Coordenadas : 50 ° 50′N 4 ° 00′E / 50.833 ° N 4.000 ° E
Bélgica ( holandés : België [ˈBɛlɣijə] ( escuchar ) ; Francés : Belgique [bɛlʒik] ( escuchar ) ; Alemán : Belgien [ˈBɛlɡi̯ən] ( escucha ) ), oficialmente el Reino de Bélgica , es un país de Europa Occidental . Limita con los Países Bajos al norte, Alemania al este, Luxemburgo al sureste, Francia al suroeste y el Mar del Norte al noroeste. Cubre un área de 30,689 km 2 (11,849 millas cuadradas) y tiene una población de más de 11.5 millones, lo que lo convierte en el 22 ° país más densamente poblado del mundo y el sexto más densamente poblado.país de Europa, con una densidad de 376 por kilómetro cuadrado (970 / milla cuadrada). La capital y ciudad más grande es Bruselas ; otras ciudades importantes son Amberes , Gante , Charleroi , Lieja , Brujas , Namur y Lovaina .
Reino de Bélgica Koninkrijk België ( holandés ) Royaume de Belgique ( francés ) Königreich Belgien ( alemán ) | |
---|---|
Lema: "Eendracht maakt macht" ( holandés ) "L'union fait la force" ( francés ) "Einigkeit macht stark" ( alemán ) "La unidad hace la fuerza " | |
Ubicación de Bélgica (verde oscuro) - en Europa (verde y gris oscuro) | |
Capital y ciudad más grande | Bruselas 50 ° 51′N 4 ° 21′E / 50.850 ° N 4.350 ° E |
Lenguajes oficiales | Holandés francés alemán |
Religión (2019 [1] ) |
|
Demonym (s) | |
Gobierno | Monarquía constitucional parlamentaria federal [2] |
• Monarca | Philippe |
• Primer Ministro | Alexander De Croo |
Legislatura | Parlamento federal |
• Cámara alta | Senado |
• Cámara baja | Cámara de Representantes |
Independencia (de los Países Bajos ) | |
• Declarado | 4 de octubre de 1830 |
• Reconocido | 19 de abril de 1839 |
Área | |
• Total | 30,689 [3] km 2 (11,849 millas cuadradas) ( 136º ) |
• Agua (%) | 0,71 (en 2015) [4] |
Población | |
• Estimación 2020 | 11,492,641 [5] ( 82º ) |
• Densidad | 376 / km 2 (973,8 / millas cuadradas) ( 22 ) |
PIB ( PPA ) | Estimación 2020 |
• Total | $ 575,808 mil millones [6] ( 36º ) |
• Per cápita | $ 50,114 [6] ( 18 ° ) |
PIB (nominal) | Estimación 2020 |
• Total | $ 503,416 mil millones [6] ( 26º ) |
• Per cápita | $ 43,814 [6] ( 16º ) |
Gini (2018) | 25,6 [7] bajo |
IDH (2019) | 0,919 [8] muy alto · 17º |
Divisa | Euro ( € ) ( EUR ) |
Zona horaria | UTC +1 ( CET ) |
• Verano ( DST ) | UTC +2 ( CEST ) |
Lado de conducción | derecho |
Código de llamada | +32 |
Código ISO 3166 | SER |
TLD de Internet | .ser |
|
Bélgica es un estado soberano y una monarquía constitucional federal con un sistema parlamentario . Su organización institucional es compleja y está estructurada tanto a nivel regional como lingüístico. Está dividida en tres regiones altamente autónomas : [10] la Región Flamenca (Flandes) en el norte, la Región Valona (Valonia) en el sur y la Región de Bruselas-Capital . [11] Bruselas es la región más pequeña y densamente poblada, así como la región más rica en términos de PIB per cápita .
Bélgica alberga dos comunidades lingüísticas principales : la comunidad flamenca de habla holandesa , que constituye alrededor del 60 por ciento de la población, y la comunidad de habla francesa , que constituye alrededor del 40 por ciento de la población. Existe una pequeña comunidad de habla alemana , de alrededor del uno por ciento, en los Cantones del Este . La Región de Bruselas-Capital es oficialmente bilingüe en francés y holandés, [12] aunque el francés es el idioma dominante. [13] La diversidad lingüística de Bélgica y los conflictos políticos relacionados se reflejan en su historia política y en su complejo sistema de gobierno , formado por seis gobiernos diferentes .
Bélgica es parte de un área conocida como los Países Bajos , una región algo más grande que el actual grupo de estados del Benelux que históricamente también incluyó partes del norte de Francia y el oeste de Alemania. Su nombre moderno se deriva de la palabra latina Bélgica , utilizada en las " Guerras de las Galias " de Julio César , para describir la región en el período alrededor del 55 a. C. [14] Desde finales de la Edad Media hasta el siglo XVII, el área de Bélgica fue un próspero y cosmopolita centro de comercio y cultura. [ aclaración necesaria ] Entre el siglo XVI y principios del XIX, Bélgica sirvió como campo de batalla entre muchas potencias europeas, ganándose el apodo de "Campo de batalla de Europa", [15] una reputación fortalecida en el siglo XX por ambas guerras mundiales . El país surgió en 1830 tras la Revolución belga , cuando se separó de los Países Bajos .
Bélgica participó en la Revolución Industrial [16] [17] y, durante el transcurso del siglo XX, poseyó varias colonias en África . [18] Entre 1888 y 1908, Leopoldo II, rey de Bélgica, perpetró una de las masacres más grandes en la historia de la humanidad en el Estado Libre del Congo , su propiedad privada (y no una colonia de Bélgica en ese momento) causó la muerte de aproximadamente cinco a quince millones de congoleños, durante la producción de cantidades masivas de caucho y marfil. [19]
La segunda mitad del siglo XX estuvo marcada por el aumento de las tensiones entre los ciudadanos de habla holandesa y de habla francesa, alimentadas por las diferencias de idioma y cultura y el desarrollo económico desigual de Flandes y Valonia. Este antagonismo continuo ha dado lugar a varias reformas de gran alcance , que han dado lugar a una transición de un acuerdo unitario a uno federal durante el período de 1970 a 1993. A pesar de las reformas, las tensiones entre los grupos se han mantenido, si no aumentado; hay un separatismo significativo, particularmente entre los flamencos ; existen leyes controvertidas sobre el idioma, como los municipios con facilidades lingüísticas ; [20] y la formación de un gobierno de coalición tomó 18 meses después de las elecciones federales de junio de 2010 , un récord mundial. [21] El desempleo en Valonia es más del doble que en Flandes, que floreció después de la guerra. [22]
Bélgica es uno de los seis países fundadores de la Unión Europea y su capital, Bruselas, alberga las sedes oficiales de la Comisión Europea , el Consejo de la Unión Europea y el Consejo Europeo , así como una de las dos sedes del Parlamento Europeo. (el otro es Estrasburgo ). Bélgica también es miembro fundador de la zona euro , la OTAN , la OCDE y la OMC , y forma parte de la unión trilateral del Benelux y el espacio Schengen . Bruselas alberga la sede de muchas organizaciones internacionales importantes como la OTAN. [A]
Bélgica es un país desarrollado , con una economía avanzada de altos ingresos . Tiene niveles de vida muy altos , calidad de vida , [23] atención médica , [24] educación , [25] y está clasificado como "muy alto" en el Índice de Desarrollo Humano . [26] También se ubica como uno de los países más seguros o pacíficos del mundo. [27]
Historia
Antigüedad
- Julio César , De Bello Gallico, Libro I, Cap. 1
Los belgas eran los habitantes de la parte más septentrional de la Galia , que era mucho más grande que la Bélgica moderna. César usó la palabra latina " Bélgica ", para referirse a su país dentro de la Galia. [28] La Bélgica moderna corresponde a las tierras de los Morini , Menapii , Nervii , Germani Cisrhenani , Aduatuci y, alrededor de Arlon , una parte del país de los Treveri . Todos ellos, excepto los Treveri, formaron una "zona de transición" menos influenciada por los celtas , al norte del área que César trataba como "Bélgica" en un sentido estricto, que ahora está en Francia. [29]
Después de las conquistas de César, Gallia Belgica se convirtió en el nombre latino de una gran provincia romana que cubría la mayor parte del norte de la Galia, incluidos los Treveri. Las áreas más cercanas a la frontera del Bajo Rin, incluida la parte oriental de la Bélgica moderna, finalmente se convirtieron en parte de la provincia fronteriza de Germania Inferior , que interactuó con tribus germánicas fuera del imperio. En el momento en que el gobierno central colapsó en el Imperio Romano Occidental , ambas provincias estaban habitadas por una mezcla de población romanizada y francos de habla germánica que dominaban la clase militar y política.
