La historia de la ciencia es el estudio del desarrollo de la ciencia , incluidas las ciencias naturales y sociales (la historia de las artes y las humanidades se denomina historia de la erudición ). La ciencia es un cuerpo de conocimiento empírico , teórico y práctico sobre el mundo natural , producido por científicos que enfatizan la observación, explicación y predicción de fenómenos del mundo real . Historiografía de la ciencia, en cambio, estudia los métodos empleados por los historiadores de la ciencia.
La palabra inglesa científico es relativamente reciente, acuñada por primera vez por el erudito inglés William Whewell en el siglo XIX. [1] Antes de eso, los investigadores de la naturaleza se llamaban a sí mismos " filósofos naturales ". Si bien las observaciones del mundo natural se han descrito desde la antigüedad clásica (por ejemplo, por Tales y Aristóteles ), y el método científico se ha empleado desde la Edad Media (por ejemplo, por Ibn al-Haytham y Roger Bacon ), la ciencia moderna comenzó desarrollarse en el período moderno temprano y, en particular, en la revolución científica de la Europa de los siglos XVI y XVII. [2] Tradicionalmente, los historiadores de la ciencia han definido la ciencia de manera suficientemente amplia para incluir esas investigaciones anteriores. [3]
Desde el siglo XVIII hasta finales del siglo XX, la historia de la ciencia, especialmente de las ciencias físicas y biológicas , se presentó a menudo como una acumulación progresiva de conocimiento, en la que las verdaderas teorías reemplazaban a las falsas creencias. [4] Las interpretaciones históricas más recientes, como las de Thomas Kuhn , tienden a retratar la historia de la ciencia en términos de paradigmas o sistemas conceptuales en competencia dentro de una matriz más amplia de tendencias intelectuales, culturales, económicas y políticas. Estas interpretaciones, sin embargo, han encontrado oposición porque también retratan la historia de la ciencia como un sistema incoherente de paradigmas inconmensurables, que no conducen a ningún progreso científico real, sino solo a la ilusión de que ha ocurrido. [5]
Culturas tempranas
En tiempos prehistóricos , el conocimiento y la técnica se transmitían de generación en generación en una tradición oral . Por ejemplo, la domesticación del maíz para la agricultura data de hace unos 9.000 años en el sur de México , antes del desarrollo de los sistemas de escritura . [6] [7] [8] De manera similar, la evidencia arqueológica indica el desarrollo del conocimiento astronómico en sociedades prealfabetizadas. [9] [10] El desarrollo de la escritura permitió a los humanos almacenar y comunicar conocimientos a través de generaciones con mucha mayor precisión.
Muchas civilizaciones antiguas recopilaron sistemáticamente observaciones astronómicas . Los antiguos trazaron las posiciones relativas de los cuerpos celestes , a menudo infiriendo su influencia sobre los individuos humanos y la humanidad. [ cita requerida ]
En algunos lugares se conocían datos básicos sobre la fisiología humana y en varias civilizaciones se practicaba la alquimia . [11] [12] También se realizó una observación considerable de la flora y fauna macroscópica .
Antiguo Cercano Oriente
Los antiguos mesopotámicos no distinguían entre "ciencia racional" y magia . [13] [14] [15] Cuando una persona se enfermaba, los médicos recetaban fórmulas mágicas para recitar, así como tratamientos medicinales. [13] [14] [15] [16] Las primeras recetas médicas aparecen en sumerio durante la Tercera Dinastía de Ur ( c. 2112 a . C. - c. 2004 a. C.). [17] Sin embargo, el texto médico babilónico más extenso es el Manual de diagnóstico escrito por el ummânū , o erudito principal, Esagil-kin-apli de Borsippa , [18] durante el reinado del rey babilónico Adad-apla-iddina (1069 –1046 aC). [19] En las culturas semíticas orientales, la principal autoridad medicinal era una especie de curandero exorcista conocido como āšipu . [13] [14] [15] La profesión generalmente se transmitía de padres a hijos y se tenía en muy alta estima. [13] El recurso menos frecuente fue otro tipo de curandero conocido como asu , que se corresponde más de cerca con un médico moderno y trataba los síntomas físicos utilizando principalmente remedios caseros compuestos de varias hierbas, productos animales y minerales, así como pociones y enemas. y ungüentos o cataplasmas . Estos médicos, que podían ser hombres o mujeres, también curaban heridas, colocaban miembros y realizaban cirugías sencillas. Los antiguos mesopotámicos también practicaron la profilaxis y tomaron medidas para prevenir la propagación de enfermedades. [dieciséis]
