese electronics firms.