La Internet de las cosas ( IoT ) describe la red de objetos físicos-AKA "cosas" -que están incrustados con sensores, software y otras tecnologías con el fin de conectar e intercambiar datos con otros dispositivos y sistemas a través de Internet . [1] [2] [3] [4]
Las cosas han evolucionado debido a la convergencia de múltiples tecnologías , análisis en tiempo real , aprendizaje automático , sensores de productos básicos y sistemas integrados . [1] Los campos tradicionales de los sistemas integrados , las redes de sensores inalámbricos , los sistemas de control, la automatización (incluida la automatización del hogar y de los edificios ) y otros, contribuyen a habilitar la Internet de las cosas. En el mercado de consumo, la tecnología IoT es más sinónimo de productos pertenecientes al concepto de " hogar inteligente ", incluidos dispositivos y electrodomésticos.(como accesorios de iluminación, termostatos , sistemas y cámaras de seguridad para el hogar y otros electrodomésticos) que son compatibles con uno o más ecosistemas comunes y se pueden controlar a través de dispositivos asociados con ese ecosistema, como teléfonos inteligentes y altavoces inteligentes . El IoT también se puede utilizar en sistemas sanitarios . [5]
Existe una serie de preocupaciones serias sobre los peligros en el crecimiento de IoT, especialmente en las áreas de privacidad y seguridad , y en consecuencia, los movimientos de la industria y el gobierno para abordar estas preocupaciones han comenzado, incluido el desarrollo de estándares internacionales.
Historia
El concepto principal de una red de dispositivos inteligentes se discutió ya en 1982, con una máquina expendedora de Coca-Cola modificada en la Universidad Carnegie Mellon convirtiéndose en el primer aparato conectado a Internet, [6] capaz de informar su inventario y si las bebidas recién cargadas eran frío o no. [7] El artículo de 1991 de Mark Weiser sobre la computación ubicua , "La computadora del siglo XXI", así como lugares académicos como UbiComp y PerCom, produjeron la visión contemporánea de la IOT. [8] [9] En 1994, Reza Raji describió el concepto en IEEE Spectrum como "[mover] pequeños paquetes de datos a un gran conjunto de nodos, para integrar y automatizar todo, desde electrodomésticos hasta fábricas enteras". [10] Entre 1993 y 1997, varias empresas propusieron soluciones como Microsoft 's at Work o Novell 's NEST . El campo ganó impulso cuando Bill Joy imaginó la comunicación de dispositivo a dispositivo como parte de su marco de "Seis Webs", presentado en el Foro Económico Mundial en Davos en 1999. [11]
El término "Internet de las cosas" fue acuñado por Kevin Ashton de Procter & Gamble , después del MIT 's Auto-ID Center , en 1999, [12] aunque él prefiere el "Internet frase de cosas". [13] En ese momento, consideró que la identificación por radiofrecuencia (RFID) era esencial para la Internet de las cosas, [14] que permitiría a las computadoras administrar todas las cosas individuales. [15] [16] [17] El tema principal de Internet de las cosas es integrar transceptores móviles de corto alcance en varios dispositivos y necesidades diarias para permitir nuevas formas de comunicación entre personas y cosas, y entre las cosas en sí mismas. [18]
Al definir Internet de las cosas como "simplemente el momento en el que más 'cosas u objetos' estaban conectados a Internet que personas", Cisco Systems estimó que la Internet de las cosas "nació" entre 2008 y 2009, con un aumento de la proporción cosas / personas. de 0,08 en 2003 a 1,84 en 2010. [19]
Aplicaciones
El extenso conjunto de aplicaciones para dispositivos IoT [20] a menudo se divide en espacios de consumo, comerciales, industriales y de infraestructura. [21] [22]
Aplicaciones de consumo
Una parte cada vez mayor de los dispositivos de IoT se crean para uso del consumidor, incluidos los vehículos conectados, la automatización del hogar , la tecnología portátil , la salud conectada y los electrodomésticos con capacidades de monitoreo remoto. [23]
Casa inteligente
Los dispositivos de IoT son parte del concepto más amplio de automatización del hogar , que puede incluir iluminación, calefacción y aire acondicionado, sistemas de medios y seguridad y sistemas de cámaras. [24] [25] Los beneficios a largo plazo podrían incluir ahorros de energía al garantizar automáticamente que las luces y los dispositivos electrónicos se apaguen o al informar a los residentes del hogar sobre el uso. [26]
Una casa inteligente o una casa automatizada podría basarse en una plataforma o centros que controlen dispositivos y electrodomésticos inteligentes. [27] Por ejemplo, el uso de Apple 's HomeKit , los fabricantes pueden tener sus productos para el hogar y accesorios controlados por una aplicación en iOS dispositivos como el iPhone y el reloj de Apple . [28] [29] Esta podría ser una aplicación dedicada o aplicaciones nativas de iOS como Siri . [30] Esto se puede demostrar en el caso de Smart Home Essentials de Lenovo, que es una línea de dispositivos domésticos inteligentes que se controlan a través de la aplicación Home de Apple o Siri sin la necesidad de un puente Wi-Fi. [30] También hay concentradores domésticos inteligentes dedicados que se ofrecen como plataformas independientes para conectar diferentes productos domésticos inteligentes y estos incluyen Amazon Echo , Google Home , HomePod de Apple y SmartThings Hub de Samsung . [31] Además de los sistemas comerciales, existen muchos ecosistemas de código abierto no patentados; incluyendo Home Assistant, OpenHAB y Domoticz. [32] [33]
Cuidado de ancianos
Una aplicación clave de una casa inteligente es brindar asistencia a personas con discapacidades y personas mayores . Estos sistemas domésticos utilizan tecnología de asistencia para adaptarse a las discapacidades específicas de un propietario. [34] El control por voz puede ayudar a los usuarios con limitaciones visuales y de movilidad, mientras que los sistemas de alerta se pueden conectar directamente a los implantes cocleares que usan los usuarios con problemas de audición. [35] También pueden equiparse con funciones de seguridad adicionales. Estas características pueden incluir sensores que monitorean emergencias médicas como caídas o convulsiones. [36] La tecnología del hogar inteligente aplicada de esta manera puede brindar a los usuarios más libertad y una mejor calidad de vida. [34]
El término "Enterprise IoT" se refiere a los dispositivos que se utilizan en entornos empresariales y corporativos. Para 2019, se estima que la EIoT representará 9.100 millones de dispositivos. [21]
Aplicaciones organizativas
Médico y sanitario
El Internet de las Cosas Médicas ( IoMT ) es una aplicación de la IO para fines médicos y de salud relacionados, recolección y análisis de datos para la investigación y el monitoreo. [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] El IoMT ha sido referido como "Smart Healthcare", [42] como la tecnología para crear un sistema de salud digitalizado, conectando los recursos médicos disponibles y los servicios de salud. [ cita requerida ] [43]
Los dispositivos de IoT se pueden utilizar para habilitar sistemas de notificación de emergencia y monitoreo remoto de la salud . Estos dispositivos de control de la salud pueden variar desde monitores de presión arterial y frecuencia cardíaca hasta dispositivos avanzados capaces de monitorear implantes especializados, como marcapasos, pulseras electrónicas Fitbit o audífonos avanzados. [44] Algunos hospitales han comenzado a implementar "camas inteligentes" que pueden detectar cuándo están ocupadas y cuándo un paciente intenta levantarse. También se puede ajustar para garantizar que se aplique al paciente la presión y el apoyo adecuados sin la interacción manual de las enfermeras. [37] Un informe de Goldman Sachs de 2015 indicó que los dispositivos de IoT para el cuidado de la salud "pueden ahorrarle a los Estados Unidos más de $ 300 mil millones en gastos de atención médica anuales al aumentar los ingresos y disminuir los costos". [45] Además, el uso de dispositivos móviles para apoyar el seguimiento médico condujo a la creación de 'm-health', que utiliza estadísticas de salud analizadas ". [46]