Los antiguos mesopotámicos tenían un amplio conocimiento sobre las propiedades químicas de la arcilla, arena, mineral de metal, betún , piedra y otros materiales naturales, y aplicaron este conocimiento al uso práctico en la fabricación de cerámica , loza , vidrio, jabón, metales, yeso de cal y impermeabilización. La metalurgia requería conocimientos científicos sobre las propiedades de los metales. No obstante, los mesopotámicos parecen haber tenido poco interés en recopilar información sobre el mundo natural por el mero hecho de recopilar información y estaban mucho más interesados en estudiar la forma en que los dioses habían ordenado el universo . La biología de los organismos no humanos generalmente solo se escribió en el contexto de las disciplinas académicas convencionales. La fisiología animal se estudió extensamente con el propósito de la adivinación ; la anatomía del hígado , que se consideraba un órgano importante en la aruspía , se estudió con especial detalle. El comportamiento animal también se estudió con fines adivinatorios. La mayor parte de la información sobre el entrenamiento y la domesticación de animales probablemente se transmitió oralmente sin estar escrita, pero ha sobrevivido un texto que trata sobre el entrenamiento de caballos. [16] La tablilla cuneiforme mesopotámica Plimpton 322 , que data del siglo XVIII a. C., registra varios tripletes pitagóricos (3, 4, 5) (5, 12 , 13) ..., [20] insinuando que los antiguos mesopotámicos podrían han sido conscientes del teorema de Pitágoras durante un milenio antes de Pitágoras. [21] [22] [23]
En la astronomía babilónica , los registros de los movimientos de las estrellas , los planetas y la luna se dejan en miles de tablillas de arcilla creadas por escribas . Incluso hoy en día, los períodos astronómicos identificados por los protocientíficos mesopotámicos todavía se utilizan ampliamente en los calendarios occidentales , como el año solar y el mes lunar . Usando estos datos, desarrollaron métodos aritméticos para calcular la duración cambiante de la luz del día en el transcurso del año y predecir las apariciones y desapariciones de la Luna y los planetas y los eclipses del Sol y la Luna. Solo se conocen algunos nombres de astrónomos, como el de Kidinnu , un astrónomo y matemático caldeo . El valor de Kiddinu para el año solar está en uso para los calendarios de hoy. La astronomía babilónica fue "el primer y muy exitoso intento de dar una descripción matemática refinada de los fenómenos astronómicos". Según el historiador A. Aaboe, "todas las variedades posteriores de astronomía científica, en el mundo helenístico, en la India, en el Islam y en Occidente, si no es que todos los esfuerzos posteriores en las ciencias exactas, dependen de la astronomía babilónica de manera decisiva y decisiva. formas fundamentales ". [24]
Egipto
El antiguo Egipto hizo avances significativos en astronomía, matemáticas y medicina. [25] Su desarrollo de la geometría fue una consecuencia necesaria de la topografía para preservar el diseño y la propiedad de las tierras de cultivo , que se inundaron anualmente por el río Nilo . El triángulo rectángulo 3-4-5 y otras reglas de geometría se utilizaron para construir estructuras rectilíneas y la arquitectura de postes y dintel de Egipto. Egipto también fue un centro de investigación de la alquimia para gran parte del Mediterráneo . El papiro de Edwin Smith es uno de los primeros documentos médicos que aún existen, y quizás el documento más antiguo que intenta describir y analizar el cerebro: podría verse como el comienzo mismo de la neurociencia moderna . Sin embargo, aunque la medicina egipcia tenía algunas prácticas eficaces, a menudo era ineficaz y, en ocasiones, dañina. Los historiadores médicos creen que la farmacología del antiguo Egipto, por ejemplo, fue en gran medida ineficaz. [26] No obstante, aplicó los siguientes componentes al tratamiento de la enfermedad: examen, diagnóstico, tratamiento y pronóstico, [27] que muestran fuertes paralelos con el método empírico básico de la ciencia y, según GER Lloyd, [28] jugaron un papel importante en el desarrollo de esta metodología. El papiro de Ebers (c. 1550 a. C.) también contiene pruebas del empirismo tradicional .
Mundo grecorromano
En la Antigüedad clásica , la indagación sobre el funcionamiento del universo tuvo lugar tanto en investigaciones dirigidas a objetivos prácticos como establecer un calendario confiable o determinar cómo curar una variedad de enfermedades y en esas investigaciones abstractas conocidas como filosofía natural . Los antiguos que fueron considerados los primeros científicos pueden haberse considerado filósofos naturales , practicantes de una profesión experta (por ejemplo, médicos ) o seguidores de una tradición religiosa (por ejemplo, curanderos de templos ).
Los primeros filósofos griegos, conocidos como presocráticos , [29] proporcionaron respuestas opuestas a la pregunta que se encuentra en los mitos de sus vecinos: "¿Cómo llegó a existir el cosmos ordenado en el que vivimos?" [30] El filósofo presocrático Tales (640-546 aC), apodado el "padre de la ciencia", fue el primero en postular explicaciones no sobrenaturales de los fenómenos naturales. Por ejemplo, esa tierra flota sobre el agua y que los terremotos son causados por la agitación del agua sobre la que flota la tierra, en lugar del dios Poseidón. [31] El alumno de Tales, Pitágoras de Samos, fundó la escuela pitagórica , que investigaba las matemáticas por sí mismas, y fue el primero en postular que la Tierra tiene una forma esférica. [32] Leucipo (siglo V a. C.) introdujo el atomismo , la teoría de que toda la materia está hecha de unidades indivisibles e imperecederas llamadas átomos . Esto fue ampliado en gran medida por su alumno Demócrito y más tarde Epicuro .
