Un capellán militar atiende al personal militar y, en la mayoría de los casos, a sus familias y civiles que trabajan para el ejército . En algunos casos, también trabajarán con civiles locales dentro de un área de operaciones militar.
Ocupación | |
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Nombres | Capellán, rabino, imán, sacerdote, padre (español) |
Tipo de ocupación | Profesión |
Sectores de actividad | Religión, moral, apoyo religioso |
Descripción | |
Competencias | Asesoramiento |
Campos de empleo | Militar |
Trabajos relacionados | Asistente de capellán |
Aunque el término capellán originalmente tenía raíces cristianas , [1] se usa generalmente hoy en día en organizaciones militares para describir a todos los profesionales especialmente capacitados para atender cualquier necesidad espiritual, independientemente de su afiliación religiosa . Además de ofrecer atención pastoral a las personas y apoyar sus derechos y necesidades religiosas, los capellanes militares también pueden asesorar al ejecutivo [ ¿cuál? ] sobre cuestiones de religión y ética , moral y moral afectadas por la religión. También pueden colaborar con los líderes religiosos locales en un esfuerzo por comprender el papel de la religión como factor tanto en la hostilidad y la guerra como en la reconciliación y la paz. [2]
Los capellanes militares normalmente representan una religión o grupo religioso específico , pero trabajan con personal militar de todos los credos y ninguno. Algunos países, como los Países Bajos y Bélgica, [3] también emplean capellanes humanistas que ofrecen un enfoque no religioso para el apoyo del capellán. De 1918 a 1942, los comisarios políticos del Ejército Rojo soviético supervisaron y dieron forma a las creencias, las lealtades y el entusiasmo de los soldados y oficiales soviéticos en un contexto de ateísmo estatal oficial . [4]
Nominación, selección y puesta en servicio
En el Reino Unido, el Ministerio de Defensa emplea capellanes, pero su autoridad proviene de la iglesia que los envía. [5] Los capellanes de la Royal Navy realizan un curso de inducción y capacitación personalizado de 16 semanas , que incluye un curso corto en Britannia Royal Naval College y un tiempo de flota especializado en el mar junto a un capellán más experimentado. Los capellanes navales llamados al servicio con los Royal Marines realizan un curso de comando en el Commando Training Center Royal Marines , Lympstone y, si tienen éxito, sirven con una unidad de los Royal Marines de primera línea. [6] Los capellanes del ejército británico realizan un entrenamiento de siete semanas en el Centro de Capellanía de las Fuerzas Armadas en Amport House y en la Real Academia Militar de Sandhurst . [7] Los capellanes de la Royal Air Force deben completar 12 semanas de curso de Especialista en el RAF College Cranwell seguido de un Curso de Inducción de Capellanes en el Centro de Capellanía de las Fuerzas Armadas Amport House de otras 2 semanas. [8]
En los Estados Unidos, el término nominación no se aplica generalmente al proceso de convertirse en capellán militar. Los individuos se ofrecen como voluntarios, y si son aceptados, son comisionados como oficiales de estado mayor en el Cuerpo de Capellanes. Los miembros del clero que cumplen con las calificaciones para el servicio como oficial en el ejército son libres de solicitar el servicio con cualquiera de los tres Cuerpos de Capellanes de los Estados Unidos: el Ejército, la Armada y la Fuerza Aérea tienen cada uno un Cuerpo de Capellanes, con capellanes de la Armada también asignado para servir con unidades del Cuerpo de Marines, unidades de la Guardia Costera y la Academia de la Marina Mercante . Algunos clérigos, como los rabinos, pueden postularse sin permiso de ningún individuo u organización dentro de su grupo de fe; otros, en grupos de fe que tienen una jerarquía establecida para tomar decisiones sobre los puestos o posiciones de sus miembros, deben recibir permiso del oficial apropiado, como el Obispo apropiado. A medida que avanza el proceso de solicitud, y el ejército determina si el solicitante cumplirá con los estándares en áreas como salud, condición física, edad, educación, ciudadanía, antecedentes penales e idoneidad para el servicio, lo que incluye apoyar el libre ejercicio de la religión para los hombres. y mujeres de todas las religiones, se requerirá el respaldo de una agencia de respaldo reconocida por el Departamento de Defensa, que represente a uno o más grupos religiosos en los Estados Unidos, en parte para garantizar que se respete la separación de la iglesia y el estado. Ni el gobierno en su conjunto ni los militares en particular estarán en la posición de determinar si un individuo es un sacerdote, ministro, rabino, imán, etc. de buena fe (El requisito para tal respaldo ha estado en vigor desde 1901, y hoy en día muchas de las diversas agencias de apoyo religioso trabajan juntas bajo grupos paraguas voluntarios no gubernamentales como la Conferencia Nacional sobre el Ministerio de las Fuerzas Armadas .) Aunque la ordenación generalmente se requiere para el servicio de capellán, se acepta algún estatus "equivalente" para individuos de grupos religiosos que no tienen ordenación, como la Iglesia de Cristo . Además, en los casos en que aún no se haya establecido una agencia de respaldo para la religión de un individuo, es posible que este sea respaldado por la agencia de respaldo de otro grupo, un proceso que se siguió para los primeros capellanes musulmanes en el ejército. En cualquier caso, este aval se reconoce como necesario, pero no suficiente para ser aceptado como capellán: en otras palabras, los militares no aceptarán a un individuo para el servicio como capellán, ni le permitirán continuar sirviendo, sin tal endoso que permanece en vigor; sin embargo, la decisión de aceptar a esa persona permanece en el servicio militar y la persona puede ser rechazada por varias razones, incluidas las necesidades de las fuerzas armadas, incluso con el respaldo de una agencia que lo respalde.