Los sensores especializados también se pueden equipar dentro de los espacios habitables para monitorear la salud y el bienestar general de las personas mayores, al mismo tiempo que se garantiza que se administre el tratamiento adecuado y se ayude a las personas a recuperar la movilidad perdida a través de la terapia. [47] Estos sensores crean una red de sensores inteligentes que pueden recopilar, procesar, transferir y analizar información valiosa en diferentes entornos, como la conexión de dispositivos de monitoreo en el hogar a sistemas basados en hospitales. [42] Otros dispositivos de consumo para fomentar una vida saludable, como básculas conectadas o monitores cardíacos portátiles , también son una posibilidad con IoT. [48] Las plataformas de IoT de monitoreo de salud de extremo a extremo también están disponibles para pacientes prenatales y crónicos, lo que ayuda a administrar los signos vitales de salud y los requisitos de medicación recurrentes. [49]
Los avances en los métodos de fabricación de productos electrónicos de plástico y tela han permitido sensores IoMT de uso y lanzamiento de costo ultra bajo. Estos sensores, junto con la electrónica RFID requerida, se pueden fabricar en papel o textiles electrónicos para dispositivos de detección desechables inalámbricos. [50] Se han establecido aplicaciones para el diagnóstico médico en el punto de atención , donde la portabilidad y la baja complejidad del sistema son esenciales. [51]
A partir de 2018[actualizar]IoMT no solo se aplicaba en la industria de los laboratorios clínicos [39], sino también en las industrias de la asistencia sanitaria y los seguros médicos. IoMT en la industria de la salud ahora permite que médicos, pacientes y otras personas, como tutores de pacientes, enfermeras, familiares y similares, formen parte de un sistema, donde los registros de los pacientes se guardan en una base de datos, lo que permite a los médicos y al resto de que el personal médico tenga acceso a la información del paciente. [52] Además, los sistemas basados en IoT están centrados en el paciente, lo que implica ser flexible a las condiciones médicas del paciente. [ cita requerida ] IoMT en la industria de seguros brinda acceso a mejores y nuevos tipos de información dinámica. Esto incluye soluciones basadas en sensores como biosensores, dispositivos portátiles, dispositivos de salud conectados y aplicaciones móviles para rastrear el comportamiento del cliente. Esto puede conducir a una suscripción más precisa y a nuevos modelos de precios. [53]
La aplicación del IoT en la salud juega un papel fundamental en el manejo de enfermedades crónicas y en la prevención y control de enfermedades. La monitorización remota es posible gracias a la conexión de potentes soluciones inalámbricas. La conectividad permite a los profesionales de la salud capturar los datos de los pacientes y aplicar algoritmos complejos en el análisis de datos de salud. [54]
Transporte
IoT puede ayudar en la integración de las comunicaciones, el control y el procesamiento de la información en varios sistemas de transporte . La aplicación de IoT se extiende a todos los aspectos de los sistemas de transporte (es decir, el vehículo, [55] la infraestructura y el conductor o usuario). La interacción dinámica entre estos componentes de un sistema de transporte permite la comunicación inter e intravehicular, [56] control de tráfico inteligente, estacionamiento inteligente, sistemas de cobro de peajes electrónicos , logística y gestión de flotas , control de vehículos , seguridad y asistencia en carretera. [44] [57]
Comunicaciones V2X
En los sistemas de comunicación de vehículos , de vehículo a todo lo que la comunicación (V2X), consta de tres componentes principales: vehículo de comunicación del vehículo (V2V), vehículo para la comunicación de infraestructura (V2I) y el vehículo de comunicaciones peatonales (V2P). V2X es el primer paso para la conducción autónoma y la infraestructura vial conectada. [ cita requerida ] [58]
Domótica y construcción
Dispositivos IO se pueden utilizar para supervisar y controlar los sistemas mecánicos, eléctricos y electrónicos utilizados en diversos tipos de edificios (por ejemplo, públicas y privadas, industriales, instituciones o residenciales) [44] en la domótica y automatización de edificios sistemas. En este contexto, la literatura cubre tres áreas principales: [59]
- La integración de Internet con los sistemas de gestión energética de los edificios con el fin de crear "edificios inteligentes" energéticamente eficientes e impulsados por IOT. [59]
- Los posibles medios de monitorización en tiempo real para reducir el consumo de energía [26] y monitorizar el comportamiento de los ocupantes. [59]
- La integración de dispositivos inteligentes en el entorno construido y cómo podrían usarse en aplicaciones futuras. [59]
Aplicaciones industriales
También conocidos como IIoT, los dispositivos de IoT industriales adquieren y analizan datos de equipos conectados, tecnología operativa (OT), ubicaciones y personas. Combinado con dispositivos de monitoreo de tecnología operativa (OT), IIoT ayuda a regular y monitorear sistemas industriales. Además, se puede llevar a cabo la misma implementación para las actualizaciones automáticas de registros de la colocación de activos en unidades de almacenamiento industrial, ya que el tamaño de los activos puede variar desde un pequeño tornillo hasta la pieza de repuesto completa del motor y la pérdida de dichos activos puede causar una pérdida porcentual de mano de obra tiempo y dinero.
Fabricación
El IoT puede conectar varios dispositivos de fabricación equipados con capacidades de detección, identificación, procesamiento, comunicación, actuación y redes. [60] El control y la gestión de la red de equipos de fabricación , la gestión de activos y situaciones o el control del proceso de fabricación permiten que IoT se utilice para aplicaciones industriales y fabricación inteligente. [61] Los sistemas inteligentes de IoT permiten una fabricación y optimización rápidas de nuevos productos y una respuesta rápida a las demandas de los productos. [44]
Los sistemas de control digital para automatizar los controles de proceso, las herramientas del operador y los sistemas de información de servicio para optimizar la seguridad de la planta están dentro del alcance del IIoT . [62] IoT también se puede aplicar a la gestión de activos mediante mantenimiento predictivo , evaluación estadística y mediciones para maximizar la fiabilidad. [63] Los sistemas de gestión industrial pueden integrarse con redes inteligentes , lo que permite la optimización energética. Las mediciones, los controles automatizados, la optimización de la planta, la gestión de la salud y la seguridad y otras funciones son proporcionadas por sensores en red. [44]
Agricultura
Existen numerosas aplicaciones de IoT en la agricultura [64] , como la recopilación de datos sobre temperatura, lluvia, humedad, velocidad del viento, infestación de plagas y contenido del suelo. Estos datos se pueden utilizar para automatizar las técnicas agrícolas, tomar decisiones informadas para mejorar la calidad y la cantidad, minimizar el riesgo y el desperdicio y reducir el esfuerzo requerido para administrar los cultivos. Por ejemplo, los agricultores ahora pueden monitorear la temperatura y la humedad del suelo desde lejos, e incluso aplicar los datos adquiridos por IoT a los programas de fertilización de precisión. [sesenta y cinco]
En agosto de 2018, Toyota Tsusho inició una asociación con Microsoft para crear herramientas de cultivo de peces utilizando el paquete de aplicaciones Microsoft Azure para tecnologías de IoT relacionadas con la gestión del agua. Desarrollado en parte por investigadores de la Universidad de Kindai , los mecanismos de la bomba de agua utilizan inteligencia artificial para contar la cantidad de peces en una cinta transportadora , analizar la cantidad de peces y deducir la efectividad del flujo de agua a partir de los datos que proporcionan los peces. Los programas informáticos específicos utilizados en el proceso pertenecen a las plataformas Azure Machine Learning y Azure IoT Hub. [66]
Marítimo
Los dispositivos de IoT se utilizan para monitorear los entornos y sistemas de barcos y yates. [67] Muchas embarcaciones de recreo quedan desatendidas durante días en verano y meses en invierno, por lo que dichos dispositivos proporcionan una valiosa alerta temprana de inundaciones, incendios y descargas profundas de las baterías. El uso de redes globales de datos de Internet como Sigfox , combinado con baterías de larga duración y microelectrónica, permite que las salas de máquinas, la sentina y las baterías se controlen constantemente y se informen a una aplicación conectada de Android y Apple, por ejemplo.