Posteriormente, Platón y Aristóteles produjeron las primeras discusiones sistemáticas de la filosofía natural, que contribuyeron mucho a dar forma a las investigaciones posteriores de la naturaleza. Su desarrollo del razonamiento deductivo fue de particular importancia y utilidad para la investigación científica posterior. Platón fundó la Academia Platónica en 387 a. C., cuyo lema era "Que no entre aquí nadie que no sepa en geometría", y resultó en muchos filósofos notables. Aristóteles, alumno de Platón, introdujo el empirismo y la noción de que se puede llegar a las verdades universales mediante la observación y la inducción, sentando así las bases del método científico. [33] Aristóteles también produjo muchos escritos biológicos que eran de naturaleza empírica, centrándose en la causalidad biológica y la diversidad de la vida. Hizo innumerables observaciones de la naturaleza, especialmente los hábitos y atributos de plantas y animales en Lesbos , clasificó más de 540 especies de animales y diseccionó al menos 50. [34] Los escritos de Aristóteles influyeron profundamente en la erudición islámica y europea posterior , aunque finalmente fueron reemplazados. en la Revolución Científica . [35] [36]
El importante legado de este período incluyó avances sustanciales en el conocimiento fáctico, especialmente en anatomía , zoología , botánica , mineralogía , geografía , matemáticas y astronomía ; conciencia de la importancia de determinados problemas científicos, especialmente los relacionados con el problema del cambio y sus causas; y un reconocimiento de la importancia metodológica de aplicar las matemáticas a los fenómenos naturales y de emprender investigaciones empíricas. [37] En la época helenística, los eruditos emplearon con frecuencia los principios desarrollados en el pensamiento griego anterior: la aplicación de las matemáticas y la investigación empírica deliberada, en sus investigaciones científicas. [38] Así, claras líneas de influencia ininterrumpidas conducen desde los antiguos filósofos griegos y helenísticos , a los filósofos y científicos musulmanes medievales , al Renacimiento y la Ilustración europeos , a las ciencias seculares de la actualidad. Ni la razón ni la indagación comenzaron con los antiguos griegos, pero el método socrático hizo, junto con la idea de las formas , grandes avances en geometría, lógica y ciencias naturales. Según Benjamin Farrington , ex profesor de clásicos en la Universidad de Swansea :
- "Los hombres pesaban durante miles de años antes de que Arquímedes elaborara las leyes del equilibrio; debían haber tenido un conocimiento práctico e intuitivo de los principios involucrados. Lo que hizo Arquímedes fue clasificar las implicaciones teóricas de este conocimiento práctico y presentar el cuerpo resultante de el conocimiento como un sistema lógicamente coherente ".
y otra vez:
- "Con asombro nos encontramos en el umbral de la ciencia moderna. Tampoco debería suponerse que mediante algún truco de traducción se haya dado a los extractos un aire de modernidad. Lejos de eso. El vocabulario de estos escritos y su estilo son la fuente de del cual se ha derivado nuestro propio vocabulario y estilo ". [39]
El astrónomo Aristarco de Samos fue la primera persona conocida en proponer un modelo heliocéntrico del sistema solar, mientras que el geógrafo Eratóstenes calculó con precisión la circunferencia de la Tierra. Hiparco (c. 190 - c. 120 a. C.) produjo el primer catálogo de estrellas sistemático . El nivel de logros en astronomía e ingeniería helenísticas se muestra de manera impresionante mediante el mecanismo de Antikythera (150-100 a. C.), una computadora analógica para calcular la posición de los planetas. Los artefactos tecnológicos de complejidad similar no reaparecieron hasta el siglo XIV, cuando aparecieron los relojes astronómicos mecánicos en Europa. [40]
En medicina , Hipócrates (c. 460 a. C. - c. 370 a. C.) y sus seguidores fueron los primeros en describir muchas enfermedades y afecciones médicas y desarrollaron el juramento hipocrático para los médicos, que sigue siendo relevante y en uso en la actualidad. Herophilos (335-280 aC) fue el primero en basar sus conclusiones en la disección del cuerpo humano y en describir el sistema nervioso . Galeno (129 - c. 200 d. C.) realizó muchas operaciones audaces, incluidas cirugías cerebrales y oculares , que no se volvieron a intentar durante casi dos milenios.
En el Egipto helenístico , el matemático Euclides sentó las bases del rigor matemático e introdujo los conceptos de definición, axioma, teorema y demostración todavía en uso hoy en día en sus Elementos , considerado el libro de texto más influyente jamás escrito. [42] A Arquímedes , considerado uno de los más grandes matemáticos de todos los tiempos, [43] se le atribuye el uso del método de agotamiento para calcular el área bajo el arco de una parábola con la suma de una serie infinita , y dio una aproximación notablemente precisa. de pi . [44] También es conocido en física por sentar las bases de la hidrostática , la estática y la explicación del principio de la palanca .