Estatus de no combatiente
Los Convenios de Ginebra guardan silencio sobre si los capellanes pueden portar armas. Sin embargo, las Convenciones establecen ( Protocolo I , 8 de junio de 1977, Art. 43.2) que los capellanes son no combatientes : no tienen derecho a participar directamente en las hostilidades.
Generalmente se asume que durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , los capellanes estaban desarmados. Crosby describe un incidente en el que un capellán estadounidense se convirtió en un artillero de tanques entrenado y fue retirado del ejército por esta acción "completamente ilegal, por no mencionar imprudente". [9] Sin embargo, al menos algunos capellanes británicos que servían en el Lejano Oriente estaban armados: George MacDonald Fraser recuerda [10] "la alta figura del capellán del batallón, balanceándose con buen estilo con su .38 en la cadera" inmediatamente detrás de la liderar el pelotón durante un ataque de batallón. Fraser pregunta, "si el padre disparara [a un enemigo], ¿cuál sería la cosecha ... aparte de los tres vítores de todo el batallón?" [10] El reverendo Leslie Hardman , el capellán judío principal del Segundo Ejército Británico , quien se hizo conocido por su trabajo entre los prisioneros liberados después de la captura del campo de concentración de Bergen-Belsen , fue otro que insistió en estar armado mientras estaba en servicio activo. [11]
En los últimos años, tanto el Reino Unido como los EE. UU. Han exigido que los capellanes, pero no el personal médico , estén desarmados en combate, aunque EE. UU. No prohíbe que los capellanes obtengan premios de puntería o participen en competencias de puntería. Otras naciones, en particular Noruega, Dinamarca y Suecia, y también Australia, [12] lo convierten en una cuestión de conciencia individual. Hay relatos anecdóticos de que incluso los capellanes de EE. UU. Y el Reino Unido tienen armas de uso no oficial al menos ocasionalmente: el capellán (entonces capitán) James D. Johnson, de la 9a División de Infantería , describe la Fuerza Fluvial Móvil en Vietnam ( Capellán de combate: una batalla de Vietnam de treinta años ) llevando el rifle M-16 mientras está integrado con una patrulla de combate. Desde 1909, los capellanes estadounidenses en operaciones han estado acompañados por un asistente de capellán armado. [13] Sin embargo, quizás en esta ocasión se sintió que un hombre uniformado desarmado llamaría la atención no deseada.
Los capellanes capturados no se consideran prisioneros de guerra y deben ser devueltos a su país de origen a menos que sean retenidos para ministrar a los prisioneros de guerra. [14]
Inevitablemente, los capellanes en servicio han muerto en acción. El Ejército y los Marines de los EE. UU. Perdieron 100 capellanes muertos en acción durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial: la tercera tasa de bajas más alta detrás de la infantería y las Fuerzas Aéreas del Ejército . [9] Muchos han sido condecorados por su valentía en acción (cinco han sido galardonados con el premio más alto de Gran Bretaña por su valentía, la Cruz Victoria , y nueve han recibido la Medalla de Honor ). La Medalla del Capellán al Heroísmo es una condecoración militar estadounidense especial otorgada a los capellanes militares que han sido asesinados en el cumplimiento del deber, aunque hasta la fecha solo se ha otorgado a los famosos Cuatro Capellanes , todos los cuales murieron en el hundimiento de Dorchester en 1943 después de entregando sus chalecos salvavidas a otros.
En 2006, los materiales de entrenamiento obtenidos por la inteligencia estadounidense mostraron que se instó a los francotiradores insurgentes que combatían en Irak a identificar y atacar a ingenieros, médicos y capellanes con la teoría de que esas bajas desmoralizarían a unidades enemigas enteras. [15] Entre los materiales de capacitación, se incluyó un manual de capacitación para francotiradores insurgentes que se publicó en Internet. Entre sus consejos para disparar a las tropas estadounidenses, se lee: "Se sugiere matar médicos y capellanes como un medio de guerra psicológica".
Jefe de capellanes / capellán general
Los capellanes militares a menudo son supervisados por un capellán general o un jefe de capellanes, en el estado mayor del líder de las fuerzas militares de la nación. En algunos países, como Israel, Canadá y Sudáfrica, un jefe de capellanes / capellán general sirve en ese puesto para todos los capellanes de todas las religiones, en todas las ramas del ejército. [ cita requerida ] En muchos otros países, como Francia, hay un capellán general / jefe de capellanes separado para cada grupo de fe representado por capellanes. [ cita requerida ] En otros países, como los Estados Unidos, hay un capellán general / jefe de capellanes para cada rama de las fuerzas armadas. Entonces, por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos, hay un jefe de capellanes del Ejército , la Armada y la Fuerza Aérea . Se reúnen como representantes en el Capellanes Junta Fuerzas Armadas , [16] para discutir temas que las líneas transversales de servicio, pero cada uno de los informes como un oficial de su servicio, al Jefe de Estado Mayor del Ejército o de la Fuerza Aérea, o el Jefe de Operaciones Navales de la Armada. (En los Estados Unidos, los capellanes de la Marina sirven al personal de la Marina, el Cuerpo de Infantería de Marina y la Guardia Costera . Los capellanes de la Marina también están asignados a la Academia de la Marina Mercante, para el personal de la Marina Mercante).
Organización Internacional
La Conferencia Internacional de Jefes de Capellanes Militares surgió de una conferencia de jefes de capellanes de la OTAN organizada por el Comando Europeo de los Estados Unidos (USEUCOM) en 1990. [17] Da la bienvenida a cualquier jefe de capellanes (o capellán general , un término equivalente utilizado por muchas naciones). ).