Aplicaciones de infraestructura
Monitorear y controlar las operaciones de infraestructuras urbanas y rurales sostenibles como puentes, vías férreas y parques eólicos en tierra y mar adentro es una aplicación clave de IoT. [62] La infraestructura de IoT se puede utilizar para monitorear cualquier evento o cambio en las condiciones estructurales que puedan comprometer la seguridad y aumentar el riesgo. IoT puede beneficiar a la industria de la construcción al ahorrar costos, reducir el tiempo, mejorar la calidad de la jornada laboral, el flujo de trabajo sin papel y aumentar la productividad. Puede ayudar a tomar decisiones más rápidas y ahorrar dinero con el análisis de datos en tiempo real. También se puede utilizar para programar actividades de reparación y mantenimiento de manera eficiente, coordinando tareas entre diferentes proveedores de servicios y usuarios de estas instalaciones. [44] Los dispositivos de IoT también se pueden utilizar para controlar la infraestructura crítica como puentes para proporcionar acceso a los barcos. Es probable que el uso de dispositivos IoT para monitorear y operar la infraestructura mejore la gestión de incidentes y la coordinación de la respuesta a emergencias, y la calidad del servicio , los tiempos de actividad y reduzca los costos de operación en todas las áreas relacionadas con la infraestructura. [68] Incluso áreas como la gestión de residuos pueden beneficiarse [69] de la automatización y optimización que podría aportar el IoT. [ cita requerida ]
Implementaciones a escala metropolitana
Hay varias implementaciones a gran escala planificadas o en curso de IoT, para permitir una mejor gestión de las ciudades y los sistemas. Por ejemplo, Songdo , Corea del Sur, la primera ciudad inteligente totalmente equipada y cableada de su tipo , se está construyendo gradualmente, con aproximadamente el 70 por ciento del distrito comercial completado en junio de 2018.[actualizar]. Se prevé que gran parte de la ciudad esté cableada y automatizada, con poca o ninguna intervención humana. [70] [71]
Otra aplicación es un proyecto en curso en Santander , España. Para este despliegue, se han adoptado dos enfoques. Esta ciudad de 180.000 habitantes ya ha visto 18.000 descargas de su aplicación para teléfonos inteligentes de la ciudad. La aplicación está conectada a 10,000 sensores que habilitan servicios como búsqueda de estacionamiento, monitoreo ambiental, agenda de ciudad digital y más. La información del contexto de la ciudad se utiliza en esta implementación para beneficiar a los comerciantes a través de un mecanismo de acuerdos de chispa basado en el comportamiento de la ciudad que tiene como objetivo maximizar el impacto de cada notificación. [72]
Otros ejemplos de implementaciones a gran escala en curso incluyen la Ciudad del Conocimiento de Guangzhou, China-Singapur; [73] trabajar para mejorar la calidad del aire y el agua, reducir la contaminación acústica y aumentar la eficiencia del transporte en San José, California; [74] y gestión inteligente del tráfico en el oeste de Singapur. [75] Utilizando su tecnología RPMA (Random Phase Multiple Access), Ingenu, con sede en San Diego, ha construido una red pública nacional [76] para transmisiones de datos de bajo ancho de banda utilizando el mismo espectro de 2,4 gigahercios sin licencia que el Wi-Fi. La "red de máquinas" de Ingenu cubre más de un tercio de la población de EE. UU. En 35 ciudades importantes, incluidas San Diego y Dallas. [77] La empresa francesa Sigfox comenzó a construir una red de datos inalámbrica de banda ultra estrecha en el área de la bahía de San Francisco en 2014, la primera empresa en lograr tal despliegue en los EE . UU. [78] [79] Posteriormente anunció que establecería un un total de 4000 estaciones base para cubrir un total de 30 ciudades en los EE. UU. a fines de 2016, lo que lo convierte en el mayor proveedor de cobertura de red de IoT en el país hasta el momento. [80] [81] Cisco también participa en proyectos de ciudades inteligentes. Cisco ha comenzado a implementar tecnologías para Smart Wi-Fi, Smart Safety & Security, Smart Lighting, Smart Parking, Smart Transports, Smart Bus Stops, Smart Kiosks, Remote Expert for Government Services (REGS) y Smart Education en el área de cinco km en el ciudad de Vijaywada. [82]
Otro ejemplo de un gran despliegue es el realizado por New York Waterways en la ciudad de Nueva York para conectar todas las embarcaciones de la ciudad y poder monitorearlas en vivo las 24 horas, los 7 días de la semana. La red fue diseñada y fabricada por Fluidmesh Networks, una empresa con sede en Chicago que desarrolla redes inalámbricas para aplicaciones críticas. La red de NYWW actualmente brinda cobertura en el río Hudson, el río East y la bahía superior de Nueva York. Con la red inalámbrica instalada, NY Waterway puede tomar el control de su flota y de los pasajeros de una manera que antes no era posible. Las nuevas aplicaciones pueden incluir seguridad, gestión de flotas y energía, señalización digital, Wi-Fi público, emisión de billetes sin papel y otras. [83]
Manejo de energía
Un número significativo de dispositivos que consumen energía (por ejemplo, lámparas, electrodomésticos, motores, bombas, etc.) ya integran la conectividad a Internet, lo que les permite comunicarse con los servicios públicos no solo para equilibrar la generación de energía, sino que también ayuda a optimizar el consumo de energía en su conjunto. . [44] Estos dispositivos permiten el control remoto por parte de los usuarios o la administración central a través de una interfaz basada en la nube , y habilitan funciones como la programación (por ejemplo, encender o apagar de forma remota los sistemas de calefacción, controlar los hornos, cambiar las condiciones de iluminación, etc.). [44] La red inteligente es una aplicación de IoT del lado de los servicios públicos; Los sistemas recopilan y actúan sobre la energía y la información relacionada con la energía para mejorar la eficiencia de la producción y distribución de electricidad. [84] Mediante el uso de dispositivos conectados a Internet de infraestructura de medición avanzada (AMI) , las empresas de servicios eléctricos no solo recopilan datos de los usuarios finales, sino que también administran dispositivos de automatización de distribución como transformadores. [44]
Monitoreo ambiental
Las aplicaciones de monitoreo ambiental del IoT suelen usar sensores para ayudar en la protección ambiental [85] monitoreando la calidad del aire o del agua , [86] las condiciones atmosféricas o del suelo , [87] e incluso pueden incluir áreas como monitorear los movimientos de la vida silvestre y sus hábitats . [88] El desarrollo de dispositivos conectados a Internet con recursos limitados también significa que los servicios de emergencia también pueden utilizar otras aplicaciones, como los sistemas de alerta temprana de terremotos o tsunamis , para proporcionar una ayuda más eficaz. Los dispositivos de IoT en esta aplicación generalmente abarcan una gran área geográfica y también pueden ser móviles. [44] Se ha argumentado que la estandarización que aporta IoT a la detección inalámbrica revolucionará esta área. [89]
Living Lab
Otro ejemplo de integración de IoT es Living Lab, que integra y combina procesos de investigación e innovación, estableciéndose dentro de una asociación público-privada-personas. [90] Actualmente hay 320 Living Labs que utilizan IoT para colaborar y compartir conocimientos entre las partes interesadas para crear conjuntamente productos innovadores y tecnológicos. Para que las empresas implementen y desarrollen servicios de IoT para ciudades inteligentes, deben tener incentivos. Los gobiernos desempeñan un papel clave en los proyectos de ciudades inteligentes, ya que los cambios en las políticas ayudarán a las ciudades a implementar el IoT, que proporciona eficacia, eficiencia y precisión de los recursos que se utilizan. Por ejemplo, el gobierno ofrece incentivos fiscales y alquileres baratos, mejora el transporte público y ofrece un entorno en el que las empresas de nueva creación, las industrias creativas y las multinacionales pueden crear conjuntamente, compartir una infraestructura y mercados laborales comunes y aprovechar las tecnologías, proceso de producción y costos de transacción. [90] La relación entre los desarrolladores de tecnología y los gobiernos que administran los activos de la ciudad, es clave para brindar acceso abierto a los recursos a los usuarios de manera eficiente.
