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Un préstamo hipotecario o simplemente hipoteca ( / m ɔr del ɡ del ɪ del dʒ / ) es un préstamo utilizado tanto por los compradores de bienes inmuebles a recaudar fondos para comprar bienes raíces, o alternativamente por los propietarios para recaudar fondos existentes para cualquier propósito, mientras que poner un gravamen sobre la propiedad hipotecada. El préstamo está " asegurado " en la propiedad del prestatario a través de un proceso conocido como originación de hipotecas . Esto significa que se establece un mecanismo legal que permite al prestamista tomar posesión y vender la propiedad garantizada (" ejecución hipotecaria"o" recuperación ") para cancelar el préstamo en caso de que el prestatario no cumpla con el préstamo o no cumpla con sus términos. La palabra hipoteca se deriva de un término francés de la ley utilizado en Gran Bretaña en la Edad Media que significa" compromiso de muerte "y se refiere a la terminación de la prenda (muerte) cuando se cumple la obligación o se toma la propiedad mediante ejecución hipotecaria. [1] Una hipoteca también se puede describir como" un prestatario que da consideración en forma de garantía por un beneficio (préstamo ) ".

Los prestatarios hipotecarios pueden ser personas que hipotecan su casa o pueden ser empresas que hipotecan propiedades comerciales (por ejemplo, sus propios locales comerciales, propiedades residenciales alquiladas a inquilinos o una cartera de inversiones ). El prestamista suele ser una institución financiera, como un banco , una cooperativa de crédito o una sociedad de crédito hipotecario., dependiendo del país de que se trate, y los acuerdos de préstamo pueden realizarse directa o indirectamente a través de intermediarios. Las características de los préstamos hipotecarios, como el tamaño del préstamo, el vencimiento del préstamo, la tasa de interés, el método de liquidación del préstamo y otras características, pueden variar considerablemente. Los derechos del prestamista sobre la propiedad garantizada tienen prioridad sobre los demás acreedores del prestatario , lo que significa que si el prestatario se declara en quiebra o insolvente , a los otros acreedores solo se les reembolsarán las deudas que se les adeuden por la venta de la propiedad garantizada si el prestamista hipotecario está reembolsado en su totalidad primero.

En muchas jurisdicciones, es normal que las compras de viviendas se financien con un préstamo hipotecario. Pocas personas tienen suficientes ahorros o fondos líquidos que les permitan comprar una propiedad directamente. En los países donde la demanda de propiedad de vivienda es más alta, se han desarrollado fuertes mercados domésticos para hipotecas. Las hipotecas pueden financiarse mediante el sector bancario (es decir, mediante depósitos a corto plazo) o mediante los mercados de capitales mediante un proceso denominado "titulización", que convierte conjuntos de hipotecas en bonos fungibles que se pueden vender a inversores en pequeñas denominaciones.

Préstamo hipotecario. Pago total (3 tasas de interés fijas y 2 plazos del préstamo) = Principal del préstamo + Gastos ( impuestos y tarifas ) + Intereses totales a pagar.
El costo final será exactamente el mismo:
* cuando la tasa de interés es del 2.5% y el plazo es de 30 años que cuando la tasa de interés es del 5% y el plazo es de 15 años
* cuando la tasa de interés es del 5% y el plazo es de 30 años que cuando la tasa de interés es del 10% y el plazo es de 15 años

Conceptos básicos sobre préstamos hipotecarios

Conceptos básicos y normativa legal

De acuerdo con la ley de propiedad angloamericana , una hipoteca ocurre cuando un propietario (generalmente de un interés simple en bienes raíces ) promete su interés (derecho a la propiedad) como garantía o garantía de un préstamo. Por lo tanto, una hipoteca es un gravamen (limitación) del derecho a la propiedad tal como lo sería una servidumbre , pero debido a que la mayoría de las hipotecas ocurren como una condición para el dinero de un nuevo préstamo, la palabra hipoteca se ha convertido en el término genérico para un préstamo garantizado por tal bienes inmuebles . Al igual que con otros tipos de préstamos, las hipotecas tienen una tasa de interés y están programadas paraamortizar durante un período de tiempo determinado, generalmente 30 años. Todos los tipos de bienes inmuebles pueden estar, y por lo general lo están, garantizados con una hipoteca y devengar una tasa de interés que supuestamente refleja el riesgo del prestamista.

Los préstamos hipotecarios son el mecanismo principal utilizado en muchos países para financiar la propiedad privada de propiedades residenciales y comerciales (ver hipotecas comerciales ). Aunque la terminología y las formas precisas diferirán de un país a otro, los componentes básicos tienden a ser similares:

  • Propiedad: la vivienda física que se financia. La forma exacta de propiedad variará de un país a otro y puede restringir los tipos de préstamos posibles.
  • Hipoteca : la garantía mobiliaria del prestamista sobre el inmueble, que puede conllevar restricciones sobre el uso o enajenación del inmueble. Las restricciones pueden incluir requisitos para comprar un seguro de vivienda y un seguro hipotecario , o pagar la deuda pendiente antes de vender la propiedad.
  • Prestatario : la persona que toma prestado que tiene o está creando un interés de propiedad en la propiedad.
  • Prestamista : cualquier prestamista, pero generalmente un banco u otra institución financiera . (En algunos países, particularmente en los Estados Unidos, los prestamistas también pueden ser inversionistas que poseen un interés en la hipoteca a través de un valor respaldado por hipoteca . En tal situación, el prestamista inicial se conoce como el originador de la hipoteca, que luego empaqueta y vende el préstamo a inversores. Los pagos del prestatario son cobrados posteriormente por un administrador de préstamos . [2] )
  • Principal: el tamaño original del préstamo, que puede incluir o no ciertos otros costos; a medida que se reembolsa cualquier capital, el capital disminuirá de tamaño.
  • Intereses : un cargo financiero por el uso del dinero del prestamista.
  • Ejecución hipotecaria o recuperación : la posibilidad de que el prestamista ejecute, recupere o confisque la propiedad en determinadas circunstancias es esencial para un préstamo hipotecario; sin este aspecto, el préstamo no es diferente de cualquier otro tipo de préstamo.
  • Finalización : finalización legal de la escritura de hipoteca y, por tanto, inicio de la hipoteca.
  • Redención : reembolso final de la cantidad pendiente, que puede ser una "redención natural" al final del plazo programado o una redención a tanto alzado, normalmente cuando el prestatario decide vender la propiedad. Se dice que una cuenta hipotecaria cerrada se "canjea".

Muchas otras características específicas son comunes a muchos mercados, pero las anteriores son las características esenciales. Los gobiernos suelen regular muchos aspectos de los préstamos hipotecarios, ya sea directamente (a través de requisitos legales, por ejemplo) o indirectamente (a través de la regulación de los participantes o de los mercados financieros, como la industria bancaria) y, a menudo, a través de la intervención estatal (préstamos directos del gobierno). , préstamos directos de bancos de propiedad estatal o patrocinio de diversas entidades). Otros aspectos que definen un mercado hipotecario específico pueden ser regionales, históricos o impulsados ​​por características específicas del sistema legal o financiero.

Los préstamos hipotecarios se estructuran generalmente como préstamos a largo plazo, cuyos pagos periódicos son similares a una anualidad y se calculan de acuerdo con las fórmulas del valor del dinero en el tiempo . El arreglo más básico requeriría un pago mensual fijo durante un período de diez a treinta años, dependiendo de las condiciones locales. Durante este período, el componente principal del préstamo (el préstamo original) se pagaría lentamente a través de la amortización . En la práctica, muchas variantes son posibles y comunes en todo el mundo y dentro de cada país.

Los prestamistas proporcionan fondos contra la propiedad para obtener ingresos por intereses y, por lo general, toman prestados estos fondos ellos mismos (por ejemplo, tomando depósitos o emitiendo bonos ). El precio al que los prestamistas piden dinero prestado, por lo tanto, afecta el costo del préstamo. Los prestamistas también pueden, en muchos países, vender el préstamo hipotecario a otras partes interesadas en recibir el flujo de pagos en efectivo del prestatario, a menudo en forma de garantía (mediante una titulización ).

Los préstamos hipotecarios también tendrán en cuenta el riesgo (percibido) del préstamo hipotecario, es decir, la probabilidad de que los fondos se reembolsen (generalmente se considera una función de la solvencia crediticia del prestatario); que si no se reembolsan, el prestamista podrá ejecutar la ejecución hipotecaria de los activos inmobiliarios; y el riesgo financiero, de tipos de interés y retrasos que pueden estar implicados en determinadas circunstancias.

Suscripción hipotecaria

Durante el proceso de aprobación del préstamo hipotecario, un suscriptor de préstamos hipotecarios verifica la información financiera que el solicitante ha proporcionado en cuanto a ingresos, empleo, historial crediticio y el valor de la vivienda que se compra a través de una tasación. [3] Se puede ordenar una tasación. El proceso de suscripción puede demorar desde algunos días hasta algunas semanas. A veces, el proceso de suscripción toma tanto tiempo que es necesario volver a enviar los estados financieros proporcionados para que estén actualizados. [4] Es aconsejable mantener el mismo empleo y no utilizar ni abrir nuevos créditos durante el proceso de suscripción. Cualquier cambio realizado en la información crediticia, laboral o financiera del solicitante podría resultar en la denegación del préstamo.

Tipos de préstamos hipotecarios

Hay muchos tipos de hipotecas que se utilizan en todo el mundo, pero varios factores definen ampliamente las características de la hipoteca. Todos estos pueden estar sujetos a regulaciones locales y requisitos legales.

  • Intereses: Los intereses pueden ser fijos durante la vigencia del préstamo o variable, y cambiar en ciertos períodos predefinidos; la tasa de interés también puede, por supuesto, ser más alta o más baja.
  • Plazo: Los préstamos hipotecarios generalmente tienen un plazo máximo, es decir, el número de años después de los cuales se reembolsará un préstamo amortizable. Algunos préstamos hipotecarios pueden no tener amortización o requerir el pago total de cualquier saldo restante en una fecha determinada, o incluso una amortización negativa .
  • Monto y frecuencia de pago: El monto pagado por período y la frecuencia de los pagos; en algunos casos, el monto pagado por período puede cambiar o el prestatario puede tener la opción de aumentar o disminuir el monto pagado.
  • Pago anticipado: algunos tipos de hipotecas pueden limitar o restringir el pago anticipado de la totalidad o una parte del préstamo, o requerir el pago de una multa al prestamista por pago anticipado.