Edad media
Durante el siglo V, el área quedó bajo el dominio de los reyes francos merovingios , que probablemente se establecieron por primera vez en el norte de Francia. Durante el siglo VIII, el reino de los francos pasó a ser gobernado por la dinastía carolingia , cuyo centro de poder estaba alrededor de la zona que ahora es el este de Bélgica. [30]
El reino franco se había dividido de muchas maneras, pero el Tratado de Verdún en 843 dividió al Imperio Carolingio en tres reinos, cuyas fronteras tuvieron un impacto duradero en las fronteras políticas medievales. La mayor parte de la Bélgica moderna estaba en el Reino Medio , más tarde conocido como Lotaringia , pero el condado costero de Flandes, al oeste del Escalda , pasó a formar parte de Francia Occidental , el predecesor de Francia . En 870 en el Tratado de Meerssen , las tierras de la Bélgica moderna se convirtieron en parte del reino occidental durante un período, pero en 880 en el Tratado de Ribemont , Lotaringia volvió al control duradero del Emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico . Los señoríos y obispados a lo largo de la "Marcha" (frontera) entre los dos grandes reinos mantuvieron importantes conexiones entre sí. El condado de Flandes se expandió sobre el Escalda hacia el imperio, y durante varios períodos estuvo gobernado por los mismos señores que Hainaut. En los siglos XIII y XIV, la industria y el comercio de la tela crecieron especialmente en el condado de Flandes y se convirtió en una de las zonas más ricas de Europa. Esta prosperidad jugó un papel en los conflictos entre Flandes y el rey de Francia. Famoso, las milicias flamencas obtuvieron una victoria sorpresa en la Batalla de las Espuelas Doradas contra una fuerte fuerza de caballeros montados en 1302, pero Francia pronto recuperó el control de la provincia rebelde.
Países Bajos de Borgoña y Habsburgo
En el siglo XV, el duque de Borgoña en Francia tomó el control de Flandes, y desde allí procedieron a unir gran parte de lo que ahora es el Benelux, los llamados Países Bajos borgoñones . [31] La unión, que técnicamente se extiende entre dos reinos, le dio a la zona una estabilidad económica y política que condujo a una prosperidad y una creación artística aún mayores.
Nacido en Bélgica, el emperador Carlos V de Habsburgo era heredero de los borgoñones, pero también de las familias reales de Austria , Castilla y Aragón . Con la Pragmática Sanción de 1549 otorgó a las Diecisiete Provincias más legitimidad como entidad estable, y más que como unión personal . También aumentó la influencia de estos Países Bajos sobre el Príncipe-Obispado de Lieja , que siguió existiendo como un gran enclave semiindependiente. [32]
Holanda española y austriaca
La Guerra de los Ochenta Años (1568-1648), fue desencadenada por la política del gobierno español hacia el protestantismo , que se estaba popularizando en los Países Bajos. Las rebeldes Provincias Unidas del norte ( Belgica Foederata en latín , los "Países Bajos Federados") finalmente se separaron de los Países Bajos del Sur ( Belgica Regia , los "Países Bajos Reales"). Estos últimos fueron sucesivamente gobernado por el español ( español Países Bajos ) y los austriacos Habsburgo ( de Austria Holanda ) y que comprende la mayor parte de Bélgica moderna. Este fue el escenario de varios conflictos más prolongados durante gran parte de los siglos XVII y XVIII que involucraron a Francia, incluida la Guerra Franco-Holandesa (1672-1678), la Guerra de los Nueve Años (1688-1697), la Guerra de Sucesión Española ( 1701-1714) y parte de la Guerra de Sucesión de Austria (1740-1748).
La revolución francesa y el Reino de los Países Bajos
Después de las campañas de 1794 en las guerras revolucionarias francesas , los Países Bajos, incluidos los territorios que nunca estuvieron nominalmente bajo el dominio de los Habsburgo, como el Príncipe-Obispado de Lieja, fueron anexados por la Primera República Francesa , poniendo fin al dominio austriaco en la región. Una reunificación de los Países Bajos como el Reino Unido de los Países Bajos se produjo en la disolución del Primer Imperio Francés en 1814, después de la abdicación de Napoleón.
Bélgica independiente
En 1830, la Revolución Belga condujo a la separación de las Provincias del Sur de los Países Bajos y al establecimiento de una Bélgica independiente católica y burguesa, oficialmente francófona y neutral, bajo un gobierno provisional y un congreso nacional . [33] [34] Desde la instalación de Leopoldo I como rey el 21 de julio de 1831, ahora celebrado como el Día Nacional de Bélgica, Bélgica ha sido una monarquía constitucional y una democracia parlamentaria , con una constitución laicista basada en el código napoleónico . [35] Aunque el sufragio fue inicialmente restringido, el sufragio universal para los hombres se introdujo después de la huelga general de 1893 (con votación plural hasta 1919) y para las mujeres en 1949.
Los principales partidos políticos del siglo XIX fueron el Partido Católico y el Partido Liberal , y el Partido Laborista Belga surgió a finales del siglo XIX. El francés fue originalmente el único idioma oficial adoptado por la nobleza y la burguesía . Perdió progresivamente su importancia general a medida que los holandeses también fueron reconocidos. Este reconocimiento se hizo oficial en 1898 y, en 1967, el parlamento aceptó una versión holandesa de la Constitución . [36]
La Conferencia de Berlín de 1885 cedió el control del Estado Libre del Congo al rey Leopoldo II como posesión privada. Desde alrededor de 1900 hubo una creciente preocupación internacional por el trato extremo y salvaje de la población congoleña bajo Leopoldo II , para quien el Congo era principalmente una fuente de ingresos de la producción de marfil y caucho. [37] Los agentes de Leopold mataron a muchos congoleños por no cumplir con las cuotas de producción de marfil y caucho. [38] En 1908, este clamor llevó al estado belga a asumir la responsabilidad del gobierno de la colonia, en adelante llamada Congo Belga . [39] Una comisión belga en 1919 estimó que la población del Congo era la mitad de lo que era en 1879. [38]
Alemania invadió Bélgica en agosto de 1914 como parte del Plan Schlieffen para atacar Francia , y gran parte de los combates del Frente Occidental de la Primera Guerra Mundial ocurrieron en las partes occidentales del país. Los primeros meses de la guerra fueron conocidos como la Violación de Bélgica debido a los excesos alemanes. Bélgica asumió el control de las colonias alemanas de Ruanda-Urundi (lo que hoy es Ruanda y Burundi ) durante la guerra, y en 1924 la Sociedad de Naciones las envió por mandato a Bélgica. Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial, Bélgica anexó los distritos prusianos de Eupen y Malmedy en 1925, lo que provocó la presencia de una minoría de habla alemana.