Aplicaciones militares
El Internet de las Cosas militares (IoMT) es la aplicación de las tecnologías de la IO en el dominio militar a los efectos de reconocimiento, vigilancia, y otros objetivos relacionados con el combate. Está fuertemente influenciado por las perspectivas futuras de la guerra en un entorno urbano e implica el uso de sensores, municiones, vehículos, robots, biometría humana portátil y otra tecnología inteligente que es relevante en el campo de batalla. [91]
Internet de las cosas del campo de batalla
El Internet de las Cosas del campo de batalla ( IOBT ) es un proyecto iniciado y ejecutado por el Laboratorio de Investigación del Ejército de Estados Unidos (ARL) que se centra en la ciencia básica relacionada con la IO que mejoran las capacidades de los soldados del Ejército. [92] En 2017, ARL lanzó Internet of Battlefield Things Collaborative Research Alliance (IoBT-CRA) , estableciendo una colaboración de trabajo entre la industria, la universidad y los investigadores del Ejército para avanzar en los fundamentos teóricos de las tecnologías de IoT y sus aplicaciones en las operaciones del Ejército. [93] [94]
Océano de las cosas
El proyecto Ocean of Things es un programa dirigido por DARPA diseñado para establecer un Internet de las cosas en grandes áreas oceánicas con el fin de recopilar, monitorear y analizar datos ambientales y de actividad de embarcaciones. El proyecto implica el despliegue de unos 50.000 flotadores que albergan un conjunto de sensores pasivos que detectan y rastrean de forma autónoma embarcaciones militares y comerciales como parte de una red basada en la nube. [95]
Digitalización de productos
Existen varias aplicaciones de empaquetado inteligente o activo en las que se coloca un código QR o una etiqueta NFC en un producto o en su empaque. La etiqueta en sí es pasiva, sin embargo, contiene un identificador único (generalmente una URL ) que permite al usuario acceder al contenido digital sobre el producto a través de un teléfono inteligente. [96] Estrictamente hablando, estos elementos pasivos no forman parte de Internet of Thing, pero pueden verse como habilitadores de interacciones digitales. [97] El término "Internet de los envases" se ha acuñado para describir aplicaciones en las que se utilizan identificadores únicos para automatizar las cadenas de suministro y los consumidores los escanean a gran escala para acceder a contenido digital. [98] La autenticación de los identificadores únicos, y por lo tanto del producto en sí, es posible mediante una marca de agua digital sensible a copias o un patrón de detección de copia para escanear al escanear un código QR, [99] mientras que las etiquetas NFC pueden cifrar la comunicación. [100]
Tendencias y características
La principal tendencia significativa de IoT en los últimos años es el crecimiento explosivo de dispositivos conectados y controlados por Internet. [101] La amplia gama de aplicaciones para la tecnología de IoT significa que los detalles pueden ser muy diferentes de un dispositivo a otro, pero hay características básicas que la mayoría comparte.
El IoT crea oportunidades para una integración más directa del mundo físico en sistemas basados en computadoras, lo que resulta en mejoras de eficiencia, beneficios económicos y reducción del esfuerzo humano. [102] [103] [104] [105]
El número de dispositivos de IoT aumentó un 31% año tras año a 8.400 millones en el año 2017 [106] y se estima que habrá 30.000 millones de dispositivos para 2020. [101] Se prevé que el valor de mercado global de IoT sea alcanzar los 7,1 billones de dólares en 2020. [107]
Inteligencia
La inteligencia ambiental y el control autónomo no forman parte del concepto original de Internet de las cosas. La inteligencia ambiental y el control autónomo tampoco requieren necesariamente estructuras de Internet. Sin embargo, hay un cambio en la investigación (por parte de empresas como Intel ) para integrar los conceptos de IoT y control autónomo, con resultados iniciales en esta dirección considerando los objetos como la fuerza impulsora del IoT autónomo. [108] Un enfoque prometedor en este contexto es el aprendizaje por refuerzo profundo, en el que la mayoría de los sistemas de IoT proporcionan un entorno dinámico e interactivo. [109] El entrenamiento de un agente (es decir, un dispositivo de IoT) para que se comporte de manera inteligente en un entorno de este tipo no puede ser abordado por algoritmos convencionales de aprendizaje automático como el aprendizaje supervisado . Mediante el enfoque de aprendizaje reforzado, un agente de aprendizaje puede sentir el estado del entorno (p. Ej., Detectar la temperatura del hogar), realizar acciones (p. Ej., Encender o apagar el HVAC ) y aprender a través de las recompensas acumuladas maximizadoras que recibe a largo plazo.
IoT intelligence can be offered at three levels: IoT devices, Edge/Fog nodes, and Cloud computing.[110] The need for intelligent control and decision at each level depends on the time sensitiveness of the IoT application. For example, an autonomous vehicle's camera needs to make real-time obstacle detection to avoid an accident. This fast decision making would not be possible through transferring data from the vehicle to cloud instances and return the predictions back to the vehicle. Instead, all the operation should be performed locally in the vehicle. Integrating advanced machine learning algorithms including deep learning into IoT devices is an active research area to make smart objects closer to reality. Moreover, it is possible to get the most value out of IoT deployments through analyzing IoT data, extracting hidden information, and predicting control decisions. A wide variety of machine learning techniques have been used in IoT domain ranging from traditional methods such as regression, support vector machine, and random forest to advanced ones such as convolutional neural networks, LSTM, and variational autoencoder.[111][110]
In the future, the Internet of Things may be a non-deterministic and open network in which auto-organized or intelligent entities (web services, SOA components) and virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and able to act independently (pursuing their own objectives or shared ones) depending on the context, circumstances or environments. Autonomous behavior through the collection and reasoning of context information as well as the object's ability to detect changes in the environment (faults affecting sensors) and introduce suitable mitigation measures constitutes a major research trend,[112] clearly needed to provide credibility to the IoT technology. Modern IoT products and solutions in the marketplace use a variety of different technologies to support such context-aware automation, but more sophisticated forms of intelligence are requested to permit sensor units and intelligent cyber-physical systems to be deployed in real environments.[113]
Architecture
IoT system architecture, in its simplistic view, consists of three tiers: Tier 1: Devices, Tier 2: the Edge Gateway, and Tier 3: the Cloud.[114] Devices include networked things, such as the sensors and actuators found in IIoT equipment, particularly those that use protocols such as Modbus, Bluetooth, Zigbee, or proprietary protocols, to connect to an Edge Gateway.[114] The Edge Gateway layer consists of sensor data aggregation systems called Edge Gateways that provide functionality, such as pre-processing of the data, securing connectivity to cloud, using systems such as WebSockets, the event hub, and, even in some cases, edge analytics or fog computing.[114] Edge Gateway layer is also required to give a common view of the devices to the upper layers to facilitate in easier management. The final tier includes the cloud application built for IIoT using the microservices architecture, which are usually polyglot and inherently secure in nature using HTTPS/OAuth. It includes various database systems that store sensor data, such as time series databases or asset stores using backend data storage systems (e.g. Cassandra, PostgreSQL).[114] The cloud tier in most cloud-based IoT system features event queuing and messaging system that handles communication that transpires in all tiers.[115] Some experts classified the three-tiers in the IIoT system as edge, platform, and enterprise and these are connected by proximity network, access network, and service network, respectively.[116]
Building on the Internet of things, the web of things is an architecture for the application layer of the Internet of things looking at the convergence of data from IoT devices into Web applications to create innovative use-cases. In order to program and control the flow of information in the Internet of things, a predicted architectural direction is being called BPM Everywhere which is a blending of traditional process management with process mining and special capabilities to automate the control of large numbers of coordinated devices.[citation needed]
Network architecture
The Internet of things requires huge scalability in the network space to handle the surge of devices.[117] IETF 6LoWPAN would be used to connect devices to IP networks. With billions of devices[118] being added to the Internet space, IPv6 will play a major role in handling the network layer scalability. IETF's Constrained Application Protocol, ZeroMQ, and MQTT would provide lightweight data transport.