Religiones y organizaciones de grupos de fe
cristiandad
Iglesia Católica
Los capellanes católicos generalmente se organizan en ordinariatos militares , como la Arquidiócesis para los Servicios Militares, EE . UU . Los capellanes católicos romanos potenciales deben solicitar el permiso de su obispo diocesano o superior religioso para servir como capellán militar. Mientras sirve como capellán, el sacerdote o diácono permanece incardinado en su diócesis de origen , pero está temporalmente bajo la dirección del prelado del ordinariato durante la duración de su servicio.
Denominaciones protestantes
Cada una de las diversas denominaciones cristianas protestantes puede establecer sus propios requisitos para la certificación como ministro. [19]
judaísmo
Además del Rabinato Militar de Israel, hoy en día, los rabinos militares sirven en varios países del mundo, sobre todo en las fuerzas militares estadounidenses y en varios ejércitos europeos. Desde el surgimiento de la religión cristiana en Europa y en todo el mundo, por supuesto, los cristianos lucharon contra los cristianos una y otra vez. Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, por primera vez un número sustancial de judíos sirvió en todos los lados de la guerra, al igual que los rabinos militares. Como resultado de la emancipación de los siglos XVIII y XIX, los "rabinos de campo militar" sirvieron en todos los frentes y en todas las naciones combatientes.
Insignias e insignias
Las insignias y distintivos varían ampliamente entre países y servicios; aunque generalmente incluyen alguna forma de símbolo específico de la religión del capellán individual.
Además de las insignias y distintivos para los capellanes individuales, ciertas naciones, incluido Estados Unidos, vuelan un banderín de iglesia o de adoración durante el tiempo que un capellán dirige un servicio de adoración religiosa, especialmente en los barcos en el mar. En los barcos de la Armada de los Estados Unidos, es el único banderín que ondea sobre la bandera de los Estados Unidos.
Debido al requisito de presenciar y tomar decisiones independientes sin el potencial de un jefe de división / general para negar, el rango de un capellán es mínimamente Sargento subalterno de primera clase.
Capellanes militares por país
Argentina
Los capellanes militares católicos sirvieron en las fuerzas armadas argentinas desde principios del siglo XIX y vestían uniformes y filas de oficiales. Sin embargo, el uso de estos se suspendió en la década de 1970 en el Ejército y la Fuerza Aérea, y en la década de 2000 en la Armada, debido a las denuncias de que algunos capellanes supuestamente abusaron de su posición militar y, por lo tanto, desalentaron a sus subordinados a acercarse a ellos cuando lo necesitaran. Sin embargo, los capellanes continúan usando uniforme de combate (pero sin insignias de rango) cuando acompañan a las tropas en operaciones o ejercicios de campo, y todavía se consideran parte del cuerpo de oficiales. No existen disposiciones específicas para el apoyo espiritual a los no católicos.
Armenia
Video externo | |
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Programa de capellanía en el ejército armenio (preparación para el desfile) |
El ejército armenio tiene un programa de capellanía patrocinado que es financiado conjuntamente por el Ministerio de Defensa de Armenia y la Iglesia Apostólica Armenia . Más de 50 clérigos sirven como capellanes en las Fuerzas Armadas de Armenia . A menudo organizan programas religiosos y ofrecen oportunidades para la oración, especialmente antes de cada ejercicio militar realizado por las fuerzas armadas. El programa del clero fue creado en 1997 por iniciativa de Karekin I y la directiva del Ministro de Defensa Vazgen Sargsyan . Una compañía de clérigos combinados generalmente participará en el Desfile quinquenal del Día de la Independencia en la Plaza de la República . Todos los capellanes militares son oficiales del ejército comisionados. [20] [21]
Australia
Ejército y Fuerza Aérea
Los capellanes de las Fuerzas de Defensa de Australia (ADF) tienen casi el mismo estatus que los capellanes de las fuerzas armadas británicas. Los capellanes del Ejército Australiano y la Real Fuerza Aérea Australiana (RAAF) son oficiales comisionados y visten el uniforme de oficiales de su rama particular de los servicios, así como el rango para el que están calificados. Los capellanes del ejército australiano y la fuerza aérea australiana real comienzan su comisión como capitán (ejército) o teniente de vuelo (RAAF) respectivamente. Hay cinco niveles o "divisiones" para la antigüedad de los capellanes en el ejército y la fuerza aérea australianos y cada división corresponde a un rango desgastado. La "división" más alta es la División 5 que son "capellanes principales", de los cuales hay tres por servicio que representan las tres principales denominaciones cristianas: católica , anglicana y protestante . Los principales capellanes del Ejército visten el grado de brigadier y en la RAAF, comodoro aéreo. A los capellanes del ejército australiano, cualquiera que sea su rango, los oficiales y soldados se refieren en su mayoría como "Padre". El título también se usa ampliamente en la RAAF para sus capellanes.
Al igual que los capellanes del Ejército Australiano y la RAAF, los capellanes de la Marina Real Australiana (RAN) son oficiales comisionados y visten el uniforme de un oficial de la RAN, pero al igual que los capellanes de la Marina Real Británica (RN), no llevan un rango. Por el contrario, usan el mismo emblema de cruz y ancla que usan los capellanes RN en sus toboganes de rango de hombro y no tienen anillos trenzados de oro o bucles ejecutivos en su abrigo de manga de invierno o hombreras de verano. Al igual que otros capellanes de la ADF, los capellanes de la Marina tienen cinco divisiones de antigüedad. Si bien los capellanes de la Armada de Australia no usan rango, se les otorga un cierto rango para ocasiones protocolarias y ceremoniales y para propósitos de saludo. Los capellanes de las divisiones 1, 2 y 3 de la Armada australiana reciben el rango y el estatus de comandante (equivalente a teniente coronel en el ejército australiano). A los capellanes de la Armada Australiana de la División 4 se les concede el rango y el estado de capitán (equivalente a coronel). Los capellanes de la División 5 de la Marina Australiana son "capellanes principales", y estos tres capellanes, que representan las tres principales denominaciones cristianas: católica , anglicana y protestante , reciben el rango y el estatus de comodoro . El título de "Padre" para los capellanes es menos común y no se recomienda oficialmente en la Marina Real Australiana, aunque se sabe que algunos marineros y capellanes de la Armada lo usan con preferencia al título más formal de "capellán" o forma de dirigirse hacia un oficial como "señor". Al igual que los capellanes de la Marina Real Británica, los capellanes de la Marina Real Australiana usan una gorra con visera ligeramente diferente a la de otros oficiales de la Marina que aparentemente fue diseñada por Winston Churchill . [ cita requerida ]
Jefes de denominaciones
En la Fuerza de Defensa Australiana (ADF), los jefes de la capellanía militar de aquellas denominaciones cristianas y de la fe judía que tienen una asociación oficial con la ADF, también son miembros del "Comité Asesor Religioso" (RAC) de la ADF. Con respecto a las iglesias católica y anglicana , sus obispos son miembros del RAC y ellos y los demás miembros del RAC tienen el estatus de un general de dos estrellas (EE. UU.) O un general de división (ejército australiano), o un contraalmirante (RAN) o aire. Vice-Mariscal (RAAF).