Las fuerzas alemanas invadieron nuevamente el país en mayo de 1940 , y 40.690 belgas, más de la mitad de ellos judíos, fueron asesinados durante la ocupación posterior y el Holocausto . Desde septiembre de 1944 hasta febrero de 1945, los aliados liberaron Bélgica. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, una huelga general obligó al rey Leopoldo III a abdicar en 1951, ya que muchos belgas sintieron que había colaborado con Alemania durante la guerra. [40] El Congo Belga obtuvo su independencia en 1960 durante la Crisis del Congo ; [41] Ruanda-Urundi siguió con su independencia dos años más tarde. Bélgica se unió a la OTAN como miembro fundador y formó el grupo de naciones del Benelux con los Países Bajos y Luxemburgo.
Bélgica se convirtió en uno de los seis miembros fundadores de la Comunidad Europea del Carbón y del Acero en 1951 y de la Comunidad Europea de la Energía Atómica y la Comunidad Económica Europea , establecida en 1957. Esta última se ha convertido ahora en la Unión Europea, para la cual Bélgica alberga importantes administraciones e instituciones. , incluida la Comisión Europea , el Consejo de la Unión Europea y las sesiones extraordinarias y de comisión del Parlamento Europeo .
A principios de la década de 1990, Bélgica vio varios escándalos de corrupción importantes en torno a Marc Dutroux , Andre Cools , el caso de las dioxinas , el escándalo de Agusta y el asesinato de Karen Van Noppen .
Geografía
Bélgica comparte fronteras con Francia ( 620 km ), Alemania ( 167 km ), Luxemburgo ( 148 km ) y los Países Bajos ( 450 km ). Su superficie total, incluida el área de agua, es de 30.689 km 2 (11.849 millas cuadradas). Antes de 2018, se creía que su área total era de 30.528 km 2 (11.787 millas cuadradas). Sin embargo, cuando se midieron las estadísticas del país en 2018, se utilizó un nuevo método de cálculo. A diferencia de los cálculos anteriores, este incluyó el área desde la costa hasta la línea de bajamar, revelando que el país es 160 km 2 (62 millas cuadradas) más grande en superficie de lo que se pensaba anteriormente. [42] [43] Su superficie terrestre por sí sola es de 30 278 km 2 . [44] [ necesita actualización ] Se encuentra entre las latitudes 49 ° 30 'y 51 ° 30' N, y las longitudes 2 ° 33 'y 6 ° 24' E. [45]
Bélgica tiene tres regiones geográficas principales; la llanura costera en el noroeste y la meseta central pertenecen a la cuenca anglo-belga, y las tierras altas de las Ardenas en el sureste al cinturón orogénico de Hercinia . La cuenca de París alcanza una pequeña cuarta área en el extremo sur de Bélgica , la Lorena belga . [46]
La llanura costera está formada principalmente por dunas de arena y pólderes . Más hacia el interior se encuentra un paisaje suave, que se eleva lentamente, regado por numerosos cursos de agua, con valles fértiles y la llanura arenosa del noreste de Campine ( Kempen ). Las colinas y mesetas densamente boscosas de las Ardenas son más escarpadas y rocosas con cuevas y pequeños desfiladeros . Extendiéndose hacia el oeste en Francia, esta área está conectada hacia el este con Eifel en Alemania por la meseta de High Fens , en la que Signal de Botrange forma el punto más alto del país a 694 m (2277 pies). [47] [48]
El clima es templado marítimo con precipitaciones significativas en todas las estaciones ( clasificación climática de Köppen : Cfb ), como la mayor parte del noroeste de Europa. [49] La temperatura promedio es más baja en enero a 3 ° C (37,4 ° F) y más alta en julio a 18 ° C (64,4 ° F). La precipitación media por mes varía entre 54 mm (2,1 pulgadas) para febrero y abril, a 78 mm (3,1 pulgadas) para julio. [50] Los promedios de los años 2000 a 2006 muestran temperaturas diarias mínimas de 7 ° C (44,6 ° F) y máximas de 14 ° C (57,2 ° F) y precipitaciones mensuales de 74 mm (2,9 pulgadas); estos están aproximadamente 1 ° C y casi 10 milímetros por encima de los valores normales del siglo pasado, respectivamente. [51]
Fitogeográficamente , Bélgica se comparte entre las provincias de Europa Atlántica y Centroeuropea de la Región Circumboreal dentro del Reino Boreal . [52] Según el Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza , el territorio de Bélgica pertenece a las ecorregiones terrestres de los bosques mixtos del Atlántico y los bosques latifoliados de Europa occidental . [53] [54] Bélgica obtuvo una puntuación media del Índice de Integridad del Paisaje Forestal de 2018 de 1,36 / 10, situándose en el puesto 163 a nivel mundial de 172 países. [55]
Provincias
El territorio de Bélgica se divide en tres Regiones, dos de las cuales, la Región Flamenca y la Región Valona , se subdividen a su vez en provincias ; la tercera Región, la Región de Bruselas Capital , no es ni una provincia ni parte de una provincia.
Provincia | Nombre holandés | Nombre francés | Nombre alemán | Capital | Área [3] | Población (1 de enero de 2019) [5] | Densidad | ISO 3166-2: BE [ cita requerida ] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Región flamenca | ||||||||||
Amberes | Amberes | Anvers | Amberes | Amberes | 2.876 km 2 (1.110 millas cuadradas) | 1,857,986 | 647 / km 2 (1,680 / millas cuadradas) | CAMIONETA | ||
Flandes Oriental | Oost-Vlaanderen | Flandre orientale | Ostflandern | Gante | 3.007 km 2 (1.161 millas cuadradas) | 1,515,064 | 504 / km 2 (1310 / millas cuadradas) | VOV | ||
Brabante flamenco | Vlaams-Brabant | Flamand de Brabante | Flämisch-Brabant | Lovaina | 2,118 km 2 (818 millas cuadradas) | 1,146,175 | 542 / km 2 (1.400 / millas cuadradas) | VBR | ||
Limburgo | Limburgo | Limburgo | Limburgo | Hasselt | 2,427 km 2 (937 millas cuadradas) | 874,048 | 361 / km 2 (930 / millas cuadradas) | VLI | ||
Flandes Occidental | West-Vlaanderen | Flandre occidentale | Westflandern | Brujas | 3,197 km 2 (1,234 millas cuadradas) | 1,195,796 | 375 / km 2 (970 / millas cuadradas) | VWV | ||
Región Valona | ||||||||||
Henao | Henegouwen | Henao | Hennegau | Mons | 3.813 km 2 (1.472 millas cuadradas) | 1,344,241 | 353 / km 2 (910 / millas cuadradas) | WHT | ||
Feudal | Luik | Feudal | Lüttich | Feudal | 3.857 km 2 (1.489 millas cuadradas) | 1,106,992 | 288 / km 2 (750 / millas cuadradas) | WLG | ||
Luxemburgo | Luxemburgo | Luxemburgo | Luxemburgo | Arlon | 4.459 km 2 (1.722 millas cuadradas) | 284,638 | 64 / km 2 (170 / millas cuadradas) | WLX | ||
Namur | Namen | Namur | Namur (Namür) | Namur | 3.675 km 2 (1.419 millas cuadradas) | 494,325 | 135 / km 2 (350 / millas cuadradas) | WNA | ||
Brabante Valón | Waals-Brabant | Wallon brabante | Wallonisch-Brabant | Wavre | 1.097 km 2 (424 millas cuadradas) | 403,599 | 368 / km 2 (950 / millas cuadradas) | WBR | ||
Región de Bruselas Capital | ||||||||||
Región de Bruselas Capital | Bruselas Hoofdstedelijk Gewest | Région de Bruxelles-Capitale | Región Brüssel-Hauptstadt | Ciudad de Bruselas | 162,4 km 2 (62,7 millas cuadradas) | 1.208.542 | 7,442 / km 2 (19,270 / millas cuadradas) | BBR | ||
Total | België | Belgique | Belgien | Ciudad de Bruselas | 30,689 km 2 (11,849 millas cuadradas) | 11,431,406 | 373 / km 2 (970 / millas cuadradas) |
Política
Bélgica es una monarquía constitucional , popular y una democracia parlamentaria federal . El parlamento federal bicameral está compuesto por un Senado y una Cámara de Representantes . El primero está integrado por 50 senadores designados por los parlamentos de las comunidades y regiones y 10 senadores cooptados . Antes de 2014, la mayoría de los miembros del Senado eran elegidos directamente. Los 150 representantes de la Cámara son elegidos mediante un sistema de votación proporcional de 11 distritos electorales . Bélgica tiene voto obligatorio y, por lo tanto, mantiene una de las tasas de participación electoral más altas del mundo. [56]