Fog computing is a viable alternative to prevent such large burst of data flow through Internet.[119] The edge devices' computation power to analyse and process data is extremely limited. Limited processing power is a key attribute of IoT devices as their purpose is to supply data about physical objects while remaining autonomous. Heavy processing requirements use more battery power harming IoT's ability to operate. Scalability is easy because IoT devices simply supply data through the internet to a server with sufficient processing power.[120]
Complexity
In semi-open or closed loops (i.e. value chains, whenever a global finality can be settled) the IoT will often be considered and studied as a complex system[121] due to the huge number of different links, interactions between autonomous actors, and its capacity to integrate new actors. At the overall stage (full open loop) it will likely be seen as a chaotic environment (since systems always have finality). As a practical approach, not all elements in the Internet of things run in a global, public space. Subsystems are often implemented to mitigate the risks of privacy, control and reliability. For example, domestic robotics (domotics) running inside a smart home might only share data within and be available via a local network.[122] Managing and controlling a high dynamic ad hoc IoT things/devices network is a tough task with the traditional networks architecture, Software Defined Networking (SDN) provides the agile dynamic solution that can cope with the special requirements of the diversity of innovative IoT applications.[123]
Size considerations
The Internet of things would encode 50 to 100 trillion objects, and be able to follow the movement of those objects. Human beings in surveyed urban environments are each surrounded by 1000 to 5000 trackable objects.[124] In 2015 there were already 83 million smart devices in people's homes. This number is expected to grow to 193 million devices by 2020.[25][125]
The figure of online capable devices grew 31% from 2016 to 2017 to reach 8.4 billion.[106]
Space considerations
In the Internet of Things, the precise geographic location of a thing—and also the precise geographic dimensions of a thing—will be critical.[126] Therefore, facts about a thing, such as its location in time and space, have been less critical to track because the person processing the information can decide whether or not that information was important to the action being taken, and if so, add the missing information (or decide to not take the action). (Note that some things in the Internet of Things will be sensors, and sensor location is usually important.[127]) The GeoWeb and Digital Earth are promising applications that become possible when things can become organized and connected by location. However, the challenges that remain include the constraints of variable spatial scales, the need to handle massive amounts of data, and an indexing for fast search and neighbour operations. In the Internet of Things, if things are able to take actions on their own initiative, this human-centric mediation role is eliminated. Thus, the time-space context that we as humans take for granted must be given a central role in this information ecosystem. Just as standards play a key role in the Internet and the Web, geo-spatial standards will play a key role in the Internet of things.[128][129]
A solution to "basket of remotes"
Many IoT devices have a potential to take a piece of this market. Jean-Louis Gassée (Apple initial alumni team, and BeOS co-founder) has addressed this topic in an article on Monday Note,[130] where he predicts that the most likely problem will be what he calls the "basket of remotes" problem, where we'll have hundreds of applications to interface with hundreds of devices that don't share protocols for speaking with one another.[130] For improved user interaction, some technology leaders are joining forces to create standards for communication between devices to solve this problem. Others are turning to the concept of predictive interaction of devices, "where collected data is used to predict and trigger actions on the specific devices" while making them work together.[131]
Habilitación de tecnologías para IoT
There are many technologies that enable the IoT. Crucial to the field is the network used to communicate between devices of an IoT installation, a role that several wireless or wired technologies may fulfill:[132][133][134]
Addressability
The original idea of the Auto-ID Center is based on RFID-tags and distinct identification through the Electronic Product Code. This has evolved into objects having an IP address or URI.[135] An alternative view, from the world of the Semantic Web[136] focuses instead on making all things (not just those electronic, smart, or RFID-enabled) addressable by the existing naming protocols, such as URI. The objects themselves do not converse, but they may now be referred to by other agents, such as powerful centralised servers acting for their human owners.[137] Integration with the Internet implies that devices will use an IP address as a distinct identifier. Due to the limited address space of IPv4 (which allows for 4.3 billion different addresses), objects in the IoT will have to use the next generation of the Internet protocol (IPv6) to scale to the extremely large address space required.[138][139][140] Internet-of-things devices additionally will benefit from the stateless address auto-configuration present in IPv6,[141] as it reduces the configuration overhead on the hosts,[139] and the IETF 6LoWPAN header compression. To a large extent, the future of the Internet of things will not be possible without the support of IPv6; and consequently, the global adoption of IPv6 in the coming years will be critical for the successful development of the IoT in the future.[140]
Application Layer
- ADRC[142] defines an application layer protocol and supporting framework for implementing IoT applications.
Short-range wireless
- Bluetooth mesh networking – Specification providing a mesh networking variant to Bluetooth low energy (BLE) with increased number of nodes and standardized application layer (Models).
- Light-Fidelity (Li-Fi) – Wireless communication technology similar to the Wi-Fi standard, but using visible light communication for increased bandwidth.
- Near-field communication (NFC) – Communication protocols enabling two electronic devices to communicate within a 4 cm range.
- Radio-frequency identification (RFID) – Technology using electromagnetic fields to read data stored in tags embedded in other items.
- Wi-Fi – Technology for local area networking based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, where devices may communicate through a shared access point or directly between individual devices.
- ZigBee – Communication protocols for personal area networking based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, providing low power consumption, low data rate, low cost, and high throughput.
- Z-Wave – Wireless communications protocol used primarily for home automation and security applications
Medium-range wireless
- LTE-Advanced – High-speed communication specification for mobile networks. Provides enhancements to the LTE standard with extended coverage, higher throughput, and lower latency.
- 5G - 5G wireless networks can be used to achieve the high communication requirements of the IoT and connect a large number of IoT devices, even when they are on the move.[143]
Long-range wireless
- Low-power wide-area networking (LPWAN) – Wireless networks designed to allow long-range communication at a low data rate, reducing power and cost for transmission. Available LPWAN technologies and protocols: LoRaWan, Sigfox, NB-IoT, Weightless, RPMA.
- Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) – Satellite communication technology using small dish antennas for narrowband and broadband data.
Wired
- Ethernet – General purpose networking standard using twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with hubs or switches.
- Power-line communication (PLC) – Communication technology using electrical wiring to carry power and data. Specifications such as HomePlug or G.hn utilize PLC for networking IoT devices.