Theophrastus escribió algunas de las primeras descripciones de plantas y animales, estableciendo la primera taxonomía y analizando los minerales en términos de sus propiedades, como la dureza . Plinio el Viejo produjo la que es una de las enciclopedias más grandes del mundo natural en el 77 d.C., y debe considerarse como el legítimo sucesor de Teofrasto. Por ejemplo, describe con precisión la forma octaédrica del diamante y procede a mencionar que los grabadores utilizan el polvo de diamante para cortar y pulir otras gemas debido a su gran dureza. Su reconocimiento de la importancia de la forma del cristal es un precursor de la cristalografía moderna , mientras que la mención de muchos otros minerales presagia la mineralogía. También reconoce que otros minerales tienen formas cristalinas características, pero en un ejemplo, confunde el hábito cristalino con el trabajo de los lapidarios . También fue el primero en reconocer que el ámbar era una resina fosilizada de pinos porque había visto muestras con insectos atrapados dentro de ellos.
India
Matemáticas: Los primeros vestigios de conocimiento matemático en el subcontinente indio aparecen con la civilización del valle del Indo (c. 4º milenio a. C. ~ c. 3º milenio a. C.). La gente de esta civilización fabricaba ladrillos cuyas dimensiones estaban en la proporción 4: 2: 1, consideradas favorables para la estabilidad de una estructura de ladrillos. [45] También intentaron estandarizar la medición de la longitud con un alto grado de precisión. Diseñaron una regla, la regla de Mohenjo-daro, cuya unidad de longitud (aproximadamente 1,32 pulgadas o 3,4 centímetros) se dividió en diez partes iguales. Los ladrillos fabricados en el antiguo Mohenjo-daro a menudo tenían dimensiones que eran múltiplos integrales de esta unidad de longitud. [46]
El astrónomo y matemático indio Aryabhata (476-550), en su Aryabhatiya (499) introdujo una serie de funciones trigonométricas (incluyendo seno , verseno , coseno y seno inverso ), tablas trigonométricas y técnicas y algoritmos de álgebra . En 628 d.C., Brahmagupta sugirió que la gravedad era una fuerza de atracción. [47] [48] También explicó lúcidamente el uso del cero como marcador de posición y dígito decimal , junto con el sistema numérico hindú-árabe que ahora se usa universalmente en todo el mundo. Las traducciones al árabe de los textos de los dos astrónomos pronto estuvieron disponibles en el mundo islámico , introduciendo lo que se convertiría en números arábigos en el mundo islámico en el siglo IX. [49] [50] Durante los siglos XIV-XVI, la escuela de astronomía y matemáticas de Kerala realizó avances significativos en astronomía y especialmente en matemáticas, incluidos campos como la trigonometría y el análisis. En particular, Madhava de Sangamagrama es considerado el "fundador del análisis matemático ". [51]
Astronomía: La primera mención textual de conceptos astronómicos proviene de los Vedas , literatura religiosa de la India. [52] Según Sarma (2008): "Uno encuentra en el Rigveda especulaciones inteligentes sobre la génesis del universo a partir de la inexistencia, la configuración del universo, la tierra esférica autoportante , y el año de 360 días dividido en 12 iguales partes de 30 días cada una con un mes intercalado periódico. ". [52] Los primeros 12 capítulos del Siddhanta Shiromani , escrito por Bhāskara en el siglo XII, cubren temas como: longitudes medias de los planetas; verdaderas longitudes de los planetas; los tres problemas de la rotación diurna; sicigias; eclipses lunares; eclipses solares; latitudes de los planetas; levantamientos y escenarios; la luna creciente; conjunciones de los planetas entre sí; conjunciones de los planetas con las estrellas fijas; y las patas del sol y la luna. Los 13 capítulos de la segunda parte cubren la naturaleza de la esfera, así como importantes cálculos astronómicos y trigonométricos basados en ella.
El tratado astronómico de Nilakantha Somayaji , el Tantrasangraha, de naturaleza similar al sistema Tychónico propuesto por Tycho Brahe, había sido el modelo astronómico más preciso hasta la época de Johannes Kepler en el siglo XVII. [53]
Lingüística: Algunas de las actividades lingüísticas más tempranas se pueden encontrar en la India de la Edad del Hierro (1er milenio antes de Cristo) con el análisis del sánscrito con el propósito de recitar e interpretar correctamente los textos védicos . El gramático más notable del sánscrito fue Pāṇini (c. 520–460 a. C.), cuya gramática formula cerca de 4.000 reglas que juntas forman una gramática generativa compacta del sánscrito. Inherentes a su enfoque analítico son los conceptos de fonema , morfema y raíz . La gramática del idioma TAMIL Tolkāppiyam es el texto gramatical tamil más antiguo y la obra más antigua que se conserva de la literatura tamil. Los manuscritos supervivientes del Tolkappiyam constan de tres libros (atikaram), cada uno con nueve capítulos (iyal), con un total acumulado de 1.612 sutras en la métrica nūṛpā. Es un texto completo sobre gramática e incluye sutras sobre ortografía, fonología, etimología, morfología, semántica, prosodia, estructura de la oración y el significado del contexto en el lenguaje.