Los dos tipos básicos de préstamos amortizados son la hipoteca de tasa fija (FRM) y la hipoteca de tasa ajustable (ARM) (también conocida como hipoteca de tasa flotante o tasa variable ). En algunos países, como Estados Unidos, las hipotecas a tasa fija son la norma, pero las hipotecas a tasa flotante son relativamente comunes. Las combinaciones de hipotecas de tasa fija y variable también son comunes, por lo que un préstamo hipotecario tendrá una tasa fija durante algún período, por ejemplo, los primeros cinco años, y variará después del final de ese período.

  • En una hipoteca de tasa fija, la tasa de interés permanece fija durante la vida (o plazo) del préstamo. En el caso de un plan de pago de anualidades, el pago periódico sigue siendo el mismo monto durante todo el préstamo. En el caso de amortización lineal, el pago periódico disminuirá gradualmente.
  • En una hipoteca de tasa ajustable, la tasa de interés generalmente se fija durante un período de tiempo, después del cual periódicamente (por ejemplo, anual o mensual) se ajusta hacia arriba o hacia abajo a algún índice del mercado. Las tasas ajustables transfieren parte del riesgo de tasa de interés del prestamista al prestatario y, por lo tanto, se utilizan ampliamente cuando la financiación a tasa fija es difícil de obtener o tiene un costo prohibitivo. Dado que el riesgo se transfiere al prestatario, la tasa de interés inicial puede ser, por ejemplo, de 0,5% a 2% más baja que la tasa fija promedio a 30 años; el tamaño del diferencial de precios estará relacionado con las condiciones del mercado de deuda, incluida la curva de rendimiento .

El cargo para el prestatario depende del riesgo crediticio además del riesgo de la tasa de interés. El proceso de originación y suscripción de hipotecas implica verificar puntajes de crédito, deuda-ingresos, pagos iniciales, activos y evaluar el valor de la propiedad. Las hipotecas gigantes y los préstamos de alto riesgo no están respaldados por garantías gubernamentales y enfrentan tasas de interés más altas. Otras innovaciones que se describen a continuación también pueden afectar las tarifas.

Préstamo a valor y anticipos

Al hacer un préstamo hipotecario para la compra de una propiedad, los prestamistas generalmente requieren que el prestatario haga un pago inicial; es decir, contribuir con una parte del costo de la propiedad. Este pago inicial puede expresarse como una parte del valor de la propiedad (consulte a continuación la definición de este término). La relación préstamo-valor (o LTV) es el tamaño del préstamo contra el valor de la propiedad. Por tanto, un préstamo hipotecario en el que el comprador ha realizado un pago inicial del 20% tiene una relación préstamo / valor del 80%. Para préstamos hechos contra propiedades que el prestatario ya posee, la relación préstamo / valor se imputará al valor estimado de la propiedad.

La relación préstamo-valor se considera un indicador importante del riesgo de un préstamo hipotecario: cuanto mayor es el LTV, mayor es el riesgo de que el valor de la propiedad (en caso de ejecución hipotecaria) sea insuficiente para cubrir el principal restante del préstamo. .

Valor: tasado, estimado y real

Dado que el valor de la propiedad es un factor importante para comprender el riesgo del préstamo, determinar el valor es un factor clave en los préstamos hipotecarios. El valor se puede determinar de varias formas, pero las más habituales son:

  1. Valor real o de transacción: generalmente se toma como el precio de compra de la propiedad. Si la propiedad no se está comprando en el momento del préstamo, es posible que esta información no esté disponible.
  2. Valor tasado o encuestado: en la mayoría de las jurisdicciones, es común alguna forma de tasación del valor por parte de un profesional autorizado. A menudo existe el requisito de que el prestamista obtenga una tasación oficial.
  3. Valor estimado: los prestamistas u otras partes pueden usar sus propias estimaciones internas, particularmente en jurisdicciones donde no existe un procedimiento oficial de tasación, pero también en algunas otras circunstancias.

Ratios de pago y deuda

En la mayoría de los países, se pueden utilizar varias medidas más o menos estándar de solvencia crediticia. Las medidas comunes incluyen el pago a los ingresos (pagos de hipotecas como porcentaje de los ingresos brutos o netos); deuda a ingresos (todos los pagos de la deuda, incluidos los pagos de hipotecas, como porcentaje de los ingresos); y varias medidas de patrimonio neto. En muchos países, los puntajes crediticiosse utilizan en lugar de estas medidas o para complementarlas. También habrá requisitos para la documentación de la solvencia, como declaraciones de impuestos sobre la renta, talones de pago, etc. Los detalles variarán de un lugar a otro. Los incentivos del impuesto sobre la renta generalmente se pueden aplicar en forma de devoluciones de impuestos o esquemas de deducción de impuestos. La primera implica que el impuesto sobre la renta pagado por los contribuyentes individuales será reembolsado en la medida de los intereses de los préstamos hipotecarios tomados para adquirir una propiedad residencial. La deducción del impuesto sobre la renta implica rebajar la obligación tributaria en la medida de la tasa de interés pagada por el préstamo hipotecario.