Las ramas anglicana y católica romana de la Capellanía de la Fuerza de Defensa Australiana tienen sitios web que explican la misión de su iglesia dentro de la Fuerza de Defensa Australiana. [22] [23] Si bien la rama protestante no tiene un sitio web, uno de sus capellanes tiene un blog representativo. [24]
Bélgica
Bélgica tiene capellanes para su ejército y es principalmente una capellanía católica. [25]
Brasil
La constitución brasileña en su artículo, 5-VII, garantiza la asistencia religiosa en instituciones civiles o militares de detención colectiva, como prisión, hospital o cualquier otra institución. [26] El gobierno brasileño contrata un capellán por cada dos mil soldados de una religión. [27]
No se cumple con la ley brasileña, ya que solo hay capellanes católicos y protestantes , ignorando al grupo religioso Espiritismo Kardecista que tiene el número mínimo requerido por ley para tener un capellán. [28] La inclusión de las religiones afrobrasileñas fue discutida en el poder judicial, distinguidos militantes negros pidiendo capellanes militares en las Fuerzas Armadas brasileñas . [29]
Brasil tiene una variedad religiosa gigante con los católicos , protestantes , musulmanes , Judios , Kardecista Espiritismo , religiones afro-brasileñas , religiones animistas brasileños , brasileños Syncretic religiones , pero en las Fuerzas Armadas de Brasil sólo católicos y protestantes tienen capellanes. [30] Brasil adoptó capellanes militares profesionales solo en la Segunda Guerra Mundial , durante la cual 25 sacerdotes católicos y 2 reverendos protestantes brindaron asistencia religiosa a 45.000 soldados brasileños en la campaña italiana . [31]
Durante la Guerra de Paraguay , un reverendo alemán se alistó como soldado para brindar asistencia religiosa a los soldados protestantes , [32] en ese momento el 90% de los brasileños eran católicos . [33]
Canadá
La Capellanía de las Fuerzas Armadas Canadienses tiene aproximadamente 192 capellanes de la Fuerza Regular y 145 capellanes de la Fuerza de Reserva [34] que representan a las religiones protestante , católica romana , musulmana y judía . La misión de esta Rama es "apoyar y mejorar la eficacia de la CF en su conjunto - su liderazgo, los hombres y mujeres individuales que sirven y sus familias - a través de la provisión de apoyo, consejo y cuidado religioso y espiritual integral". [35] La visión de la Capellanía es "ser una Capellanía operativamente relevante que apoye y se preocupe por todo el personal de CF y sus familias, dondequiera que vivan y sirvan, empoderándolos espiritual y moralmente para cumplir con las demandas del servicio militar". [35]
Su función es:
- Fomentar el bienestar religioso, espiritual y moral de los miembros y sus familias.
- Ofrecer un ministerio de presencia en multitud de entornos (en casa y en el extranjero)
- Participa en la vida de la comunidad de adoración.
- Oficiar en funciones especiales
- Asesorar al oficial al mando sobre el bienestar espiritual y ético y la moral de su unidad.
- Servir de enlace con grupos religiosos civiles de fe
- Colaborar con otros proveedores de atención.
- Brindar atención dirigida después de incidentes críticos [34]
Al ofrecer oraciones durante los desfiles y ceremonias, es costumbre que se dé la orden de quitarse el tocado a los que están en el desfile. [36] En noviembre de 2004, la Corte de Apelaciones de la Corte Marcial de Canadá dictaminó que esta orden "no era legal" [37] ya que exigía injustificadamente que todos los asistentes mostraran su participación en una oración que no podían creer. Siguiendo este fallo, los no creyentes ahora pueden retener su tocado como lo hacen los judíos y los sijs de acuerdo con su fe. [36]
Dinamarca
Conocido en danés como Feltpræsten (inglés: sacerdote de campo ) , hay 95 capellanes militares de la Iglesia de Dinamarca que sirven en las fuerzas armadas danesas , ministrando a todo el personal independientemente de su fe particular o falta de fe. [38]
Los capellanes están uniformados y el servicio de capellanía tiene un sistema de grados internos separados del sistema de clasificación habitual, lo que permite que cada capellán sea considerado de igual rango que la persona a la que se dirige. [39]
En la mayoría de los países, el personal no combatiente no lleva armas, pero a los capellanes daneses se les permite llevar un arma de mano con fines de autodefensa. [39]
Calificación | Armada | Ejército | Fuerza Aerea |
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Decano | |||
Capellán | |||
Capellán de recluta |
Finlandia
Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial o en Finlandia, la Guerra de Invierno, la Guerra de Continuación y la Guerra de Laponia, Finlandia fue única entre las potencias del Eje aliadas alemanas en la inclusión de soldados judíos en su ejército, así como en tener servicios de capellanía de campo disponibles para ellos. [40] [41]
France
During the Middle Ages, the cloak of Saint Martin of Tours, (cappa Sancti Martini), one of the most sacred relics of the Frankish kings, would be carried everywhere the king went, even into battle, as a holy relic upon which oaths were sworn. The clergyman who served as custodian for the cloak in its reliquary was called a capellānus, and, by extension, all clergymen who officiated in reliquaries, sanctuaries, or chapels were eventually called cappellāni. This eventually gave chapelain in Old French and was borrowed into English.[42]
Saint Louis was the king who gave legal status to the military chaplains, since chaplains serving under their lord in the Crusades were the first to be militarized. In 1531, during the Battle of Kappel, the Swiss reformist Huldrych Zwingli became the very first Protestant military chaplain to be killed on the battlefield.