El Rey (actualmente Philippe ) es el jefe de estado , aunque con prerrogativas limitadas . Nombra ministros, incluido un primer ministro, que cuentan con la confianza de la Cámara de Representantes para formar el gobierno federal . El Consejo de Ministros está compuesto por no más de quince miembros. Con la posible excepción del Primer Ministro, el Consejo de Ministros está compuesto por un número igual de miembros de habla holandesa y de miembros de habla francesa. [57] El sistema judicial se basa en el derecho civil y se origina en el código napoleónico . El Tribunal de Casación es el tribunal de última instancia, y los tribunales de apelación se encuentran en un nivel inferior. [58]
Cultura política
Las instituciones políticas de Bélgica son complejas; la mayor parte del poder político se organiza en torno a la necesidad de representar a las principales comunidades culturales . [59] Desde aproximadamente 1970, los importantes partidos políticos nacionales belgas se han dividido en distintos componentes que representan principalmente los intereses políticos y lingüísticos de estas comunidades. [60] Los partidos principales de cada comunidad, aunque cercanos al centro político, pertenecen a tres grupos principales: demócratas cristianos , liberales y socialdemócratas . [61] Otros partidos notables surgieron mucho después de mediados del siglo pasado, principalmente en torno a temas lingüísticos , nacionalistas o ambientales y, recientemente, otros más pequeños de alguna naturaleza liberal específica. [60]
Una serie de gobiernos de coalición demócrata-cristianos de 1958 se rompió en 1999 después de la primera crisis de dioxinas , un gran escándalo de contaminación de alimentos . [62] [63] [64] Una "coalición arco iris" surgió de seis partidos: los liberales flamencos y francófonos, los socialdemócratas y los verdes. [65] Más tarde, se formó una " coalición púrpura " de liberales y socialdemócratas después de que los Verdes perdieran la mayoría de sus escaños en las elecciones de 2003 . [66]
El gobierno encabezado por el primer ministro Guy Verhofstadt de 1999 a 2007 logró un presupuesto equilibrado, algunas reformas fiscales , una reforma del mercado laboral, una eliminación nuclear programada e instigó una legislación que permitía crímenes de guerra más estrictos y un enjuiciamiento más indulgente por el uso de drogas blandas . Se redujeron las restricciones sobre la suspensión de la eutanasia y se legalizó el matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo . El gobierno promovió la diplomacia activa en África [67] y se opuso a la invasión de Irak . [68] Es el único país que no tiene restricciones de edad para la eutanasia. [69]
A la coalición de Verhofstadt le fue mal en las elecciones de junio de 2007 . Durante más de un año, el país vivió una crisis política . [70] Esta crisis fue tal que muchos observadores especularon sobre una posible partición de Bélgica . [71] [72] [73] Desde el 21 de diciembre de 2007 hasta el 20 de marzo de 2008 , estuvo en funciones el Gobierno temporal de Verhofstadt III . Esta coalición de los flamencos y democristianos francófonos , el flamenco y francófonos liberales , junto con los socialdemócratas de habla francesa era un gobierno interino hasta el 20 de marzo de 2008. [74]
Ese día, un nuevo gobierno , encabezado por el demócrata cristiano flamenco Yves Leterme , el verdadero ganador de las elecciones federales de junio de 2007 , fue juramentado por el rey. El 15 de julio de 2008, Leterme anunció la dimisión del gabinete ante el rey, ya que no se habían realizado avances en las reformas constitucionales . [74] En diciembre de 2008 ofreció una vez más su renuncia al rey después de una crisis que rodeó la venta de Fortis a BNP Paribas . [75] En esta coyuntura, su dimisión fue aceptada y el demócrata cristiano y flamenco Herman Van Rompuy prestó juramento como Primer Ministro el 30 de diciembre de 2008 [76].
Después de que Herman Van Rompuy fuera designado primer presidente permanente del Consejo Europeo el 19 de noviembre de 2009, ofreció la dimisión de su gobierno al rey Alberto II el 25 de noviembre de 2009. Unas horas más tarde, tomó posesión el nuevo gobierno del primer ministro Yves Leterme. in. El 22 de abril de 2010, Leterme volvió a ofrecer la dimisión de su gabinete al rey [77] después de que uno de los socios de la coalición, el OpenVLD , se retirara del gobierno, y el 26 de abril de 2010 el rey Alberto aceptó oficialmente la dimisión. [78]
Las elecciones parlamentarias en Bélgica el 13 de junio de 2010 vieron al nacionalista flamenco N-VA convertirse en el partido más grande de Flandes y al Partido Socialista PS en el partido más grande de Valonia. [79] Hasta diciembre de 2011, Bélgica estuvo gobernada por el gobierno interino de Leterme en espera del final de las negociaciones estancadas para la formación de un nuevo gobierno . Para el 30 de marzo de 2011, esto estableció un nuevo récord mundial por el tiempo transcurrido sin un gobierno oficial, anteriormente en manos de Irak devastado por la guerra . [80] Finalmente, en diciembre de 2011 prestó juramento el Gobierno de Di Rupo encabezado por el primer ministro socialista valón, Elio Di Rupo . [81]
The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in the Michel Government. It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia.[82]
In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party the N-VA remained the largest party in parliament.[83] In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council.[84] His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019.[85] The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after the elections.[86]
Communities and regions
Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts,[87] in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens.[88] Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation.[89]
While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system.[89] Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities.[90] Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict.[90]
Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of the country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels:[91][92]
- The federal government, based in Brussels.
- The three language communities:
- the Flemish Community (Dutch-speaking);
- the French Community (French-speaking);
- the German-speaking Community.
- The three regions:
- the Flemish Region, subdivided into five provinces;
- the Walloon Region, subdivided into five provinces;
- the Brussels-Capital Region.
The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters.[93] Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both.[94] Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters.[B]
The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium. The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully.[16]
Locus of policy jurisdiction
The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways. The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs.[95] The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of the civil servants.[96]
Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.).[97]
Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies.[98]
In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters.[95] Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of the Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world.[99][100][101]
Foreign relations
Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe, Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration. Both the European Union and NATO are headquartered in Belgium.