Algunos prestamistas también pueden requerir que un prestatario potencial tenga uno o más meses de "activos de reserva" disponibles. En otras palabras, se le puede solicitar al prestatario que demuestre la disponibilidad de suficientes activos para pagar los costos de la vivienda (incluida la hipoteca, los impuestos, etc.) durante un período de tiempo en caso de pérdida del empleo u otra pérdida de ingresos.

Muchos países tienen requisitos más bajos para ciertos prestatarios, o estándares de préstamos "sin documentos" / "con documentos bajos" que pueden ser aceptables en determinadas circunstancias.

Hipotecas estándar o conformes

Muchos países tienen una noción de hipotecas estándar o conformes que definen un nivel de riesgo aceptable percibido, que puede ser formal o informal, y puede ser reforzado por leyes, intervención gubernamental o prácticas de mercado. Por ejemplo, se puede considerar que una hipoteca estándar es aquella con un LTV de no más del 70% al 80% y que no más de un tercio de los ingresos brutos se destina a la deuda hipotecaria.

Una hipoteca estándar o conforme es un concepto clave, ya que a menudo define si la hipoteca se puede vender o bursatilizar fácilmente o, si no es estándar, puede afectar el precio al que se puede vender. En los Estados Unidos, una hipoteca conforme es aquella que cumple con las reglas y procedimientos establecidos de las dos principales entidades patrocinadas por el gobierno en el mercado de financiamiento de la vivienda (incluidos algunos requisitos legales). Por el contrario, los prestamistas que deciden otorgar préstamos no conformes están ejerciendo una mayor tolerancia al riesgo y lo hacen sabiendo que enfrentan más desafíos para revender el préstamo. Muchos países tienen conceptos o agencias similares que definen qué son las hipotecas "estándar". Los prestamistas regulados (como los bancos) pueden estar sujetos a límites o ponderaciones de mayor riesgo para hipotecas no estándar. Por ejemplo,los bancos y las casas de bolsa en Canadá enfrentan restricciones para prestar más del 80% del valor de la propiedad; más allá de este nivel, generalmente se requiere un seguro hipotecario.[5]

Foreign currency mortgage

In some countries with currencies that tend to depreciate, foreign currency mortgages are common, enabling lenders to lend in a stable foreign currency, whilst the borrower takes on the currency risk that the currency will depreciate and they will therefore need to convert higher amounts of the domestic currency to repay the loan.

Repaying the mortgage

Mortgage Loan. Total Payment = Loan Principal + Expenses (Taxes & fees) + Total interests. Fixed Interest Rates & Loan Term

In addition to the two standard means of setting the cost of a mortgage loan (fixed at a set interest rate for the term, or variable relative to market interest rates), there are variations in how that cost is paid, and how the loan itself is repaid. Repayment depends on locality, tax laws and prevailing culture. There are also various mortgage repayment structures to suit different types of borrower.

Principal and interest

The most common way to repay a secured mortgage loan is to make regular payments toward the principal and interest over a set term.[citation needed] This is commonly referred to as (self) amortization in the U.S. and as a repayment mortgage in the UK. A mortgage is a form of annuity (from the perspective of the lender), and the calculation of the periodic payments is based on the time value of money formulas. Certain details may be specific to different locations: interest may be calculated on the basis of a 360-day year, for example; interest may be compounded daily, yearly, or semi-annually; prepayment penalties may apply; and other factors. There may be legal restrictions on certain matters, and consumer protection laws may specify or prohibit certain practices.

Depending on the size of the loan and the prevailing practice in the country the term may be short (10 years) or long (50 years plus). In the UK and U.S., 25 to 30 years is the usual maximum term (although shorter periods, such as 15-year mortgage loans, are common). Mortgage payments, which are typically made monthly, contain a repayment of the principal and an interest element. The amount going toward the principal in each payment varies throughout the term of the mortgage. In the early years the repayments are mostly interest. Towards the end of the mortgage, payments are mostly for principal. In this way, the payment amount determined at outset is calculated to ensure the loan is repaid at a specified date in the future. This gives borrowers assurance that by maintaining repayment the loan will be cleared at a specified date if the interest rate does not change. Some lenders and 3rd parties offer a bi-weekly mortgage payment program designed to accelerate the payoff of the loan. Similarly, a mortgage can be ended before its scheduled end by paying some or all of the remainder prematurely, called curtailment.[6]

An amortization schedule is typically worked out taking the principal left at the end of each month, multiplying by the monthly rate and then subtracting the monthly payment. This is typically generated by an amortization calculator using the following formula:

where:

is the periodic amortization payment
is the principal amount borrowed
is the rate of interest expressed as a fraction; for a monthly payment, take the (Annual Rate)/12
is the number of payments; for monthly payments over 30 years, 12 months x 30 years = 360 payments.