Standards and standards organizations
This is a list of technical standards for the IoT, most of which are open standards, and the standards organizations that aspire to successfully setting them.[144][145]
Short name | Long name | Standards under development | Other notes |
---|---|---|---|
Auto-ID Labs | Auto Identification Center | Networked RFID (radiofrequency identification) and emerging sensing technologies | |
Connected Home over IP | Project Connected Home over IP | Connected Home over IP (or Project Connected Home over IP) is an open-sourced, royalty-free home automation connectivity standard project which features compatibility among different smart home and Internet of things (IoT) products and software | The Connected Home over IP project group was launched and introduced by Amazon, Apple, Google,[146] Comcast and the Zigbee Alliance in December 18, 2019.[147] The project is backed by big companies and by being based on proven Internet design principles and protocols it aims to unify the currently fragmented systems.[148] |
EPCglobal | Electronic Product code Technology | Standards for adoption of EPC (Electronic Product Code) technology | |
FDA | U.S. Food and Drug Administration | UDI (Unique Device Identification) system for distinct identifiers for medical devices | |
GS1 | Global Standards One | Standards for UIDs ("unique" identifiers) and RFID of fast-moving consumer goods (consumer packaged goods), health care supplies, and other things The GS1 digital link standard,[149] first released in August 2018, allows the use QR Codes, GS1 Datamatrix, RFID and NFC to enable various types of business-to-business, as well as business-to-consumers interactions. | Parent organization comprises member organizations such as GS1 US |
IEEE | Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers | Underlying communication technology standards such as IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE P1451-99 (IoT Harmonization), and IEEE P1931.1 (ROOF Computing). | |
IETF | Internet Engineering Task Force | Standards that comprise TCP/IP (the Internet protocol suite) | |
MTConnect Institute | — | MTConnect is a manufacturing industry standard for data exchange with machine tools and related industrial equipment. It is important to the IIoT subset of the IoT. | |
O-DF | Open Data Format | O-DF is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a generic information model structure that is meant to be applicable for describing any "Thing", as well as for publishing, updating and querying information when used together with O-MI (Open Messaging Interface). | |
O-MI | Open Messaging Interface | O-MI is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a limited set of key operations needed in IoT systems, notably different kinds of subscription mechanisms based on the Observer pattern. | |
OCF | Open Connectivity Foundation | Standards for simple devices using CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) | OCF (Open Connectivity Foundation) supersedes OIC (Open Interconnect Consortium) |
OMA | Open Mobile Alliance | OMA DM and OMA LWM2M for IoT device management, as well as GotAPI, which provides a secure framework for IoT applications | |
XSF | XMPP Standards Foundation | Protocol extensions of XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol), the open standard of instant messaging |
Política y compromiso cívico
Some scholars and activists argue that the IoT can be used to create new models of civic engagement if device networks can be open to user control and inter-operable platforms. Philip N. Howard, a professor and author, writes that political life in both democracies and authoritarian regimes will be shaped by the way the IoT will be used for civic engagement. For that to happen, he argues that any connected device should be able to divulge a list of the "ultimate beneficiaries" of its sensor data and that individual citizens should be able to add new organisations to the beneficiary list. In addition, he argues that civil society groups need to start developing their IoT strategy for making use of data and engaging with the public.[150]
Regulación gubernamental sobre IoT
One of the key drivers of the IoT is data. The success of the idea of connecting devices to make them more efficient is dependent upon access to and storage & processing of data. For this purpose, companies working on the IoT collect data from multiple sources and store it in their cloud network for further processing. This leaves the door wide open for privacy and security dangers and single point vulnerability of multiple systems.[151] The other issues pertain to consumer choice and ownership of data[152] and how it is used. Though still in their infancy, regulations and governance regarding these issues of privacy, security, and data ownership continue to develop.[153][154][155] IoT regulation depends on the country. Some examples of legislation that is relevant to privacy and data collection are: the US Privacy Act of 1974, OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data of 1980, and the EU Directive 95/46/EC of 1995.[156]
Current regulatory environment:
A report published by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in January 2015 made the following three recommendations:[157]
- Data security – At the time of designing IoT companies should ensure that data collection, storage and processing would be secure at all times. Companies should adopt a "defense in depth" approach and encrypt data at each stage.[158]
- Data consent – users should have a choice as to what data they share with IoT companies and the users must be informed if their data gets exposed.
- Data minimisation – IoT companies should collect only the data they need and retain the collected information only for a limited time.
However, the FTC stopped at just making recommendations for now. According to an FTC analysis, the existing framework, consisting of the FTC Act, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act, along with developing consumer education and business guidance, participation in multi-stakeholder efforts and advocacy to other agencies at the federal, state and local level, is sufficient to protect consumer rights.[159]
A resolution passed by the Senate in March 2015, is already being considered by the Congress.[160] This resolution recognized the need for formulating a National Policy on IoT and the matter of privacy, security and spectrum. Furthermore, to provide an impetus to the IoT ecosystem, in March 2016, a bipartisan group of four Senators proposed a bill, The Developing Innovation and Growing the Internet of Things (DIGIT) Act, to direct the Federal Communications Commission to assess the need for more spectrum to connect IoT devices.
Approved on 28 September 2018, Senate Bill No. 327[161] goes into effect on 1 January 2020. The bill requires "a manufacturer of a connected device, as those terms are defined, to equip the device with a reasonable security feature or features that are appropriate to the nature and function of the device, appropriate to the information it may collect, contain, or transmit, and designed to protect the device and any information contained therein from unauthorized access, destruction, use, modification, or disclosure,"
Several standards for the IoT industry are actually being established relating to automobiles because most concerns arising from use of connected cars apply to healthcare devices as well. In fact, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is preparing cybersecurity guidelines and a database of best practices to make automotive computer systems more secure.[162]
A recent report from the World Bank examines the challenges and opportunities in government adoption of IoT.[163] These include –
- Still early days for the IoT in government
- Underdeveloped policy and regulatory frameworks
- Unclear business models, despite strong value proposition
- Clear institutional and capacity gap in government AND the private sector
- Inconsistent data valuation and management
- Infrastructure a major barrier
- Government as an enabler
- Most successful pilots share common characteristics (public-private partnership, local, leadership)
Críticas, problemas y controversias
Platform fragmentation
The IoT suffers from platform fragmentation, lack of interoperability and common technical standards[164][165][166][167][168][169][170][excessive citations] a situation where the variety of IoT devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology ecosystems hard.[1] For example, wireless connectivity for IoT devices can be done using Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, LoRa, NB-IoT, Cat M1 as well as completely custom proprietary radios – each with its own advantages and disadvantages; and unique support ecosystem.[171]
The IoT's amorphous computing nature is also a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-price devices.[172][173][174] One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active Android devices vulnerable.[175][176]
Privacy, autonomy, and control
Philip N. Howard, a professor and author, writes that the Internet of Things offers immense potential for empowering citizens, making government transparent, and broadening information access. Howard cautions, however, that privacy threats are enormous, as is the potential for social control and political manipulation.[177]
Concerns about privacy have led many to consider the possibility that big data infrastructures such as the Internet of things and data mining are inherently incompatible with privacy.[178] Key challenges of increased digitalization in the water, transport or energy sector are related to privacy and cybersecurity which necessitate an adequate response from research and policymakers alike.[179]
Writer Adam Greenfield claims that IoT technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing an instance of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of passersby who stopped to read the advertisement.