The modern French Aumônerie militaire (military chaplaincy) was created and instituted by a July 8, 1880 Act of Parliament, which sets forth how the chaplaincy functions with regard to the Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish faiths. The Secularism Act (1905), which establishes a strict separation of church and state in the French government, does not however apply to the military. The defense minister appoints three command-level military chaplains—one per faith—in charge of all chaplains. The chaplains, serving in the army, are assigned by one of these three military chaplains. The first Muslim chaplain-general, Abdelkader Arbi, was commissioned in 2006.[43]
French military chaplains wear a uniform since World War II, but have no rank or rank insignia. The modern military chaplaincy is rooted in that war, where military chaplains were incorporated in almost every Free French Forces fighting unit and made up of personnel from England, France, or any of its imperial domains. After the war, military chaplains were sent to occupation zones in Germany and Austria.
In the 1950s, military chaplains were sent in the French Union's territories, including Indochina and Algeria. In 1954, pastor Tissot was one of the last paratrooper volunteers to jump over the besieged Dien Bien Phu fortified camp in northern Vietnam. On May 7, he was made prisoner of the Viet Minh and sent to a re-education camp, deep in the jungle.
Since 1984, French military chaplains are involved in every military operation—including the Gulf War—from Rapid Reaction Force (Force d'Action Rapide) units to navy ships.
In France, the existence of military chaplains has come under debate because of the separation of church and state; however, their position has been maintained as of 2004[update].[44]
Chief Military Chaplain | ||||
French Army common services | French Navy | French Air and Space Force | National Gendarmerie | |
Deputy Chief Military Chaplain |
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Regional military chaplain | ||||
Military chaplain |
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Lay person - military chaplain Catholic chaplaincy of the army | ||||
Reserve military chaplain |
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Germany
World War I and before
Initially only Christian chaplains worked in German armies. Only after the French Revolution did Jews become citizens with equal rights in Germany for the first time. An integration of Jewish soldiers within the army gave the German Reich the opportunity to recognize the Jewish urge to fight for the German “Fatherland”. The times of common Christian suppression and supremachy status changed and more and more German Jews served in the liberal French Armies of the German territories under French influence, e.g. in the Bavarian army.
In Prussia, king Frederick the Great also showed religious tolerance, but in case of the Jews he exerted intolerance. The Jews were divided into six classes, and only the privileged first class had de facto equal rights as citizens. Very few Jewish soldiers in the Prussian army of the 18th century left historical traces, e.g. Konstantin Nathanel of Salomon, who was promoted to general in 1760. Although the Jewish presence in Germany is older than Christianity,[46] the first "field rabbinat" was introduced during World War I. The German Kaiserreich appointed c. 30 military rabbis. Field rabbi Dr. Leo Baeck wrote the “Israelite Field Prayer Book”.
World War II
Germany had a tradition of appointing Catholic and Evangelical military chaplains and Jewish military field rabbis. This was continued in the Army and Navy of the Wehrmacht, for the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations only. A total of 95% of all Germans being Christian, German soldiers during Nazi times continued to belong to the churches and had the words "Gott mit uns" (God with us) on the belt buckles of every Army and Navy enlisted men and non-commissioned officers.[47][48] Despite this proportion of Christians, the totalitarian national socialistic government of the German Reich tried to weaken the authority and influence of the churches over their German adherents. Besides the international Jewish question, the international character of the Catholic church was another challenge. A few Catholics who devoutly resisted the Nazis, suffered imprisonment and hardship. The case was solved by the Reichskonkordat (1933) between the Holy See and Nazi Germany. The government of the German Reich early established an pastoral ministry for the German Army and the Reichskonkordat settled the appointment of an Army bishop. Therefore, the military chaplains could more freely operate out of the Catholic hierarchy. Franz Justus Rarkowski, S.M., became ordained the Catholic military Field Bishop (Feldbischof) of Nazi Germany in 1938 until 1945.