Interest only

The main alternative to a principal and interest mortgage is an interest-only mortgage, where the principal is not repaid throughout the term. This type of mortgage is common in the UK, especially when associated with a regular investment plan. With this arrangement regular contributions are made to a separate investment plan designed to build up a lump sum to repay the mortgage at maturity. This type of arrangement is called an investment-backed mortgage or is often related to the type of plan used: endowment mortgage if an endowment policy is used, similarly a personal equity plan (PEP) mortgage, Individual Savings Account (ISA) mortgage or pension mortgage. Historically, investment-backed mortgages offered various tax advantages over repayment mortgages, although this is no longer the case in the UK. Investment-backed mortgages are seen as higher risk as they are dependent on the investment making sufficient return to clear the debt.

Until recently[when?] it was not uncommon for interest only mortgages to be arranged without a repayment vehicle, with the borrower gambling that the property market will rise sufficiently for the loan to be repaid by trading down at retirement (or when rent on the property and inflation combine to surpass the interest rate)[citation needed].

Interest-only lifetime mortgage

Recent Financial Services Authority guidelines to UK lenders regarding interest-only mortgages has tightened the criteria on new lending on an interest-only basis. The problem for many people has been the fact that no repayment vehicle had been implemented, or the vehicle itself (e.g. endowment/ISA policy) performed poorly and therefore insufficient funds were available to repay balance at the end of the term.

Moving forward, the FSA under the Mortgage Market Review (MMR) have stated there must be strict criteria on the repayment vehicle being used. As such the likes of Nationwide and other lenders have pulled out of the interest-only market.

A resurgence in the equity release market has been the introduction of interest-only lifetime mortgages. Where an interest-only mortgage has a fixed term, an interest-only lifetime mortgage will continue for the rest of the mortgagors life. These schemes have proved of interest to people who do like the roll-up effect (compounding) of interest on traditional equity release schemes. They have also proved beneficial to people who had an interest-only mortgage with no repayment vehicle and now need to settle the loan. These people can now effectively remortgage onto an interest-only lifetime mortgage to maintain continuity.

Interest-only lifetime mortgage schemes are currently offered by two lenders – Stonehaven and more2life. They work by having the options of paying the interest on a monthly basis. By paying off the interest means the balance will remain level for the rest of their life. This market is set to increase as more retirees require finance in retirement.

Reverse mortgages

For older borrowers (typically in retirement), it may be possible to arrange a mortgage where neither the principal nor interest is repaid. The interest is rolled up with the principal, increasing the debt each year.

These arrangements are variously called reverse mortgages, lifetime mortgages or equity release mortgages (referring to home equity), depending on the country. The loans are typically not repaid until the borrowers are deceased, hence the age restriction.

Through the Federal Housing Administration, the U.S. government insures reverse mortgages via a program called the HECM (Home Equity Conversion Mortgage). Unlike standard mortgages (where the entire loan amount is typically disbursed at the time of loan closing) the HECM program allows the homeowner to receive funds in a variety of ways: as a one time lump sum payment; as a monthly tenure payment which continues until the borrower dies or moves out of the house permanently; as a monthly payment over a defined period of time; or as a credit line.[7]

For further details, see equity release.

Interest and partial principal

In the U.S. a partial amortization or balloon loan is one where the amount of monthly payments due are calculated (amortized) over a certain term, but the outstanding balance on the principal is due at some point short of that term. In the UK, a partial repayment mortgage is quite common, especially where the original mortgage was investment-backed.

Variations

Graduated payment mortgage loans have increasing costs over time and are geared to young borrowers who expect wage increases over time. Balloon payment mortgages have only partial amortization, meaning that amount of monthly payments due are calculated (amortized) over a certain term, but the outstanding principal balance is due at some point short of that term, and at the end of the term a balloon payment is due. When interest rates are high relative to the rate on an existing seller's loan, the buyer can consider assuming the seller's mortgage.[8] A wraparound mortgage is a form of seller financing that can make it easier for a seller to sell a property. A biweekly mortgage has payments made every two weeks instead of monthly.

Budget loans include taxes and insurance in the mortgage payment;[9] package loans add the costs of furnishings and other personal property to the mortgage. Buydown mortgages allow the seller or lender to pay something similar to points to reduce interest rate and encourage buyers.[10] Homeowners can also take out equity loans in which they receive cash for a mortgage debt on their house. Shared appreciation mortgages are a form of equity release. In the US, foreign nationals due to their unique situation face Foreign National mortgage conditions.

Flexible mortgages allow for more freedom by the borrower to skip payments or prepay. Offset mortgages allow deposits to be counted against the mortgage loan. In the UK there is also the endowment mortgage where the borrowers pay interest while the principal is paid with a life insurance policy.

Commercial mortgages typically have different interest rates, risks, and contracts than personal loans. Participation mortgages allow multiple investors to share in a loan. Builders may take out blanket loans which cover several properties at once. Bridge loans may be used as temporary financing pending a longer-term loan. Hard money loans provide financing in exchange for the mortgaging of real estate collateral.

Foreclosure and non-recourse lending

In most jurisdictions, a lender may foreclose the mortgaged property if certain conditions occur – principally, non-payment of the mortgage loan. Subject to local legal requirements, the property may then be sold. Any amounts received from the sale (net of costs) are applied to the original debt. In some jurisdictions, mortgage loans are non-recourse loans: if the funds recouped from sale of the mortgaged property are insufficient to cover the outstanding debt, the lender may not have recourse to the borrower after foreclosure. In other jurisdictions, the borrower remains responsible for any remaining debt.