Armed forces
The Belgian Armed Forces have about 47,000 active troops. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP.[102] They are organized into one unified structure which consists of four main components: Land Component, or the Army; Air Component, or the Air Force; Marine Component, or the Navy; Medical Component. The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense, which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to the Chief of Defense.[103]
The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy. In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels and then joined NATO in 1948. However, the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War.[104] The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command. This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Marine Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux.
Economía
Belgium's strongly globalized economy[105] and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world's 15th largest trading nation in 2007.[106][107] The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, high GNP and high exports per capita.[108] Belgium's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs.[44]
The Belgian economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind.[16][109][C] One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union.[110]
Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 19th century.[111] Areas in Liège Province and around Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910.[112][113] However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850.[114][115]
After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced a serious decline.[116] In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic center of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area.[117]
By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. As of 2006[update], the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30% of GDP.[118] In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5% and 3.0%, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4% in 2005 and 8.2% in 2006 were close to the area average. By October 2010, this had grown to 8.5% compared to an average rate of 9.6% for the European Union as a whole (EU 27).[119][120] From 1832 until 2002, Belgium's currency was the Belgian franc. Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe).
Despite an 18% decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km/1 000 km2. On the other hand, the same period, 1970–1999, has seen a huge growth (+56%) of the motorway network. In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km2 and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU's means of 13.7 and 15.9.[121]
From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium's biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016,[122] just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide.[123] In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016.[122]
Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams.[124] Like in most small European countries, more than 80% of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, the Brussels Airport. The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80% of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbor with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9% over the preceding five years.[121][125] In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year-on-year growth of 2.7%.[126]
There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia. Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to its heavy industries, but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already-existing language divide. Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) party, for instance, is the largest party in Belgium.[127][128][129]
Science and technology
Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country's history. The 16th century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens[130][131][132][133] and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists.[134]
Chemist Ernest Solvay[135] and engineer Zenobe Gramme (École industrielle de Liège)[136] gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo, respectively, in the 1860s. Bakelite was developed in 1907–1909 by Leo Baekeland. Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave its name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology, the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles. In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry.[137] A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian, Monsignor Georges Lemaître (Catholic University of Louvain), who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927.[138]
Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet (Université libre de Bruxelles) in 1919, Corneille Heymans (University of Ghent) in 1938 and Albert Claude (Université libre de Bruxelles) together with Christian de Duve (Université catholique de Louvain) in 1974. François Englert (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013. Ilya Prigogine (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977.[139] Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994.[140][141]
Demografía
As of 1 January 2020, the total population of Belgium according to its population register was 11,492,641.[5] The population density of Belgium is 376/km2 (970/sq mi) as of January 2019, making it the 22nd most densely populated country in the world, and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe. The most densely populated province is Antwerp, the least densely populated province is Luxembourg. As of January 2019, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,589,069 (57.6% of Belgium), its most populous cities being Antwerp (523,248), Ghent (260,341) and Bruges (118,284). Wallonia had a population of 3,633,795 (31.8% of Belgium) with Charleroi (201,816), Liège (197,355) and Namur (110,939), its most populous cities. The Brussels-Capital Region has 1,208,542 inhabitants (10.6% of Belgium) in the 19 municipalities, three of which have over 100,000 residents.[5]
In 2017 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Belgium was 1.64 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 4.87 children born per woman in 1873.[142] Belgium subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.6 years.[143]
Migration
As of 2007[update], nearly 92% of the population had Belgian citizenship,[144] and other European Union member citizens account for around 6%. The prevalent foreign nationals were Italian (171,918), French (125,061), Dutch (116,970), Moroccan (80,579), Portuguese (43,509), Spanish (42,765), Turkish (39,419) and German (37,621).[145][146] In 2007, there were 1.38 million foreign-born residents in Belgium, corresponding to 12.9% of the total population. Of these, 685,000 (6.4%) were born outside the EU and 695,000 (6.5%) were born in another EU Member State.[147][148]
At the beginning of 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to have formed around 25% of the total population i.e. 2.8 million new Belgians.[149] Of these new Belgians, 1,200,000 are of European ancestry and 1,350,000[150] are from non-Western countries (most of them from Morocco, Turkey, and the DR Congo). Since the modification of the Belgian nationality law in 1984 more than 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest group of immigrants and their descendants in Belgium are Moroccans.[151] 89.2% of inhabitants of Turkish origin have been naturalized, as have 88.4% of people of Moroccan background, 75.4% of Italians, 56.2% of the French and 47.8% of Dutch people.[150]
Languages
Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French and German. A number of non-official minority languages are spoken as well.[152] As no census exists, there are no official statistical data regarding the distribution or usage of Belgium's three official languages or their dialects.[153] However, various criteria, including the language(s) of parents, of education, or the second-language status of foreign born, may provide suggested figures. An estimated 60% of the Belgian population are native speakers of Dutch (often referred to as Flemish), and 40% of the population speaks French natively. French-speaking Belgians are often referred to as Walloons, although the French speakers in Brussels are not Walloons.[D]
The total number of native Dutch speakers is estimated to be about 6.23 million, concentrated in the northern Flanders region, while native French speakers number 3.32 million in Wallonia and an estimated 870,000 (or 85%) in the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region.[E][154] The German-speaking Community is made up of 73,000 people in the east of the Walloon Region; around 10,000 German and 60,000 Belgian nationals are speakers of German. Roughly 23,000 more German speakers live in municipalities near the official Community.[155][156][157][158]
Both Belgian Dutch and Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken respectively in the Netherlands and France. Many Flemish people still speak dialects of Dutch in their local environment. Walloon, considered either as a dialect of French or a distinct Romance language,[159][160] is now only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. Walloon is divided into four dialects, which along with those of Picard,[161] are rarely used in public life and have largely been replaced by French.
Religion
Since the country's independence, Roman Catholicism has had an important role in Belgium's politics.[162] However Belgium is largely a secular country as the constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. During the reigns of Albert I and Baudouin, the Belgian royal family had a reputation of deeply rooted Catholicism.[163]
Roman Catholicism has traditionally been Belgium's majority religion; being especially strong in Flanders. However, by 2009 Sunday church attendance was 5% for Belgium in total; 3% in Brussels,[164] and 5.4% in Flanders. Church attendance in 2009 in Belgium was roughly half of the Sunday church attendance in 1998 (11% for the total of Belgium in 1998).[165] Despite the drop in church attendance, Catholic identity nevertheless remains an important part of Belgium's culture.[163]
According to the Eurobarometer 2010,[166] 37% of Belgian citizens responded that they believe there is a God. 31% answered that they believe there is some sort of spirit or life-force. 27% answered that they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life-force. 5% did not respond. According to the Eurobarometer 2015, 60.7% of the total population of Belgium adhered to Christianity, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination with 52.9%. Protestants comprised 2.1% and Orthodox Christians were the 1.6% of the total. Non-religious people comprised 32.0% of the population and were divided between atheists (14.9%) and agnostics (17.1%). A further 5.2% of the population was Muslim and 2.1% were believers in other religions.[167] The same survey held in 2012 found that Christianity was the largest religion in Belgium, accounting for 65% of Belgians.[168]
Symbolically and materially, the Roman Catholic Church remains in a favorable position.[163] Belgium officially recognizes three religions: Christianity (Catholic, Protestantism, Orthodox churches and Anglicanism), Islam and Judaism.[169]
In the early 2000s, there were approximately 42,000 Jews in Belgium. The Jewish Community of Antwerp (numbering some 18,000) is one of the largest in Europe, and one of the last places in the world where Yiddish is the primary language of a large Jewish community (mirroring certain Orthodox and Hasidic communities in New York, New Jersey, and Israel). In addition, most Jewish children in Antwerp receive a Jewish education.[170] There are several Jewish newspapers and more than 45 active synagogues (30 of which are in Antwerp) in the country. A 2006 inquiry in Flanders, considered to be a more religious region than Wallonia, showed that 55% considered themselves religious and that 36% believed that God created the universe.[171] On the other hand, Wallonia has become one of Europe's most secular/least religious regions. Most of the French-speaking region's population does not consider religion an important part of their lives, and as much as 45% of the population identifies as irreligious. This is particularly the case in eastern Wallonia and areas along the French border.