German military chaplains who served the Wehrmacht were part of the German mainstream and lent the Nazi war effort legitimacy. The Christian military chaplains served between strange poles. While the Nazi ideology was at its core pagan (the elite SS units never allowed chaplains), 95% of Germans were baptized Christians. German soldiers during the Nazi era continued to belong to the churches and had the words "Gott mit uns" (God with us) on their belt buckles. “Being a chaplain in the German army had always been a prestigious position and the Nazis wanted people who represented that old military tradition (..) and not sow discord or division. They wanted people who were not troublemakers."[47] The German military chaplains mostly wanted to bring the word of the Christian God to men in the field and to deliver the sacraments, make their families proud and serve their country. “The motives of the chaplains were not unusual, (..) their noble, personal and professional motives turned them into a legitimating force in a war of annihilation.”[47] Military chaplains in Nazi Germany were rigorously screened. First, names were put on the desks of the local civilian bishops, and then the names had to be approved by the according ministry for church affairs. Eventually the names were cleared by the military's chaplaincy office and the Gestapo ("Secret State Police").[47][49]
Organization and clothing
Throughout the Third Reich period, only the Army and Navy had military chaplains. When needed, other branches of the armed forces acquired chaplains from the Army or Navy or from nearby parish. In the Heer (Army), military chaplains were organized into Group 3b (Pastoral Group) of the General Army Office under the Army High Command. In mid 1935, four groups of military chaplains were introduced. In 1936, similar groups were introduced for the Kriegsmarine although the evolution over time was different. The groups are as follow.[50]
- Oberpfarrer (Higher Priest)
- Pfarrer (Priest)
- Standortpfarrer im Hauptamt (Garrison Priest in Main Office)
- Standortpfarrer im Nebenamt (Garrison Priest for Outside Appointment)
German military chaplains did not get into the ordinary military rank system, but received privileges like any other regular officers. Army chaplains had four different types of clothing:[51]
- Feldbluse (Field Dress). Field dress was identical for enlisted men, non-commissioned officers, and officers, and was worn on the battlefield. For military chaplains, the field dress was worn with officer-quality collar patches and without shoulder boards. Long trousers with shoes or breeches with officer boots could be worn. Two-pronged officer's belt was used.
- Dienstrock (Service Dress). Service dress was the typical dress for officers, with high-quality materials and tailor-made. For military chaplains, the field dress was worn with officer-quality collar patches and without shoulder boards. Service dress was normally used behind the lines although photographic evidences also show this kind of uniform was worn on the battlefield. Long trousers with shoes or breeches with officer boots could be worn. Two-pronged officer's belt was used, sometimes with cross strap.
- Überrock (Frock Coat). Frock coat was used for formal occasions and when ordered, and worn over the service dress. The piping was violet.
- Mantel (Overcoat). Overcoat worn by military chaplains was identical to those worn by officers. However, no shoulder boards were attached. This was worn over the field dress or service dress.
No weapon was permitted to be carried by chaplains, but one photographic evidence shows a chaplain with a pistol holster on his left waist.
For the headdresses of the Army chaplains, the most common were:[51]
- Schirmmütze (Visor Cap). Officer-quality visor cap with violet as the branch color (Waffenfarbe) for military chaplains. Between the national eagle and cockade, there was a small Gothic cross, either made of metal or embroidered.
- Feldmütze (Field Cap). Officer-quality field cap with silver pipings and violet soutache as the Waffenfarbe. Between the national eagle and cockade, there was a small Gothic cross, usually embroidered.
All the buttons, national eagles, cockades, Gothic crosses, and cap chinstraps were silver for military chaplains and gold for Field Bishops. The collar patches had violet underlay and violet piping for Catholic chaplains, and field grey underlay and violet piping for Protestant (Evangelist) chaplains.
For the Kriegsmarine, the uniform was identical to naval jacket of regular officers, but without sleeve laces and with chaplain collar patches. The collar patches were different to those of the Army. Two-prong officer's belt or brocade belt could be worn.
Although the official regulation states that military chaplains had to wear golden pectoral cross, there were two standard-issue crosses that were worn:[50]
- For Catholic chaplains, Corpus Christi was present on the cross. The cross itself was made either of metal or silver, with black wood insert. Long metal chains went through a loop at the top of the cross to be worn around the neck.
- For Protestant (Evangelist) chaplains, the cross was plain and made of metal or silver. Long metal chains went through a loop at the top of the cross to be worn around the neck.
Photographic evidences show numerous variety of pectoral crosses worn by German military chaplains during World War II.
Oftentimes, German military chaplains were issued an armband with a red cross sign and violet stripe to show their neutrality on the battlefield, in accordance with the Geneva Conventions, which designated chaplains as neutral parties.[52] This was called Armbinde mit Neutralitätsabzeichen (Armband with Neutrality Sign).
Among other things, military chaplains also wore standard liturgical vestments such as chasuble, cope, and stole.
Gallery
Johannes Maria Assmann, Catholic Prussian military bishop, 1899
Catholic Archbishop Cardinal Bettinger visiting the German Western Front, 1916
German Kriegsmarine suitcase with altar dishes of a Protestant military chaplain, 1940
Liberated foreign Protestant, Catholic and Jewish chaplains conduct funeral services for the reburial of 71 political prisoners, exhumed from a mass grave near Solingen, Germany, in front of the city hall, May 1945
Polish–Soviet War, chaplain anointing a dying soldier
Federal Republic of Germany
German religious constitutional law and its state-church law is involved in the democratic national identity of modern Germany, especially in various articles of the German Constitution. Initially, a "military-chaplaincy" contract was only signed between the state and the Protestant Church, but was extended to all other religious communities for reasons of parity.[53] Furthermore, the 1930s Reichskonkordat between the Holy See and Germany is still in force. In Germany, military chaplains of the Bundeswehr have no rank but have a special civilian status as part of the armed forces. Military rabbis or chaplain were banned during Hitler’s rule and were reintroduced to the German military on May 29, 2020, by the Germany Parliament into law since 1957. It is the first expansion of the law on the military pastoral care.[54]
Israel
The Military Rabbinate is a unit in the Israel Defense Forces that provides religious services for military personnel, Jewish and non-Jewish, and makes decisions on issues of religion and military affairs. The Military Rabbinate is headed by the Chief Military Rabbi, who carries the rank of a Brigadier General.
The Military Rabbinate constitutes the body responsible for religious institutions in the military. In every unit or military base there are Military Rabbinate military personnel assigned responsibility for conducting or coordinating religious services, overseeing Kashrut laws of the kitchen, and the maintenance of the synagogue and religious supplies. Actively serving military personnel can request Military Rabbinate representatives to perform marriage ceremonies and Brit milah for baby boys. The unit also oversees the legal and religious certification of marriages and divorces of individuals during their military service.