In virtually all jurisdictions, specific procedures for foreclosure and sale of the mortgaged property apply, and may be tightly regulated by the relevant government. There are strict or judicial foreclosures and non-judicial foreclosures, also known as power of sale foreclosures. In some jurisdictions, foreclosure and sale can occur quite rapidly, while in others, foreclosure may take many months or even years. In many countries, the ability of lenders to foreclose is extremely limited, and mortgage market development has been notably slower.

National differences

A study issued by the UN Economic Commission for Europe compared German, US, and Danish mortgage systems. The German Bausparkassen have reported nominal interest rates of approximately 6 per cent per annum in the last 40 years (as of 2004). German Bausparkassen (savings and loans associations) are not identical with banks that give mortgages. In addition, they charge administration and service fees (about 1.5 per cent of the loan amount). However, in the United States, the average interest rates for fixed-rate mortgages in the housing market started in the tens and twenties in the 1980s and have (as of 2004) reached about 6 per cent per annum. However, gross borrowing costs are substantially higher than the nominal interest rate and amounted for the last 30 years to 10.46 per cent. In Denmark, similar to the United States mortgage market, interest rates have fallen to 6 per cent per annum. A risk and administration fee amounts to 0.5 per cent of the outstanding debt. In addition, an acquisition fee is charged which amounts to one per cent of the principal.[11]

United States

The mortgage industry of the United States is a major financial sector. The federal government created several programs, or government sponsored entities, to foster mortgage lending, construction and encourage home ownership. These programs include the Government National Mortgage Association (known as Ginnie Mae), the Federal National Mortgage Association (known as Fannie Mae) and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (known as Freddie Mac).

The US mortgage sector has been the center of major financial crises over the last century. Unsound lending practices resulted in the National Mortgage Crisis of the 1930s, the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s and 1990s and the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007 which led to the 2010 foreclosure crisis.

In the United States, the mortgage loan involves two separate documents: the mortgage note (a promissory note) and the security interest evidenced by the "mortgage" document; generally, the two are assigned together, but if they are split traditionally the holder of the note and not the mortgage has the right to foreclose.[12] For example, Fannie Mae promulgates a standard form contract Multistate Fixed-Rate Note 3200[13] and also separate security instrument mortgage forms which vary by state.[14]

Canada

In Canada, the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) is the country's national housing agency, providing mortgage loan insurance, mortgage-backed securities, housing policy and programs, and housing research to Canadians.[15] It was created by the federal government in 1946 to address the country's post-war housing shortage, and to help Canadians achieve their homeownership goals.

The most common mortgage in Canada is the five-year fixed-rate closed mortgage, as opposed to the U.S. where the most common type is the 30-year fixed-rate open mortgage.[16] Throughout the financial crisis and the ensuing recession, Canada's mortgage market continued to function well, partly due to the residential mortgage market's policy framework, which includes an effective regulatory and supervisory regime that applies to most lenders. Since the crisis, however, the low interest rate environment that has arisen has contributed to a significant increase in mortgage debt in the country.[17]

In April 2014, the Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (OSFI) released guidelines for mortgage insurance providers aimed at tightening standards around underwriting and risk management. In a statement, the OSFI has stated that the guideline will “provide clarity about best practices in respect of residential mortgage insurance underwriting, which contribute to a stable financial system.” This comes after several years of federal government scrutiny over the CMHC, with former Finance Minister Jim Flaherty musing publicly as far back as 2012 about privatizing the Crown corporation.[18]

In an attempt to cool down the real estate prices in Canada, Ottawa introduced a mortgage stress test effective 17 October 2016.[19] Under the stress test, every home buyer who wants to get a mortgage from any federally regulated lender should undergo a test in which the borrower's affordability is judged based on a rate that is not lower than a stress rate set by the Bank of Canada. For high-ratio mortgage (loan to value of more than 80%), which is insured by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, the rate is the maximum of the stress test rate and the current target rate. However, for uninsured mortgage, the rate is the maximum of the stress test rate and the target interest rate plus 2%. [20] This stress test has lowered the maximum mortgage approved amount for all borrowers in Canada.

The stress-test rate consistently increased until its peak of 5.34% in May 2018 and it was not changed until July 2019 in which for the first time in three years it decreased to 5.19%.[21] This decision may reflect the push-back from the real-estate industry[22] as well as the introduction of the first-time home buyer incentive program (FTHBI) by the Canadian government in the 2019 Canadian federal budget. Because of all the criticisms from real estate industry, Canada finance minister Bill Morneau ordered to review and consider changes to the mortgage stress test in December 2019.[23]

United Kingdom

The mortgage industry of the United Kingdom has traditionally been dominated by building societies, but from the 1970s the share of the new mortgage loans market held by building societies has declined substantially. Between 1977 and 1987, the share fell from 96% to 66% while that of banks and other institutions rose from 3% to 36%. There are currently over 200 significant separate financial organizations supplying mortgage loans to house buyers in Britain. The major lenders include building societies, banks, specialized mortgage corporations, insurance companies, and pension funds.