A 2008 estimate found that approximately 6% of the Belgian population (628,751 people) is Muslim. Muslims constitute 23.6% of the population of Brussels, 4.9% of Wallonia and 5.1% of Flanders. The majority of Belgian Muslims live in the major cities, such as Antwerp, Brussels and Charleroi. The largest group of immigrants in Belgium are Moroccans, with 400,000 people. The Turks are the third largest group, and the second largest Muslim ethnic group, numbering 220,000.[151][172]
Health
The Belgians enjoy good health. According to 2012 estimates, the average life expectancy is 79.65 years.[44] Since 1960, life expectancy has, in line with the European average, grown by two months per year. Death in Belgium is mainly due to heart and vascular disorders, neoplasms, disorders of the respiratory system and unnatural causes of death (accidents, suicide). Non-natural causes of death and cancer are the most common causes of death for females up to age 24 and males up to age 44.[173]
Healthcare in Belgium is financed through both social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory. Health care is delivered by a mixed public and private system of independent medical practitioners and public, university and semi-private hospitals. Health care service are payable by the patient and reimbursed later by health insurance institutions, but for ineligible categories (of patients and services) so-called 3rd party payment systems exist.[173] The Belgian health care system is supervised and financed by the federal government, the Flemish and Walloon Regional governments; and the German Community also has (indirect) oversight and responsibilities.[173]
For the first time in Belgian history, the first child was euthanized following the 2-year mark of the removal of the euthanization age restrictions. The child had been euthanized due to an incurable disease that was inflicted upon the child. Although there may have been some support for the euthanization there is a possibility of controversy due to the issue revolving around the subject of assisted suicide.[174][175] Excluding assisted suicide, Belgium has the highest suicide rate in Western Europe and one of the highest suicide rates in the developed world (exceeded only by Lithuania, South Korea, and Latvia).[176]
Education
Education is compulsory from 6 to 18 years of age for Belgians.[177] Among OECD countries in 2002, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education, at 42%.[178] Though an estimated 99% of the adult population is literate, concern is rising over functional illiteracy.[161][179] The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Belgium's education as the 19th best in the world, being significantly higher than the OECD average.[180] Education being organized separately by each, the Flemish Community scores noticeably above the French and German-speaking Communities.[181]
Mirroring the dual structure of the 19th-century Belgian political landscape, characterized by the Liberal and the Catholic parties, the educational system is segregated within a secular and a religious segment. The secular branch of schooling is controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, while religious, mainly Catholic branch education, is organized by religious authorities, although subsidized and supervised by the communities.[182]
Cultura
Despite its political and linguistic divisions, the region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced.[16][183][184] Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy.[185]
Fine arts
Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich. The Mosan art, the Early Netherlandish,[186] the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting[187] and major examples of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture[188] are milestones in the history of art. While the 15th century's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden, the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's representation of the antique.[189] Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands,[190] it gradually declined thereafter.[191][192]
During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged, including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and René Magritte. The avant-garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s, while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art.[193][194] Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre, Wim Delvoye and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene.
Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde, who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style.[195][196]
The vocal music of the Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture.[197] In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was an emergence of major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux, while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822. Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame. Nowadays, singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond, having great success. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base.[198]
Belgium has produced several well-known authors, including the poets Emile Verhaeren, Guido Gezelle, Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Stijn Streuvels, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar, Hugo Claus and Amélie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics, but many other major authors, including Peyo (The Smurfs), André Franquin (Gaston Lagaffe), Dupa (Cubitus), Morris (Lucky Luke), Greg (Achille Talon), Lambil (Les Tuniques Bleues), Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame.[199] Additionally, famous crime author Agatha Christie created the character Hercule Poirot, a Belgian detective, who has served as a protagonist in a number of her acclaimed mystery novels.
Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen.[F] Other Belgian directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne; well-known actors include Jean-Claude Van Damme, Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain; and successful films include Bullhead, Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair.[200] Belgium is also home to a number of successful fashion designers Category:Belgian fashion designers. For instance, in the 1980s, Antwerp's Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced important fashion trendsetters, known as the Antwerp Six.[201]
Folklore
Folklore plays a major role in Belgium's cultural life: the country has a comparatively high number of processions, cavalcades, parades, 'ommegangs' and 'ducasses',[G] 'kermesse' and other local festivals, nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background. The Carnival of Binche with its famous Gilles and the 'Processional Giants and Dragons' of Ath, Brussels, Dendermonde, Mechelen and Mons are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[202]
Other examples are the Carnival of Aalst; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood in Bruges, Virga Jesse Basilica in Hasselt and Basilica of Our Lady of Hanswijk in Mechelen; 15 August festival in Liège; and the Walloon festival in Namur. Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, the Gentse Feesten have become a modern tradition. A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day, a festivity for children and, in Liège, for students.[203]
Cuisine
Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as the Michelin Guide.[204] Belgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries with mayonnaise. Contrary to their name, french fries are claimed to have originated in Belgium, although their exact place of origin is uncertain. The national dishes are "steak and fries with salad", and "mussels with fries".[205][206][207][H]
Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva are famous, as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary's in Brussels.[208] Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer.[209][210] The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer.[211][212][213] The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven.[214]
Sports
Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community.[215] Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium; also very popular are cycling, tennis, swimming, judo[216] and basketball.[217]
Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France. They have also the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships. Philippe Gilbert is the 2012 world champion. Another modern well-known Belgian cyclist is Tom Boonen. With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records, Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time.[218] Jean-Marie Pfaff, a former Belgian goalkeeper, is considered one of the greatest in the history of association football.[219]
Belgium hosted the 1972 European Football Championships, and co-hosted the 2000 European Championships with the Netherlands. The Belgium national football team reached first place in the FIFA World Rankings for the first time in November 2015.[220]
Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player. The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner-up in the Formula One World Championship. Belgium also has a strong reputation in, motocross with the riders Joël Robert, Roger De Coster, Georges Jobé, Eric Geboers and Stefan Everts among others.[221] Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp. The 1977 European Basketball Championship was held in Liège and Ostend.
Ver también
- Index of Belgium-related articles
- Outline of Belgium
Notas al pie
- ^ Belgium is a member of, or affiliated to, many international organizations, including ACCT, AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G-10, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MONUSCO (observers), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNECE, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WADB (non-regional), WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC.
- ^ The Constitution set out seven institutions each of which can have a parliament, government and administration. In fact, there are only six such bodies because the Flemish Region merged into the Flemish Community. This single Flemish body thus exercises powers about Community matters in the bilingual area of Brussels-Capital and in the Dutch language area, while about Regional matters only in Flanders.