Medicina: los hallazgos de los cementerios neolíticos en lo que hoy es Pakistán muestran evidencia de proto-odontología entre una cultura agrícola temprana. [54] Ayurveda es un sistema de medicina tradicional que se originó en la antigua India antes del 2500 AC, [55] y ahora se practica como una forma de medicina alternativa en otras partes del mundo. Su texto más famoso es el Suśrutasamhitā de Suśruta , que se destaca por describir procedimientos en diversas formas de cirugía, incluida la rinoplastia , la reparación de lóbulos de las orejas desgarradas, litotomía perineal , cirugía de cataratas y varias otras escisiones y otros procedimientos quirúrgicos.
Metalurgia: El wootz , crisol y aceros inoxidables se inventaron en la India y se exportaron ampliamente en el mundo mediterráneo clásico. Fue conocido por Plinio el Viejo como ferrum indicum . El acero indio Wootz era muy apreciado en el Imperio Romano y, a menudo, se consideraba el mejor. Después, en la Edad Media, se importó en Siria para producir con técnicas especiales el " acero de Damasco " para el año 1000. [56]
Los hindúes se destacan en la fabricación de hierro y en la preparación de aquellos ingredientes con los que se fusiona para obtener ese tipo de hierro dulce que suele denominarse acero indio (hindiah). También cuentan con talleres en los que se forjan los sables más famosos del mundo.
- - Henry Yule citó al árabe Edrizi del siglo XII. [57]
porcelana
Matemáticas : Desde los primeros tiempos, los chinos utilizaron un sistema decimal posicional en tableros de conteo para calcular. Para expresar 10, se coloca una sola varilla en el segundo cuadro de la derecha. El idioma hablado utiliza un sistema similar al inglés: por ejemplo, cuatro mil doscientos siete. No se utilizó ningún símbolo para el cero. En el siglo I a.C., los números negativos y las fracciones decimales estaban en uso y Los nueve capítulos sobre el arte matemático incluían métodos para extraer raíces de orden superior mediante el método de Horner y la resolución de ecuaciones lineales y el teorema de Pitágoras . Las ecuaciones cúbicas se resolvieron en la dinastía Tang y las soluciones de ecuaciones de orden superior a 3 aparecieron impresas en 1245 d.C. por Ch'in Chiu-shao . El triángulo de Pascal para coeficientes binomiales fue descrito alrededor de 1100 por Jia Xian .
Aunque los primeros intentos de axiomatización de la geometría aparecen en el canon mohista en el 330 a. C., Liu Hui desarrolló métodos algebraicos en geometría en el siglo III d. C. y también calculó pi en 5 cifras significativas. En 480, Zu Chongzhi mejoró esto al descubrir la proporción que siguió siendo el valor más exacto durante 1200 años.
Astronomía : las observaciones astronómicas de China constituyen la secuencia continua más larga de cualquier civilización e incluyen registros de manchas solares (112 registros del 364 a. C.), supernovas (1054), eclipses lunares y solares. En el siglo XII, podían hacer predicciones de eclipses con razonable precisión, pero el conocimiento de esto se perdió durante la dinastía Ming, por lo que el jesuita Matteo Ricci ganó mucho favor en 1601 por sus predicciones. [59] Hacia 635, los astrónomos chinos habían observado que las colas de los cometas siempre apuntan en dirección opuesta al sol.
Desde la antigüedad, los chinos utilizaron un sistema ecuatorial para describir los cielos y se trazó un mapa estelar de 940 utilizando una proyección cilíndrica ( Mercator ). El uso de una esfera armilar se registra desde el siglo IV a.C. y una esfera montada permanentemente en eje ecuatorial desde el 52 a.C. En el año 125 d.C., Zhang Heng utilizó la energía del agua para rotar la esfera en tiempo real. Esto incluyó anillos para el meridiano y la eclíptica. En 1270 habían incorporado los principios del torquetum árabe .
Sismología : para prepararse mejor para las calamidades, Zhang Heng inventó un sismómetro en 132 EC que proporcionó una alerta instantánea a las autoridades en la capital, Luoyang, de que había ocurrido un terremoto en una ubicación indicada por una dirección cardinal u ordinal específica . [60] Aunque no se sintieron temblores en la capital cuando Zhang le dijo a la corte que acababa de ocurrir un terremoto en el noroeste, un mensaje llegó poco después de que un terremoto había golpeado entre 400 km (248 millas) y 500 km (310 millas). ) al noroeste de Luoyang (en lo que hoy es el moderno Gansu ). [61] Zhang llamó a su dispositivo el 'instrumento para medir los vientos estacionales y los movimientos de la Tierra' (Houfeng didong yi 候 风 地动 仪), llamado así porque él y otros pensaron que los terremotos probablemente fueron causados por la enorme compresión de aire atrapado. [62] Consulte el sismómetro de Zhang para obtener más detalles.