In the UK variable-rate mortgages are more common than in the United States.[24][25] This is in part because mortgage loan financing relies less on fixed income securitized assets (such as mortgage-backed securities) than in the United States, Denmark, and Germany, and more on retail savings deposits like Australia and Spain.[24][25] Thus, lenders prefer variable-rate mortgages to fixed rate ones and whole-of-term fixed rate mortgages are generally not available. Nevertheless, in recent years fixing the rate of the mortgage for short periods has become popular and the initial two, three, five and, occasionally, ten years of a mortgage can be fixed.[26] From 2007 to the beginning of 2013 between 50% and 83% of new mortgages had initial periods fixed in this way.[27]

Home ownership rates are comparable to the United States, but overall default rates are lower.[24] Prepayment penalties during a fixed rate period are common, whilst the United States has discouraged their use.[24] Like other European countries and the rest of the world, but unlike most of the United States, mortgages loans are usually not nonrecourse debt, meaning debtors are liable for any loan deficiencies after foreclosure.[24][28]

The customer-facing aspects of the residential mortgage sector are regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), and lenders' financial probity is overseen by a separate regulator, the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) which is part of the Bank of England. The FCA and PRA were established in 2013 with the aim of responding to criticism of regulatory failings highlighted by the financial crisis of 2007–2008 and its aftermath.[29][30][31]

Continental Europe

In most of Western Europe (except Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany), variable-rate mortgages are more common, unlike the fixed-rate mortgage common in the United States.[24][25] Much of Europe has home ownership rates comparable to the United States, but overall default rates are lower in Europe than in the United States.[24] Mortgage loan financing relies less on securitizing mortgages and more on formal government guarantees backed by covered bonds (such as the Pfandbriefe) and deposits, except Denmark and Germany where asset-backed securities are also common.[24][25] Prepayment penalties are still common, whilst the United States has discouraged their use.[24] Unlike much of the United States, mortgage loans are usually not nonrecourse debt.[24]

Within the European Union, covered bonds market volume (covered bonds outstanding) amounted to about EUR 2 trillion at year-end 2007 with Germany, Denmark, Spain, and France each having outstandings above 200,000 EUR million.[32] Pfandbrief-like securities have been introduced in more than 25 European countries—and in recent years also in the U.S. and other countries outside Europe—each with their own unique law and regulations.[33]

Recent trends

Mortgage rates historical trends 1986 to 2010

On July 28, 2008, US Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson announced that, along with four large U.S. banks, the Treasury would attempt to kick start a market for these securities in the United States, primarily to provide an alternative form of mortgage-backed securities.[34] Similarly, in the UK "the Government is inviting views on options for a UK framework to deliver more affordable long-term fixed-rate mortgages, including the lessons to be learned from international markets and institutions".[35]

George Soros's October 10, 2008 The Wall Street Journal editorial promoted the Danish mortgage market model.[36]

Malaysia

Mortgages in Malaysia can be categorised into 2 different groups: conventional home loan and Islamic home loan. Under the conventional home loan, banks normally charge a fixed interest rate, a variable interest rate, or both. These interest rates are tied to a base rate (individual bank's benchmark rate).

For Islamic home financing, it follows the Sharia Law and comes in 2 common types: Bai’ Bithaman Ajil (BBA) or Musharakah Mutanaqisah (MM). Bai' Bithaman Ajil is when the bank buys the property at current market price and sells it back to you at a much higher price. Musharakah Mutanaqisah is when the bank buys the property together with you. You will then slowly buy the bank's portion of the property through rental (whereby a portion of the rental goes to paying for the purchase of a part of the bank's share in the property until the property comes to your complete ownership).

Islamic countries

Islamic Sharia law prohibits the payment or receipt of interest, meaning that Muslims cannot use conventional mortgages. However, real estate is far too expensive for most people to buy outright using cash: Islamic mortgages solve this problem by having the property change hands twice. In one variation, the bank will buy the house outright and then act as a landlord. The homebuyer, in addition to paying rent, will pay a contribution towards the purchase of the property. When the last payment is made, the property changes hands.[clarification needed]

Typically, this may lead to a higher final price for the buyers. This is because in some countries (such as the United Kingdom and India) there is a stamp duty which is a tax charged by the government on a change of ownership. Because ownership changes twice in an Islamic mortgage, a stamp tax may be charged twice. Many other jurisdictions have similar transaction taxes on change of ownership which may be levied. In the United Kingdom, the dual application of stamp duty in such transactions was removed in the Finance Act 2003 in order to facilitate Islamic mortgages.[37]

An alternative scheme involves the bank reselling the property according to an installment plan, at a price higher than the original price.

Both of these methods compensate the lender as if they were charging interest, but the loans are structured in a way that in name they are not, and the lender shares the financial risks involved in the transaction with the homebuyer.[citation needed]

Mortgage insurance

Mortgage insurance is an insurance policy designed to protect the mortgagee (lender) from any default by the mortgagor (borrower). It is used commonly in loans with a loan-to-value ratio over 80%, and employed in the event of foreclosure and repossession.

This policy is typically paid for by the borrower as a component to final nominal (note) rate, or in one lump sum up front, or as a separate and itemized component of monthly mortgage payment. In the last case, mortgage insurance can be dropped when the lender informs the borrower, or its subsequent assigns, that the property has appreciated, the loan has been paid down, or any combination of both to relegate the loan-to-value under 80%.