- ^ The richest (per capita income) of Belgium's three regions is the Flemish Region, followed by the Walloon Region and lastly the Brussels-Capital Region. The ten municipalities with the highest reported income are: Laethem-Saint-Martin, Keerbergen, Lasne, Oud-Heverlee, Hove, De Pinte, Meise, Knokke-Heist, Bierbeek."Où habitent les Belges les plus riches?". trends.be. 2010. Archived from the original on 27 August 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
- ^ Native speakers of Dutch living in Wallonia and of French in Flanders are relatively small minorities that furthermore largely balance one another, hence attributing all inhabitants of each unilingual area to the area's language can cause only insignificant inaccuracies (99% can speak the language). Dutch: Flanders' 6.079 million inhabitants and about 15% of Brussels' 1.019 million are 6.23 million or 59.3% of the 10.511 million inhabitants of Belgium (2006); German: 70,400 in the German-speaking Community (which has language facilities for its less than 5% French-speakers) and an estimated 20,000–25,000 speakers of German in the Walloon Region outside the geographical boundaries of their official Community, or 0.9%; French: in the latter area as well as mainly in the rest of Wallonia (3.321 million) and 85% of the Brussels inhabitants (0.866 million) thus 4.187 million or 39.8%; together indeed 100%.
- ^ Flemish Academic Eric Corijn (initiator of Charta 91), at a colloquium regarding Brussels, on 2001-12-05, states that in Brussels 91% of the population speaks French at home, either alone or with another language, and about 20% speaks Dutch at home, either alone (9%) or with French (11%)—After ponderation, the repartition can be estimated at between 85 and 90% French-speaking, and the remaining are Dutch-speaking, corresponding to the estimations based on languages chosen in Brussels by citizens for their official documents (ID, driving licenses, weddings, birth, sex, and so on); all these statistics on language are also available at Belgian Department of Justice (for weddings, birth, sex), Department of Transport (for Driving licenses), Department of Interior (for IDs), because there are no means to know precisely the proportions since Belgium has abolished 'official' linguistic censuses, thus official documents on language choices can only be estimations. For a web source on this topic, see e.g. General online sources: Janssens, Rudi
- ^ Notable Belgian films based on works by Flemish authors include: De Witte (author Ernest Claes) movie by Jan Vanderheyden and Edith Kiel in 1934, remake as De Witte van Sichem directed by Robbe De Hert in 1980; De man die zijn haar kort liet knippen (Johan Daisne) André Delvaux 1965; Mira ('De teleurgang van de Waterhoek' by Stijn Streuvels) Fons Rademakers 1971; Malpertuis (aka The Legend of Doom House) (Jean Ray [pen name of Flemish author who mainly wrote in French, or as John Flanders in Dutch]) Harry Kümel 1971; De loteling (Hendrik Conscience) Roland Verhavert 1974; Dood van een non (Maria Rosseels) Paul Collet and Pierre Drouot 1975; Pallieter (Felix Timmermans) Roland Verhavert 1976; De komst van Joachim Stiller (Hubert Lampo) Harry Kümel 1976; De Leeuw van Vlaanderen (Hendrik Conscience) Hugo Claus (a famous author himself) 1985; Daens ('Pieter Daens' by Louis Paul Boon) Stijn Coninx 1992; see also Filmarchief les DVD!s de la cinémathèque (in Dutch). Retrieved on 7 June 2007.
- ^ The Dutch word 'ommegang' is here used in the sense of an entirely or mainly non-religious procession, or the non-religious part thereof—see also its article on the Dutch-language Wikipedia; the Processional Giants of Brussels, Dendermonde and Mechelen mentioned in this paragraph are part of each city's 'ommegang'. The French word 'ducasse' refers also to a procession; the mentioned Processional Giants of Ath and Mons are part of each city's 'ducasse'.
- ^ Contrarily to what the text suggests, the season starts as early as July and lasts through April.
Referencias
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Article 3: Belgium comprises three Regions: the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels Region. Article 4: Belgium comprises four linguistic regions: the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region, the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital and the German-speaking region.
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C'est une région officiellement bilingue formant au centre du pays une enclave dans la province du Brabant flamand (Vlaams Brabant)
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* "Flanders (administrative region)". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft. 2007. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2007.The capital of Belgium, Brussels, is an enclave within Flanders.
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die Bezeichnung Belgiens als "the cockpit of Europe" (James Howell, 1640), die damals noch auf eine kriegerische Hahnenkampf-Arena hindeutete
—The book reviewer, Haß, attributes the expression in English to James Howell in 1640. Howell's original phrase "the cockpit of Christendom" became modified afterwards, as shown by:
* Carmont, John. "The Hydra No.1 New Series (November 1917)—Arras And Captain Satan". War Poets Collection. Napier University's Business School. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2007.—and as such coined for Belgium:
* Wood, James (1907). "Nuttall Encyclopaedia of General Knowledge—Cockpit of Europe". Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2007.Cockpit of Europe, Belgium, as the scene of so many battles between the Powers of Europe.
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2007 September – Belgium without a government for 100 days.
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Zur prestige Sprache wurde in den Spanischen Niederlanden ganz eindeutig das Französische. Die Vertreter Spaniens beherrschten normalerweise das Französische, nicht aber das Niederländische; ein beachtlicher Teil der am Hofe tätigen Adligen stammte aus Wallonien, das sich ja eher auf die spanische Seite geschlagen hatte als Flandern und Brabant. In dieser Situation war es selbstverständlich, dass die flämischen Adligen, die im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr ebenfalls zu Hofbeamten wurden, sich des Französischen bedienen mussten, wenn sie als gleichwertig anerkannt werden wollten. [Transl.: The prestigious language in the Spanish Netherlands was clearly French. Spain's representatives usually mastered French but not Dutch; a notable part of the nobles at the court came from Wallonia, which had taken party for the Spanish side to a higher extent than Flanders and Brabant. It was therefore evident within this context that the Flemish nobility, of which a progressively larger number became servants of the court, had to use French, if it wanted to get acknowledged as well.]
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In 2002, 58.92% of the fiscal income was going to the budget of the federal government, but more than one-third was used to pay the interests of the public debt. Without including this post, the share of the federal government budget would be only 48.40% of the fiscal income. There are 87.8% of the civil servants who are working for the Regions or the Communities and 12.2% for the Federal State.
- ^ "The Communities". .be Portal. Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
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La Belgique constitue ainsi le seul exemple clair du transfert d'une partie de la compétence " affaires étrangères " à des entités fédérées. (Transl.: Belgium is thus the only clear example of a transfer of a part of the "Foreign Affairs" competences to federated units.)
- ^ Lagasse, Charles-Etienne. Les nouvelles institutions de la Belgique et de l'Europe (in French). p. 603.
[Le fédéralisme belge] repose sur une combinaison unique d'équipollence, d'exclusivité et de prolongement international des compétences. ([Belgian federalism] is based on a unique combination of equipollence, of exclusivity, and of international extension of competences.)
- ^ Suinen, Philippe (October 2000). "Une Première mondiale". Le Monde diplomatique (in French). Archived from the original on 17 November 2000. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
Dans l'organisation de ces autonomies, la Belgique a réalisé une " première " mondiale: afin d'éviter la remise en cause, par le biais de la dimension internationale, de compétences exclusives transférées aux entités fédérées, les communautés et régions se sont vu reconnaître une capacité et des pouvoirs internationaux. (In organizing its autonomies, Belgium realized a World's First: to avoid a relevant stalemate, international consequences caused transfers of exclusive competences to federal, community and regional entities that are recognized to have become internationally enabled and empowered.)
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15[th]: Belgium $322,200,000,000 (2007 est.)
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15[th]: Belgium $323,200,000,000 (2007 est.)
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Belgium is the world leader in terms of export per capita and can justifiably call itself the 'world's largest exporter'.
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- ^ Lin, David; Hanscom, Laurel; Murthy, Adeline; Galli, Alessandro; Evans, Mikel; Neill, Evan; Mancini, Maria Serena; Martindill, Jon; Medouar, Fatime-Zahra; Huang, Shiyu; Wackernagel, Mathis (2018). "Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018". Resources. 7 (3): 58. doi:10.3390/resources7030058.