The Internet of Things Council compared the increased prevalence of digital surveillance due to the Internet of things to the conceptual panopticon described by Jeremy Bentham in the 18th Century.[180] The assertion was defended by the works of French philosophers Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. In Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison Foucault asserts that the panopticon was a central element of the discipline society developed during the Industrial Era.[181] Foucault also argued that the discipline systems established in factories and school reflected Bentham's vision of panopticism.[181] In his 1992 paper "Postscripts on the Societies of Control," Deleuze wrote that the discipline society had transitioned into a control society, with the computer replacing the panopticon as an instrument of discipline and control while still maintaining the qualities similar to that of panopticism.[182]
Peter-Paul Verbeek, a professor of philosophy of technology at the University of Twente, Netherlands, writes that technology already influences our moral decision making, which in turn affects human agency, privacy and autonomy. He cautions against viewing technology merely as a human tool and advocates instead to consider it as an active agent.[183]
Justin Brookman, of the Center for Democracy and Technology, expressed concern regarding the impact of the IoT on consumer privacy, saying that "There are some people in the commercial space who say, 'Oh, big data – well, let's collect everything, keep it around forever, we'll pay for somebody to think about security later.' The question is whether we want to have some sort of policy framework in place to limit that."[184]
Tim O'Reilly believes that the way companies sell the IoT devices on consumers are misplaced, disputing the notion that the IoT is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that the "IoT is really about human augmentation. The applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision-making."[185]
Editorials at WIRED have also expressed concern, one stating "What you're about to lose is your privacy. Actually, it's worse than that. You aren't just going to lose your privacy, you're going to have to watch the very concept of privacy be rewritten under your nose."[186]
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) expressed concern regarding the ability of IoT to erode people's control over their own lives. The ACLU wrote that "There's simply no way to forecast how these immense powers – disproportionately accumulating in the hands of corporations seeking financial advantage and governments craving ever more control – will be used. Chances are big data and the Internet of things will make it harder for us to control our own lives, as we grow increasingly transparent to powerful corporations and government institutions that are becoming more opaque to us."[187]
In response to rising concerns about privacy and smart technology, in 2007 the British Government stated it would follow formal Privacy by Design principles when implementing their smart metering program. The program would lead to replacement of traditional power meters with smart power meters, which could track and manage energy usage more accurately.[188] However the British Computer Society is doubtful these principles were ever actually implemented.[189] In 2009 the Dutch Parliament rejected a similar smart metering program, basing their decision on privacy concerns. The Dutch program later revised and passed in 2011.[189]
Data storage
A challenge for producers of IoT applications is to clean, process and interpret the vast amount of data which is gathered by the sensors. There is a solution proposed for the analytics of the information referred to as Wireless Sensor Networks.[190] These networks share data among sensor nodes that are sent to a distributed system for the analytics of the sensory data.[191]
Another challenge is the storage of this bulk data. Depending on the application, there could be high data acquisition requirements, which in turn lead to high storage requirements. Currently the Internet is already responsible for 5% of the total energy generated,[190] and a "daunting challenge to power" IoT devices to collect and even store data still remains.[192]
Security
Security is the biggest concern in adopting Internet of things technology,[193] with concerns that rapid development is happening without appropriate consideration of the profound security challenges involved[194] and the regulatory changes that might be necessary.[195][196]
Most of the technical security concerns are similar to those of conventional servers, workstations and smartphones.[197] These concerns include using weak authentication, forgetting to change default credentials, unencrypted messages sent between devices, SQL injections, Man-in-the-middle attacks, and poor handling of security updates.[198][199] However, many IoT devices have severe operational limitations on the computational power available to them. These constraints often make them unable to directly use basic security measures such as implementing firewalls or using strong cryptosystems to encrypt their communications with other devices[200] - and the low price and consumer focus of many devices makes a robust security patching system uncommon.[201]
Internet of Things devices also have access to new areas of data, and can often control physical devices,[202] so that even by 2014 it was possible to say that many Internet-connected appliances could already "spy on people in their own homes" including televisions, kitchen appliances,[203] cameras, and thermostats.[204] Computer-controlled devices in automobiles such as brakes, engine, locks, hood and trunk releases, horn, heat, and dashboard have been shown to be vulnerable to attackers who have access to the on-board network. In some cases, vehicle computer systems are Internet-connected, allowing them to be exploited remotely.[205] By 2008 security researchers had shown the ability to remotely control pacemakers without authority. Later hackers demonstrated remote control of insulin pumps[206] and implantable cardioverter defibrillators.[207]
Poorly secured Internet-accessible IoT devices can also be subverted to attack others. In 2016, a distributed denial of service attack powered by Internet of things devices running the Mirai malware took down a DNS provider and major web sites.[208] The Mirai Botnet had infected roughly 65,000 IoT devices within the first 20 hours.[209] Eventually the infections increased to around 200,000 to 300,000 infections.[209] Brazil, Colombia and Vietnam made up of 41.5% of the infections.[209] The Mirai Botnet had singled out specific IoT devices that consisted of DVRs, IP cameras, routers and printers.[209] Top vendors that contained the most infected devices were identified as Dahua, Huawei, ZTE, Cisco, ZyXEL and MikroTik.[209] In May 2017, Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at Cloudflare noted that native DDoS vulnerabilities exist in IoT devices due to a poor implementation of the Publish–subscribe pattern.[210][211] These sorts of attacks have caused security experts to view IoT as a real threat to Internet services.[212]
The U.S. National Intelligence Council in an unclassified report maintains that it would be hard to deny "access to networks of sensors and remotely-controlled objects by enemies of the United States, criminals, and mischief makers... An open market for aggregated sensor data could serve the interests of commerce and security no less than it helps criminals and spies identify vulnerable targets. Thus, massively parallel sensor fusion may undermine social cohesion, if it proves to be fundamentally incompatible with Fourth-Amendment guarantees against unreasonable search."[213] In general, the intelligence community views the Internet of things as a rich source of data.[214]
On 31 January 2019, the Washington Post wrote an article regarding the security and ethical challenges that can occur with IoT doorbells and cameras: "Last month, Ring got caught allowing its team in Ukraine to view and annotate certain user videos; the company says it only looks at publicly shared videos and those from Ring owners who provide consent. Just last week, a California family’s Nest camera let a hacker take over and broadcast fake audio warnings about a missile attack, not to mention peer in on them, when they used a weak password"[215]
There have been a range of responses to concerns over security. The Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) was launched on 23 September 2015 with a mission to secure the Internet of things by promoting knowledge and best practice. Its founding board is made from technology providers and telecommunications companies. In addition, large IT companies are continually developing innovative solutions to ensure the security of IoT devices. In 2017, Mozilla launched Project Things, which allows to route IoT devices through a safe Web of Things gateway.[216] As per the estimates from KBV Research,[217] the overall IoT security market[218] would grow at 27.9% rate during 2016–2022 as a result of growing infrastructural concerns and diversified usage of Internet of things.[219][220]
Governmental regulation is argued by some to be necessary to secure IoT devices and the wider Internet – as market incentives to secure IoT devices is insufficient.[221][195][196] It was found that due to the nature of most of the IoT development boards, they generate predictable and weak keys which make it easy to be utilized by Man-in-the-middle attack. However, various hardening approaches were proposed by many researchers to resolve the issue of SSH weak implementation and weak keys.[222]
Safety
IoT systems are typically controlled by event-driven smart apps that take as input either sensed data, user inputs, or other external triggers (from the Internet) and command one or more actuators towards providing different forms of automation.[223] Examples of sensors include smoke detectors, motion sensors, and contact sensors. Examples of actuators include smart locks, smart power outlets, and door controls. Popular control platforms on which third-party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include Samsung's SmartThings,[224] Apple's HomeKit,[225] and Amazon's Alexa,[226] among others.
A problem specific to IoT systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device/communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g., "unlock the entrance door when no one is at home" or "turn off the heater when the temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius and people are sleeping at night".[223] Detecting flaws that lead to such states, requires a holistic view of installed apps, component devices, their configurations, and more importantly, how they interact. Recently, researchers from the University of California Riverside have proposed IotSan, a novel practical system that uses model checking as a building block to reveal "interaction-level" flaws by identifying events that can lead the system to unsafe states.[223] They have evaluated IotSan on the Samsung SmartThings platform. From 76 manually configured systems, IotSan detects 147 vulnerabilities (i.e., violations of safe physical states/properties).
Design
Given widespread recognition of the evolving nature of the design and management of the Internet of Things, sustainable and secure deployment of IoT solutions must design for "anarchic scalability."[227] Application of the concept of anarchic scalability can be extended to physical systems (i.e. controlled real-world objects), by virtue of those systems being designed to account for uncertain management futures. This hard anarchic scalability thus provides a pathway forward to fully realize the potential of Internet-of-things solutions by selectively constraining physical systems to allow for all management regimes without risking physical failure.[227]
Brown University computer scientist Michael Littman has argued that successful execution of the Internet of Things requires consideration of the interface's usability as well as the technology itself. These interfaces need to be not only more user-friendly but also better integrated: "If users need to learn different interfaces for their vacuums, their locks, their sprinklers, their lights, and their coffeemakers, it's tough to say that their lives have been made any easier."[228]
Environmental sustainability impact
A concern regarding Internet-of-things technologies pertains to the environmental impacts of the manufacture, use, and eventual disposal of all these semiconductor-rich devices.[229] Modern electronics are replete with a wide variety of heavy metals and rare-earth metals, as well as highly toxic synthetic chemicals. This makes them extremely difficult to properly recycle. Electronic components are often incinerated or placed in regular landfills. Furthermore, the human and environmental cost of mining the rare-earth metals that are integral to modern electronic components continues to grow. This leads to societal questions concerning the environmental impacts of IoT devices over their lifetime.[230]
Although IoT devices can help in some cases to reduce the energy consumption of certain applications, the impact of having billions of devices connected and consuming power from batteries and from the grid will have a huge impact on energy consumption and CO2 emissions. The technology developed by Omniflow[231] can house all kinds of DC powered IoT devices inside the protective shell that also integrates power generation from integrated vertical wind turbine and solar photovoltaic as well as energy storage using built-in batteries.