Hay muchos contribuyentes notables al campo de la ciencia china a lo largo de los siglos. Uno de los mejores ejemplos sería el chino Song Shen Kuo (1031-1095), un científico erudito y estadista que fue el primero en describir la brújula de aguja magnética utilizada para la navegación , descubrió el concepto de norte verdadero , mejoró el diseño de el gnomon astronómico , la esfera armilar , el visor y la clepsidra , y describió el uso de diques secos para reparar barcos. Después de observar el proceso natural de la inundación de limo y el hallazgo de fósiles marinos en las montañas Taihang (a cientos de millas del Océano Pacífico), Shen Kuo ideó una teoría de la formación de la tierra o geomorfología . También adoptó una teoría del cambio climático gradual en las regiones a lo largo del tiempo, después de observar el bambú petrificado que se encuentra bajo tierra en Yan'an , provincia de Shaanxi . Si no fuera por la escritura de Shen Kuo, [63] las obras arquitectónicas de Yu Hao serían poco conocidas, junto con el inventor de la impresión de tipos móviles , Bi Sheng (990-1051). El contemporáneo de Shen, Su Song (1020-1101) también fue un brillante erudito, un astrónomo que creó un atlas celestial de mapas estelares, escribió un tratado farmacéutico con temas relacionados de botánica , zoología , mineralogía y metalurgia , y había erigido una gran torre de reloj astronómica. en la ciudad de Kaifeng en 1088. Para operar la esfera armilar de coronación , su torre del reloj presentaba un mecanismo de escape y el uso más antiguo conocido del mundo de una cadena de transmisión de energía sin fin . [64] [65]
Las misiones jesuitas de China de los siglos XVI y XVII "aprendieron a apreciar los logros científicos de esta antigua cultura y los dieron a conocer en Europa. A través de su correspondencia, los científicos europeos aprendieron por primera vez sobre la ciencia y la cultura chinas". [66] El pensamiento académico occidental sobre la historia de la tecnología y la ciencia chinas fue impulsado por el trabajo de Joseph Needham y el Instituto de Investigación Needham. Entre los logros tecnológicos de China estaban, según el erudito británico Needham, los primeros detectores sismológicos ( Zhang Heng en el siglo II), el globo celeste impulsado por agua (Zhang Heng), fósforos , la invención independiente del sistema decimal , diques secos , pinzas deslizantes , la bomba de pistón de doble acción , el hierro fundido , el alto horno , el arado de hierro , la sembradora multitubo , la carretilla , el puente colgante , la máquina aventadora , el ventilador rotatorio , el paracaídas , gas natural como combustible, el mapa en relieve , la hélice , la ballesta y un cohete de combustible sólido , el cohete multietapa , el collar de caballo , junto con contribuciones en lógica , astronomía , medicina y otros campos.
Sin embargo, factores culturales impidieron que estos logros chinos se convirtieran en lo que podríamos llamar "ciencia moderna". Según Needham, puede haber sido el marco religioso y filosófico de los intelectuales chinos lo que los hizo incapaces de aceptar las ideas de las leyes de la naturaleza:
No era que no hubiera un orden en la naturaleza para los chinos, sino más bien que no era un orden ordenado por un ser personal racional y, por lo tanto, no había convicción de que los seres personales racionales pudieran deletrear en sus lenguas terrenales menores. el código divino de leyes que había decretado antes. Los taoístas , de hecho, habrían despreciado tal idea por ser demasiado ingenua para la sutileza y complejidad del universo tal como lo intuían. [67]
Ciencia posclásica
In the Middle Ages the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire), Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western Europe).
Byzantine Empire
Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the intellectual level in the western part of Europe declined in the 400s. In contrast, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks, and preserved and improved the learning.[68]
While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine[69] and timekeeping.[70]
In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the Archimedes Palimpsest, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied.
John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.[71][72] The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics.[73] The works of John Philoponus inspired Galileo Galilei ten centuries later.[74][75]
The first record of separating conjoined twins took place in the Byzantine Empire in the 900s when the surgeons tried to separate a dead body of a pair of conjoined twins. The result was partly successful as the other twin managed to live for three days. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins was several centuries later, in 1600s Germany.[76][77]
During the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, a number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in which they fueled the era later commonly known as the "Renaissance” as they brought with them a great deal of classical learning including an understanding of botany, medicine, and zoology. Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides.[78]
Islamic world
In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
Scientific method began developing in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics.[79] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.[80]
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications.[81] What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
In astronomy, Al-Battani (c. 858–929) improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham,[82] Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model.[83][84] Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi,[85] Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi,[86] Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.[87]
Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant[88] and Fielding H. Garrison[89] considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jābir ibn Hayyān (died c. 806−816),[90] is popularly considered to be "the father of chemistry". The works of Arabic scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Persian writers),[91] and later Isaac Newton.[92] The scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.[93]
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, c. 980–1037) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam.[94] He pioneered the science of experimental medicine[95] and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials.[96] His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,[95] and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.[97]
Scientists from the Islamic world include al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (pioneer of surgery),[98] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (pioneer of Indology,[99] geodesy and anthropology),[100] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social sciences[101] such as demography,[102] cultural history,[103] historiography,[104] philosophy of history and sociology),[105] among many others.
Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th–13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed.[106] The end of the Islamic Golden Age is marked by the destruction of the intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.[106]
Western Europe
By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population. Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe.[107]
An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. Contact with the Byzantine Empire,[74] and with the Islamic world during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Latin Europe access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Isidore of Miletus, John Philoponus, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum,[108] with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."[109]
In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1275–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.[110][111]
As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England),[112] and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill.[113][114]
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier - the Bishop of Paris - Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277".[115] However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.[116][117][118][119]
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings.[120] William of Ockham emphasised the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object[121] and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye.[122] Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia.[123] The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.[124]
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as algebra to propagate more rapidly. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed.[125][126]
Impacto de la ciencia en Europa
The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century Scholasticism. The Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).[128] Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.[129]
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.
Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, Spinoza and Thomas Hobbes. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the 18th century. A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies in the major , and their scholarly journals, which dramatically speeded the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the Royal Society in London in 1660.[132] Directly based on the works[133] of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783). Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire). The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.[134]
Romanticism in science
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.
Ciencia moderna
With the scientific revolution, paradigms established in the time of classical antiquity were replaced with those of scientists like Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Christiaan Huygens and Isaac Newton.[135] During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways that continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states.[136]
Natural sciences
Physics
The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. Christiaan Huygens derived the centripetal and centrifugal forces and was the first to transfer mathematical inquiry to describe unobservable physical phenomena. William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.
During the late 18th and early 19th century, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Luigi Galvani, Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, and others. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.
In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, Chien-Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion.[137] She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics.[138][139] Wu designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.[138]
Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications.
Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.
Chemistry
Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.[140] A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier ("father of modern chemistry") on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.
The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.
Earth Science
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker,[141] Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.
Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.
Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field. It draws upon the disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth sciences, ecology, geography, mathematics, and physics.
Astronomy
Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to determine the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work to figure the size of the Earth. Hipparchus later discovered the precession of the Earth.
Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846.
In 1925, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin determined that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.[142] She was dissuaded by astronomer Henry Norris Russell from publishing this finding in her Ph.D.thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth.[143] However, four years later, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.[143]
George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe.[144] In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson[145] discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope (the Holmdel Horn Antenna), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe.
Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically expected value. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics.
Biology and medicine
William Harvey published De Motu Cordis in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of vertebrate circulatory systems. He identified the central role of the heart, arteries, and veins in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of Galen's pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.[146] The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul.[147] Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul.[148]
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.[149]
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the English naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. He proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.[150] Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian[151] monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms.[152] In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).
The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology.
Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary branch of science that combines physiology, neuroanatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, mathematical modeling and psychology to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons, glia, nervous systems and neural circuits.[153]
Social sciences
Successful use of the scientific method in the natural sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed.
Political science
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences.[154] However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya[155] and Viṣhṇugupta,[156] who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."[157]
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action.[158][citation needed] During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works.
During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.[citation needed] In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting.
In the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including rational choice theory, voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography/geopolitics, political psychology/political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies/conflict analysis.
Economics
The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this axiom, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian School responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.
In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.
Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government.
The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated.[159] The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.
Psychology
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.
The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener's atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.
The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
Sociology
Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist.[160] The modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.
In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage. Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society.[161]
American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.
Archaeology
The development of the field of archaeology has it roots with history and with those who were interested in the past, such as kings and queens who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations. The 5th-century-BCE Greek historian Herodotus was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts. In the Song Empire (960–1279) of Imperial China, Chinese scholar-officials unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts. The 15th and 16th centuries saw the rise of antiquarians in Renaissance Europe who were interested in the collection of artifacts. The antiquarian movement shifted into nationalism as personal collections turned into national museums. It evolved into a much more systematic discipline in the late 19th century and became a widely used tool for historical and anthropological research in the 20th century. During this time there were also significant advances in the technology used in the field.
The OED first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as the usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onwards, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837.
Anthropology
Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part.
At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as scientific racism.
During the late 19th century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an "ethnological" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas.
In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures" (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study).
The emergence of paleoanthropology, a scientific discipline which draws on the methodologies of paleontology, physical anthropology and ethology, among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well.
Emerging disciplines
During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Examples include:
Communication studies combines animal communication, information theory, marketing, public relations, telecommunications and other forms of communication.
Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.
Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, mineralogy, and crystallography. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, semiconductors, and composite materials.
Metascience (also known as meta-research) is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. Metascience seeks to increase the quality of research while reducing waste. The replication crisis is the result of metascientific research.[162]
Estudio academico
As an academic field, history of science and technology began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians.[163] With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.[164]
The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth.
History of science is an academic discipline, with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science.
Theories and sociology of the history of science
Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends.[165] The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free.[166] The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.
Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals.[167] It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt.[168] The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.[169]
A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been the nature of theory change in science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts" and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation.[170]
The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."[171]
Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge.[172] The Science wars of the 1990s were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies.[173][174] However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"[175]
Plight of many scientific innovators
One recurring observation in the history of science involves the struggle for recognition of first-rate scientists working on the periphery of the scientific establishment.[176] For instance, the great physicist Lord Rayleigh looked back on John James Waterston's seminal paper on the kinetic theory of gases. The history of the neglect of Waterston's path-breaking article, Rayleigh felt, suggests that "a young author who believes himself capable of great things would usually do well to secure favourable recognition of the scientific world . . . before embarking upon higher flights."