The Military Rabbinate is responsible for treating the bodies of soldiers in accordance with religious law, including the identifications and post-mortem treatment of bodies, and conducting military funerals. The Military Rabbinate also coordinates the burial of enemy soldiers and the exhuming of bodies in conjunction with prisoner exchanges.
The Military Rabbinate was founded in 1948 by Rabbi Shlomo Goren, who headed it until 1968.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands has chaplains of Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, and humanist faiths, provided by the De Diensten Geestelijke Verzorging (DGV) or the Spiritual Care Services. Chaplains are trained in Vormingscentrum Landgoed Beukbergen.[55]
Norway
The chaplain service in Norway is called the Feltprestkorpset, or the Field Priest Corps, and is a joint Norwegian Armed Forces service.[56]
Russia
The position of chaplain in the army and navy of the Russian Empire was present until 1917. In 1914, there were about 730 priests and 150 deacons in the ranks of the Russian Imperial Army, and at the height of the war the number of chaplains in it was about 5,000 people.
The first All-Russian Congress of Military and Naval clergy in the Russian Empire was held in St. Petersburg from July 1 to 11, 1914, it was attended by 49 chaplains representing all 12 military districts of the state. It defined the range of duties of the military clergy: in addition to the priestly tasks themselves, chaplains were instructed to assist in wound dressing, to help in the evacuation of killed and wounded soldiers, to notify the relatives and friends of the killed soldiers of the death of soldiers, to participate in the organization of societies to help the disabled, as well as to take care of the arrangement of travelling libraries and military graves.
In the Russian Federation, Ukraine (and in the countries of the former Warsaw Pact) the institution of chaplaincy is being revived.
Airborne Orthodox churches have appeared in the Airborne Forces of the Russian Federation.
South Africa
Prior to 1968, chaplains wore badges of rank as commissioned officers.[57]
Since 1968, however, all chaplains have been senior officers and accorded the protocol status of colonel / captain (navy). They carry the military rank of chaplain and the rank insignia, which is unique to the Chaplains Service, comprises a Chi Rho monogramme[58] surrounded by a triangle. The monogramme represents the first two letters of Christ in Greek. It originates from the days of Constantine, the first Emperor of Rome to grant religious freedom to Christians. His own conversion to the Christian faith was initiated by a dream in which the Chi-Rho monogramme appeared to him. The triangle surrounding the monogramme is the symbolic representation of the Holy Trinity.
During the vision of the monogramme, Constantine heard the Latin words in hoc signo vinces. The English translation of these Latin words is: "In this sign, you will conquer". This is the motto of the Chaplains Service and forms part of the Corps Badge.
In 1998, after working as chaplain general in exile for the ANC, the African National Congress, during the fight against apartheid, Fumanekile Gqiba was appointed as the first black chaplain general for SANDF, the South African National Defense Force. In 2004, Major General Gqiba left the military to accept his appointment as South African Ambassador to Israel.
In the SANDF Chaplain Service, the Hindu faith is represented by a Regular Force chaplain. The rank is Cpln (Vipra) and the mode of address Vipra. The rank insignia is a deepa (lamp) with flame. This is the symbolic representation of enlightenment, the life objective of all Hindus.
Muslims do not have Regular Force chaplains in the SANDF because they are small in number. They are however served by part-time workers through the Chaplains Service of the SANDF and are addressed according to their religious customs as imams.
Christian chaplains are generally referred to and addressed as Padre. They may however, be addressed according to the practice of their religious bodies e.g., Father, Pastor, Umfundisi (Zulu and Xhosa), Moruti (Sotho), Dominee (Afrikaans) etc. The official written form of address is Cpln (for chaplain) followed by the appropriate ecclesiastical title of the respective chaplain e.g., Cpln (Rev), Cpln (Fr), Cpln (Pastor), Cpln, etc.[59]
Along with chaplains from many other nations in the southern region of the continent of Africa, South African chaplains participate in SARMCA, the South Africa Regional Military Chaplains Association, which is a component organization of SADC, the Southern African Development Community.
Chaplain Christian Rank Insignia
Chaplain Hindu Rank Insignia
Chaplain Jewish Rank Insignia
Chaplain Christian badge
Chaplain Hindu badge
Chaplain Jewish badge
Chaplain Muslim badge
Spain
Ukraine
In recent years, military chaplains have taken a more important role in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Since the Russian military intervention in Ukraine that began in 2014, many Ukrainian citizens with a religious background have volunteered to serve in the armed forces as chaplains to certain battalions and regiments in the Ukrainian Ground Forces fighting in the Anti-Terrorist Operation Zone during the ongoing War in Donbass. The purpose of utilizing these chaplains, according to Prime Minister of Ukraine Arseniy Yatsenyuk was to needed to boost Ukrainian army morale during the conflict. Originally, the Ukrainian Catholic Church designated around 70 priests to work with their designated units, all of which came from the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant faiths. The Center of Military Chaplaincy of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church is a notable chaplaincy organization in Ukraine that provides counseling and pastoral care to officers, soldiers and their families. Today, a chaplain is not an official military position, but rather a volunteer service. A notable Ukrainian military chaplain is Ivan Hrynokh, who served with the Nachtigall Battalion during the Second World War.[60]
United Kingdom
The first English military-oriented chaplains were priests on board proto-naval vessels during the eighth century AD. Land based chaplains appeared during the reign of King Edward I, although their duties included jobs that today would come under the jurisdiction of military engineers and medical officers. A priest attached to a feudal noble household would follow his liege lord into battle. In 1796 the Parliament of Great Britain passed a Royal Warrant that established the Army Chaplains' Department in the British Army. The Department was awarded its "Royal" prefix in 1919 in recognition of their chaplains' service during World War I.