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- ^ "Rembert Dodoens: iets over zijn leven en werk—Dodoens' werken". Plantaardigheden—Project Rembert Dodoens (Rembertus Dodonaeus) (in Dutch). Balkbrug: Stichting Kruidenhoeve/Plantaardigheden. 20 December 2005. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
het Cruijdeboeck, dat in 1554 verscheen. Dit meesterwerk was na de bijbel in die tijd het meest vertaalde boek. Het werd gedurende meer dan een eeuw steeds weer heruitgegeven en gedurende meer dan twee eeuwen was het het meest gebruikte handboek over kruiden in West-Europa. Het is een werk van wereldfaam en grote wetenschappelijke waarde. De nieuwe gedachten die Dodoens erin neerlegde, werden de bouwstenen voor de botanici en medici van latere generaties. (... the Cruijdeboeck, published in 1554. This masterpiece was, after the Bible, the most translated book in that time. It continued to be republished for more than a century and for more than two centuries it was the mostly used referential about herbs. It is a work with world fame and great scientific value. The new thoughts written down by Dodoens, became the building bricks for botanists and physicians of later generations.)
- ^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertsonfirst2=E. F. (2004). "Simon Stevin". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2007.
Although he did not invent decimals (they had been used by the Arabs and the Chinese long before Stevin's time) he did introduce their use in mathematics in Europe.
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The importance of A. Vesalius' publication 'de humani corporis fabrica libri septem' cannot be overestimated.
(*) Free abstract for pay-per-view article by De Broe, Marc E.; De Weerdt, Dirk L.; Ysebaert, Dirk K.; Vercauteren, Sven R.; De Greef, Kathleen E.; De Broe, Luc C. (1999). "The Low Countries – 16th/17th century". American Journal of Nephrology. 19 (2): 282–9. doi:10.1159/000013462. PMID 10213829. - ^ Midbon, Mark (24 March 2000). "'A Day Without Yesterday': Georges Lemaitre & the Big Bang". Commonweal, republished: Catholic Education Resource Center (CERC). pp. 18–19. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007.
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The capital Brussels, 80–85 percent French-speaking, ...
—Strictly, the capital is the municipality (City of) Brussels, though the Brussels-Capital Region might be intended because of its name and also its other municipalities housing institutions typical for a capital. - ^ "The German-speaking Community". The German-speaking Community. Archived from the original on 30 May 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2007. The (original) version in German language Archived 29 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine (already) mentions 73,000 instead of 71,500 inhabitants.
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- ^ According to Le Petit Larousse, Walloon is a dialect of the langue d'oïl. According to the Meyers grosses Taschenlexikon
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- ^ a b Among Belgium native German speakers many are familiar with the local dialect varieties of their region, that include dialects that spill over into neighboring Luxembourg and Germany. Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). Languages of Belgium. Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.: SIL International. (Online version: Sixteenth edition Archived 3 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ See for example Belgium entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia
- ^ a b c Loopbuyck, P. & Torfs, R. (2009). The world and its people – Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. 4. Marshall Cavendish. p. 499. ISBN 978-0-7614-7890-4.
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The appearance of Art Nouveau in the closing years of the 19th century marked a decisive stage in the evolution of architecture, making possible subsequent developments, and the Town Houses of Victor Horta in Brussels bear exceptional witness to its radical new approach.
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Most significant musically was the pervasive influence of musicians from the Low Countries, whose domination of the music scene during the last half of the 15th century is reflected in the period designations the Netherlands school and the Franco-Flemish school.
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"The Timeline—A brief history of Belgian Pop Music". The Belgian Pop & Rock Archives. Flanders Music Centre, Brussels. March 2007. Archived from the original on 12 July 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007.
"Belgian Culture—Rock". Vanberg & DeWulf Importing. 2006. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 11 May 2007. - ^ Grove, Laurence (2010). Comics in French: the European bande dessinée in context. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-588-0.
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InBev is a publicly traded company (Euronext: INB) based in Leuven, Belgium. The company's origins date back to 1366, and today it is the leading global brewer by volume.
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[the Author's] top five [cyclists] of all time: 1 Eddy Merckx, 2 Bernard Hinault, 3 Lance Armstrong, 4 Miguel Indurain, 5 Jacques Anquetil
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- Leclerc, Jacques (2006). "Belgique • België • Belgien". L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (in French). Host: Trésor de la langue française au Québec (TLFQ), Université Laval, Quebec. Archived from the original on 8 June 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
- Mnookin, Robert; Verbeke, Alain (20 December 2006). "Bye bye Belgium?". International Herald Tribune, republished by Harvard Law School. Archived from the original on 21 March 2007. Retrieved 1 June 2007.—Reflections on nations and nation-state developments regarding Belgium
Bibliography
- Arblaster, Paul (23 December 2005). A History of the Low Countries. Palgrave Essential Histories (Hardcover 312pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 978-1-4039-4827-4.
- Blom, J. C. H.; Lamberts, Emiel, eds. (May 1999). History of the Low Countries. Translated by Kennedy, James C. (Hardcover 503pp ed.). Berghahn Books, Oxford/New York. ISBN 978-1-57181-084-7.
- Cammaerts, Émile L. (1921) [1913]. A History of Belgium from the Roman Invasion to the Present Day (357pp ed.). D. Appleton and Co, New York. ASIN B00085PM0A. OCLC 1525559.
[Also editions [1913], London, OCLC 29072911; (1921) D. Unwin and Co., New York OCLC 9625246 also published (1921) as Belgium from the Roman invasion to the present day, The Story of the nations, 67, T. Fisher Unwin, London, OCLC 2986704] - de Kavanagh Boulger; Demetrius C. (28 June 2001) [1902]. The History of Belgium: Part 1. Cæsar to Waterloo. Elibron Classics (Paperback 493pp ed.). Adamant Media (Delaware corporation), Boston, Massachusetts, United States. ISBN 978-1-4021-6714-0. Facsimile reprint of a 1902 edition by the author, London
Ib. (June 2001) [1909]. Ib. Part 2. 1815–1865. Waterloo to the Death of Leopold I. Ib. (Paperback 462pp ed.). Ib. ISBN 978-1-4021-6713-3. Facsimile reprint of a 1909 edition by the author, London - Fitzmaurice, John (1996). The Politics of Belgium: A Unique Federalism. Nations of the modern world (Paperback 284pp ed.). Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2386-2. OCLC 30112536.
- Kossmann-Putto, Johanna A.; Kossmann Ernst H. (January 1993) [1987]. Deleu Jozef H. M. (ed.). The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands. Translated by Fenoulhet Jane. De Lage Landen: geschiedenis van de Noordelijke en Zuidelijke Nederlanden. Vlaams-Nederlandse Stichting Ons Erfdeel, Rekkem (3rd Rev. edition Paperback 64pp ed.). Flemish-Netherlands Foundation Stichting Ons Erfdeel, Rekkem, Belgium. ISBN 978-90-70831-20-2.
(Several editions in English, incl. (1997) 7th ed.)
enlaces externos
Government
- Official site of Belgian monarchy
- Official site of the Belgian federal government
General
- Belgium. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Belgium at UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Belgium information from the United States Department of State
- Belgium at Curlie
- Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress
- Belgium profile from the BBC News
- FAO Country Profiles: Belgium
- Statistical Profile of Belgium at the Association of Religion Data Archives
- Wikimedia Atlas of Belgium
- Key Development Forecasts for Belgium from International Futures
- Official Site of the Belgian Tourist Office in the Americas and GlobeScope