William Harvey's experiences led him to an even more pessimistic view:[177]
"But what remains to be said about the quantity and source of the blood which thus passes, is of so novel and unheard-of character that I not only fear injury to myself from the envy of a few, but I tremble lest I have mankind at large for my enemies, so much doth wont and custom, that become as another nature, and doctrine once sown and that hath struck deep root, and respect for antiquity, influence all men."
In more general terms, Robert K. Merton remarks that "the history of science abounds in instances of basic papers having been written by comparatively unknown scientists, only to be rejected or neglected for years."[178][179]
Ver también
- History
- 2000s in science and technology
- History of mathematics
- History of measurement
- History of physics
- History of philosophy
- History of science and technology
- History of science and technology in China
- History of technology
- Science and technology in Canada
- Science and technology in India
- Women in science
- Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
- History of science policy
- History and Philosophy of Science
- History of scholarship
- Philosophy of science
- Imre Lakatos
- Naïve empiricism
- Science studies
- Philosophy of science
- List of famous experiments
- List of multiple discoveries
- List of Nobel laureates
- List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field
- List of scientists
- List of years in science
- Multiple discovery
- Philosophy of history
- Science
- Fields of science
- Behavioural sciences
- Natural sciences
- Natural Sciences Tripos University of Cambridge, UK
- Social sciences
- History of technology
- Fields of science
- Science tourism
- Theories and sociology of the history of science
- Timelines of science
- Timeline of scientific discoveries
- Timeline of scientific experiments
- Timeline of scientific thought
- Timeline of the history of the scientific method
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- Needham, Joseph; Wang, Ling (1954). "Science and Civilisation in China". 1 Introductory Orientations. Cambridge University Press. Cite journal requires
- Sambursky, Shmuel (1974). Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists: an anthology selected, introduced and edited by Shmuel Sambursky. Pica Press. p. 584. ISBN 978-0-87663-712-8.
Otras lecturas
- Agar, Jon (2012) Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond, Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-3469-2.)
- Agassi, Joseph (2007) Science and Its History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-5631-4.
- Boorstin, Daniel (1983). The Discoverers : A History of Man's Search to Know His World and Himself. Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-40229-1. OCLC 9645583.
- Bowler, Peter J. (1993) The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences.
- Brock, W.H. (1993) The Norton History of Chemistry.
- Bronowski, J. (1951) The Common Sense of Science Heinemann. ISBN 978-84-297-1380-0.) (Includes a description of the history of science in England.)
- Byers, Nina and Gary Williams, ed. (2006) Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics, Cambridge University PressISBN 978-0-521-82197-1
- Herzenberg, Caroline L. (1986). Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present Locust Hill Press ISBN 978-0-933951-01-3
- Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-45807-6.
- Kumar, Deepak (2006). Science and the Raj: A Study of British India, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-568003-4
- Lakatos, Imre (1978). History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions published in The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1. Cambridge University Press
- Levere, Trevor Harvey. (2001) Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball
- Lindberg, David C.; Shank, Michael H., eds. (2013). The Cambridge History of Science. 2, Medieval Science. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHO9780511974007. ISBN 978-0-521-59448-6. Archived from the original on 10 June 2018.
- Lipphardt, Veronika/Ludwig, Daniel, Knowledge Transfer and Science Transfer, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: March 8, 2020 (pdf).
- Margolis, Howard (2002). It Started with Copernicus. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-138507-7
- Mayr, Ernst. (1985). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance.
- North, John. (1995). The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology.
- Nye, Mary Jo, ed. (2002). The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 5: The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences
- Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, eds. (2006) The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 3: Early Modern Science
- Porter, Roy, ed. (2003). The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century
- Rousseau, George and Roy Porter, eds. 1980). The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22599-1
- Slotten, Hugh Richard, ed. (2014) The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology.
enlaces externos
- 'What is the History of Science', British Academy
- International Academy of the History of Science
- Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science
- A History of Science, Vols 1–4, online text
- History of Science Society ("HSS")
- IsisCB Explore: History of Science Index An open access discovery tool
- (in French) The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center in Paris (France)
- The official site of the Nobel Foundation. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates
- Museo Galileo – Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy
- The Royal Society, trailblazing science from 1650 to date
- The Vega Science Trust Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates.
- National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Archives
- Digital Archives of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
- History of Science Digital Collection: Utah State University – Contains primary sources by such major figures in the history of scientific inquiry as Otto Brunfels, Charles Darwin, Erasmus Darwin, Carolus Linnaeus Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Jan Swammerdam, James Sowerby, Andreas Vesalius, and others.
- Inter-Divisional Teaching Commission (IDTC) of the International Union for the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS)
- International History, Philosophy and Science Teaching Group
- Digital facsimiles of books from the History of Science Collection, Linda Hall Library Digital Collections
- ""Scientific Change"". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.