Intentional obsolescence of devices
The Electronic Frontier Foundation has raised concerns that companies can use the technologies necessary to support connected devices to intentionally disable or "brick" their customers' devices via a remote software update or by disabling a service necessary to the operation of the device. In one example, home automation devices sold with the promise of a "Lifetime Subscription" were rendered useless after Nest Labs acquired Revolv and made the decision to shut down the central servers the Revolv devices had used to operate.[232] As Nest is a company owned by Alphabet (Google's parent company), the EFF argues this sets a "terrible precedent for a company with ambitions to sell self-driving cars, medical devices, and other high-end gadgets that may be essential to a person's livelihood or physical safety."[233]
Owners should be free to point their devices to a different server or collaborate on improved software. But such action violates the United States DMCA section 1201, which only has an exemption for "local use". This forces tinkerers who want to keep using their own equipment into a legal grey area. EFF thinks buyers should refuse electronics and software that prioritize the manufacturer's wishes above their own.[233]
Examples of post-sale manipulations include Google Nest Revolv, disabled privacy settings on Android, Sony disabling Linux on PlayStation 3, enforced EULA on Wii U.[233]
Confusing terminology
Kevin Lonergan at Information Age, a business technology magazine, has referred to the terms surrounding the IoT as a "terminology zoo".[234] The lack of clear terminology is not "useful from a practical point of view" and a "source of confusion for the end user".[234] A company operating in the IoT space could be working in anything related to sensor technology, networking, embedded systems, or analytics.[234] According to Lonergan, the term IoT was coined before smart phones, tablets, and devices as we know them today existed, and there is a long list of terms with varying degrees of overlap and technological convergence: Internet of things, Internet of everything (IoE), Internet of Goods (Supply Chain), industrial Internet, pervasive computing, pervasive sensing, ubiquitous computing, cyber-physical systems (CPS), wireless sensor networks (WSN), smart objects, digital twin, cyberobjects or avatars,[121] cooperating objects, machine to machine (M2M), ambient intelligence (AmI), Operational technology (OT), and information technology (IT).[234] Regarding IIoT, an industrial sub-field of IoT, the Industrial Internet Consortium's Vocabulary Task Group has created a "common and reusable vocabulary of terms"[235] to ensure "consistent terminology"[235][236] across publications issued by the Industrial Internet Consortium. IoT One has created an IoT Terms Database including a New Term Alert[237] to be notified when a new term is published. As of March 2020[update], this database aggregates 807 IoT-related terms, while keeping material "transparent and comprehensive."[238][239]
Barreras de adopción de IoT
Lack of interoperability and unclear value propositions
Despite a shared belief in the potential of the IoT, industry leaders and consumers are facing barriers to adopt IoT technology more widely. Mike Farley argued in Forbes that while IoT solutions appeal to early adopters, they either lack interoperability or a clear use case for end-users.[240] A study by Ericsson regarding the adoption of IoT among Danish companies suggests that many struggle "to pinpoint exactly where the value of IoT lies for them".[241]
Privacy and security concerns
As for IoT, information about a user's daily routine is collected so that the “things” around the user can cooperate to provide better services that fulfill personal preference.[242] When the collected information which describes a user in detail travels through multiple hops in a network, due to a diverse integration of services, devices and network, the information stored on a device is vulnerable to privacy violation by compromising nodes existing in an IoT network.[243]
For example, on 21 October 2016, a multiple distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks systems operated by domain name system provider Dyn, which caused the inaccessibility of several websites, such as GitHub, Twitter, and others. This attack is executed through a botnet consisting of a large number of IoT devices including IP cameras, gateways, and even baby monitors.[244]
Fundamentally there are 4 security objectives that the IOT system requires:(1)data confidentiality: unauthorized parties cannot have access to the transmitted and stored data.(2)data integrity: intentional and unintentional corruption of transmitted and stored data must be detected.(3)non-repudiation: the sender cannot deny having sent a given message.(4)data availability: the transmitted and stored data should be available to authorized parties even with the denial-of-service (DOS) attacks.[245]
Information privacy regulations also require organizations to practice "reasonable security". California's SB-327 Information privacy: connected devices. "would require a manufacturer of a connected device, as those terms are defined, to equip the device with a reasonable security feature or features that are appropriate to the nature and function of the device, appropriate to the information it may collect, contain, or transmit, and designed to protect the device and any information contained therein from unauthorized access, destruction, use, modification, or disclosure, as specified."[246] As each organization's environment is unique, it can prove challenging to demonstrate what "reasonable security" is and what potential risks could be involved for the business. Oregon's HB 2395 also "Requires person that manufactures, sells or offers to sell connected device] manufacturer to equip connected device with reasonable security features that protect connected device and information that connected device collects, contains, stores or transmits] stores from access, destruction, modification, use or disclosure that consumer does not authorize."[247]
Traditional governance structure
A study issued by Ericsson regarding the adoption of Internet of things among Danish companies identified a "clash between IoT and companies' traditional governance structures, as IoT still presents both uncertainties and a lack of historical precedence."[241] Among the respondents interviewed, 60 percent stated that they "do not believe they have the organizational capabilities, and three of four do not believe they have the processes needed, to capture the IoT opportunity."[241] This has led to a need to understand organizational culture in order to facilitate organizational design processes and to test new innovation management practices. A lack of digital leadership in the age of digital transformation has also stifled innovation and IoT adoption to a degree that many companies, in the face of uncertainty, "were waiting for the market dynamics to play out",[241] or further action in regards to IoT "was pending competitor moves, customer pull, or regulatory requirements."[241] Some of these companies risk being 'kodaked' – "Kodak was a market leader until digital disruption eclipsed film photography with digital photos" – failing to "see the disruptive forces affecting their industry"[248] and "to truly embrace the new business models the disruptive change opens up."[248] Scott Anthony has written in Harvard Business Review that Kodak "created a digital camera, invested in the technology, and even understood that photos would be shared online"[248] but ultimately failed to realize that "online photo sharing was the new business, not just a way to expand the printing business."[248]
Business planning and project management
According to 2018 study, 70–75% of IoT deployments were stuck in the pilot or prototype stage, unable to reach scale due in part to a lack of business planning.[249][page needed][250]
Studies on IoT literature and projects show a disproportionate prominence of technology in the IoT projects, which are often driven by technological interventions rather than business model innovation.[251][252][improper synthesis?]
Even though scientists, engineers, and managers across the world are continuously working to create and exploit the benefits of IoT products, there are some flaws in the governance, management and implementation of such projects. Despite tremendous forward momentum in the field of information and other underlying technologies, IoT still remains a complex area and the problem of how IoT projects are managed still needs to be addressed. IoT projects must be run differently than simple and traditional IT, manufacturing or construction projects. Because IoT projects have longer project timelines, a lack of skilled resources and several security/legal issues, there is a need for new and specifically designed project processes. The following management techniques should improve the success rate of IoT projects:[253]
- A separate research and development phase
- A Proof-of-Concept/Prototype before the actual project begins
- Project managers with interdisciplinary technical knowledge
- Universally defined business and technical jargon
Ver también
- 5G
- Artificial intelligence of things
- Automotive security
- Big Data
- Cloud manufacturing
- Cyber-physical system
- Data Distribution Service
- Digital object memory
- Digital twin
- Edge computing
- Four-dimensional product
- Home automation
- Indoor positioning system
- Industry 4.0
- Internet of Military Things
- IoT Cloud
- IoT Simulation
- Open Interconnect Consortium
- OpenWSN
- Quantified self
- Responsive computer-aided design
- Smart grid
- Web of things
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Bibliografía
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