The current form of military chaplain dates from the era of World War I. A chaplain provides spiritual and pastoral support for service personnel, including the conduct of religious services at sea or in the field. In the Royal Navy chaplains are traditionally addressed by their Christian name, or with one of many nicknames (Bish; Sin-Bosun; Devil Dodger; Sky-Pilot etc.). In the British Army and Royal Air Force, chaplains are traditionally referred to (and addressed) as padre or as Sir/Ma'am (although not the latter in the RAF). Many Padres in the British Army will insist on not being referred to as Sir/Ma'am as they are explicitly outside of the chain of command in the units to which they have been attached, which emphasises their pastoral role rather than a command position.
In the Royal Navy chaplains have no rank other than "chaplain" while in the British Army they hold commissioned relative rank but are universally referred to as Padre. On the foundation of the Royal Air Force Chaplains' Branch an attempt was made to amalgamate these differing systems creating "Relative Rank", where rank is worn but without executive authority. In practice chaplains of all three services work in similar ways using what influence and authority they have on behalf of those who consult them or seek their advice.
During World War II the head of chaplaincy in the British Army was an (Anglican) chaplain-general, (a major-general), who was formally under the control of the Permanent Under-Secretary of State.[61] An assistant chaplain-general was a chaplain 1st class (full colonel) and a senior chaplain was a chaplain 2nd class (lieutenant colonel).[62]
All chaplains are commissioned officers and wear uniform. British Army and Royal Air Force chaplains bear ranks and wear rank insignia, but Royal Navy chaplains do not, wearing a cross and a special version of the officers' cap badge as their only insignia.
Chaplains in the armed forces were previously all Christian or Jewish. The first Jewish chaplain was appointed in 1892 and some 20 to 30 were commissioned during World War II.[63] Until recent times, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) has employed only Christian chaplains, with the Jewish community providing an honorary chaplain under long-standing arrangements, although Jewish chaplains have served in the Territorial Army. In October 2005 the Ministry of Defence appointed four chaplains to the military; one each from the Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim and Sikh faith communities.[64] The Museum of Army Chaplaincy holds information and archive material relating to the history of the Army Chaplains' Department.
In the era before call signs the radio "appointment title" for the Padre was "Sky pilot".
United States
In the United States, military chaplains have an officer's rank based on their years of service and promotion selection from among their peers. Chaplains serving in the US Armed Forces wear the uniform of their respective branch of service, and normally wear clerical attire only during the performance of a religious service. The position of rank and chaplain faith group insignia varies in each military department and may vary significantly from one type of uniform to another within a military department. The US Army, Air Force, and Navy (as a component of the Department of the Navy, the Marine Corps is supplied by US Navy chaplains) require an 'ecclesiastical endorsement' from the candidate's faith group (which in the case of the Navy must be one registered with the Department of Defense).[65][66][67]
The Civil Air Patrol, the volunteer auxiliary of the US Air Force, also has chaplains, who must meet the same standards for appointment as active-duty Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard chaplains. They wear the same insignia as US Air Force chaplains and can be called upon to assist Air Force chaplains.[68]
US military chaplains, both individuals and in groups, have been involved in a number of controversies. Complaints have been made against chaplains for mandatory prayers, coercion, and using government money to promote Evangelical Christianity.[69] Groups representing atheists have pushed for the appointment of someone representing their viewpoint to the chaplaincy.[70] Individual cases include that of Air Force Lt. Col. Garland Robertson, discharged in 1993 after expressing political opinions in a letter to the Abilene Reporter-News[71] and Navy Chaplain Lt. Gordon Klingenschmitt who, against direct orders to him personally, as well as military law and tradition, protested openly and publicly while in uniform against military policies which he believed restricted the free exercise of his religion.[72]
The constitutionality of the US chaplaincy has been the subject of legal challenges and scholarly dispute. One appellate case, Katcoff v. Marsh (1985) upheld the system as a permissible attempt to support service members in the "free exercise" of their religious beliefs, though others have described the details of the chaplaincy system as violations of the legal principles that the federal government maintain neutrality and avoid becoming entangled in religious affairs.
More than 400 chaplains have died while serving in the US military.[73]
Hanukkah party held for Jewish servicemen, 1952
A Roman Catholic army chaplain celebrating a Mass for Union soldiers and officers during the American Civil War (1861–1865).
Military Catholic chaplain Father (Major) Waters conducts Divine Services, June 1944
Insignia for Christian, Muslim, and Jewish chaplains on three US Navy chaplains' uniforms
Buddhist US Army Chaplain (Captain) Somya Malasri leads a Buddhist service
Muslim Air Force Chaplain (Captain) Walid Habash speaks to Muslim troops following a prayer service on Friday, December 19, 2009.
Ver también
- Armed priests
- New Testament military metaphors
Referencias
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In all the hot spots – yet rarely mentioned – military chaplains are some of today's unsung heroes.
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Otras lecturas
- Bergen, Doris. L., ed. (2004). The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
- Hassner, Ron E. (2013). Religion in the Military Worldwide. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107613645.
- Hassner, Ron E. (2016). Religion on the Battlefield. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801451072.
- Madigan, Edward (2011). Faith under Fire: Anglican Army Chaplains and the Great War. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230237452.
- O'Malley, Mark (2009). An History of the Development of Catholic Military Chaplaincy in the United States of America. Rome: Gregorian University.
- Snape, Michael; Madigan, Edward, eds. (2013). The Clergy in Khaki: New Perspectives on British Army Chaplaincy in the First World War. Farnham: Ashgate. ISBN 9781409430001.
- Thornton, Sybil (1995). "Buddhist Chaplains in the Field of Battle". In Lopez, Donald S., Jr. (ed.). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691044422.
- Whitt, Jacqueline E. (2014). Bringing God to Men: American Military Chaplains and the Vietnam War. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
enlaces externos
- Media related to Military chaplains at Wikimedia Commons