In the event of repossession, banks, investors, etc. must resort to selling the property to recoup their original investment (the money lent) and are able to dispose of hard assets (such as real estate) more quickly by reductions in price. Therefore, the mortgage insurance acts as a hedge should the repossessing authority recover less than full and fair market value for any hard asset.

See also

General, or related to more than one nation

  • Commercial mortgage
  • No Income No Asset (NINA)
  • Nonrecourse debt
  • Refinancing
  • Second Mortgage

Related to the United Kingdom

  • Buy to let
  • Mortgage cashback
  • Remortgage
  • UK mortgage terminology

Related to the United States

  • Commercial lender (US) – a term for a lender collateralizing non-residential properties.
  • eMortgages
  • FHA loan – Relating to the U.S. Federal Housing Administration
  • Fixed rate mortgage calculations (USA)
  • Location Efficient Mortgage – a type of mortgage for urban areas
  • Mortgage assumption
  • pre-approval – U.S. mortgage terminology
  • pre-qualification – U.S. mortgage terminology
  • Predatory mortgage lending
  • VA loan – Relating to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.

Other nations

  • Danish mortgage market
  • Hypothec - equivalent in civil law countries
  • Mortgage Investment Corporation

Legal details

  • Deed – legal aspects
  • Mechanics lien – a legal concept
  • Perfection – applicable legal filing requirements

References

  1. ^ Coke, Edward. Commentaries on the Laws of England. [I]f he doth not pay, then the Land which is put in pledge upon condition for the payment of the money, is taken from him for ever, and so dead to him upon condition, &c. And if he doth pay the money, then the pledge is dead as to the Tenant
  2. ^ FTC. Mortgage Servicing: Making Sure Your Payments Count.
  3. ^ "How Long Does Mortgage Underwriting Take?". homeguides.sfgate.com. SFGate. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  4. ^ "The Underwriter: Unseen Approver of Your Mortgage"http://www.realtor.com/advice/the-underwriter-unseen-approver-of-your-mortgage/
  5. ^ "Who Needs Mortgage Loan Insurance?". Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Retrieved 2009-01-30.
  6. ^ Bodine, Alicia (April 5, 2019). "Definition of Mortgage Curtailment". budgeting.thenest.com. Certified Ramsey Solutions Master Financial Coach (Updated).
  7. ^ "How do HECM Reverse Mortgages Work?". www.mtgprofessor.com.
  8. ^ Are Mortgage Assumptions a Good Deal?. Mortgage Professor.
  9. ^ Cortesi GR. (2003). Mastering Real Estate Principals. p. 371
  10. ^ Homes: Slow-market savings – the 'buy-down'. CNN Money.
  11. ^ http://www.unece.org/hlm/prgm/hmm/hsg_finance/publications/housing.finance.system.pdf , p. 46
  12. ^ Renuart E. (2012). Property Title Trouble in Non-Judicial Foreclosure States: The Ibanez Time Bomb?. Albany Law School
  13. ^ Single-family notes. Fannie Mae.
  14. ^ Security Instruments. Fannie Mae.
  15. ^ "About CMHC - CMHC". CMHC.
  16. ^ "Comparing Canada and U.S. Housing Finance Systems - CMHC". CMHC.
  17. ^ Crawford, Allan. "The Residential Mortgage Market in Canada: A Primer" (PDF). bankofcanada.ca.
  18. ^ "New mortgage guidelines push CMHC to embrace insurance basics". 14 April 2014.
  19. ^ "New mortgage stress test rules kick in today". CBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
  20. ^ "Mortgage Qualifier Tool". Government of Canada.
  21. ^ Evans, Pete (July 19, 2019). "Mortgage stress test rules get more lenient for first time". CBC News. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
  22. ^ Zochodne, Geoff (June 11, 2019). "Regulator defends mortgage stress test in face of push-back from industry". Financial Post. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
  23. ^ "Finance minister Bill Morneau to review and consider changes to mortgage stress test". Financial Post.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Congressional Budget Office (2010). Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Federal Role in the Secondary Mortgage Market. p. 49.
  25. ^ a b c d International Monetary Fund (2004). World Economic Outlook: September 2004: The Global Demographic Transition. pp. 81–83. ISBN 978-1-58906-406-5.
  26. ^ "Best fixed rate mortgages: two, three, five and 10 years". The Telegraph. 26 February 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  27. ^ "Demand for fixed mortgages hits all-time high". The Telegraph. 17 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  28. ^ United Nations (2009). Forest Products Annual Market Review 2008-2009. United Nations Publications. p. 42. ISBN 978-92-1-117007-8.
  29. ^ Vina, Gonzalo. "U.K. Scraps FSA in Biggest Bank Regulation Overhaul Since 1997". Businessweek. Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  30. ^ "Regulatory Reform Background". FSA web site. FSA. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  31. ^ "Financial Services Bill receives Royal Assent". HM Treasury. 19 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  32. ^ "Covered Bond Outstanding 2007".
  33. ^ "UNECE Homepage" (PDF). www.unece.org.
  34. ^ owner, name of the document. "FDIC: Press Releases - PR-60-2008 7/15/2008". www.fdic.gov.
  35. ^ "Housing Finance Review: analysis and proposals. HM Treasury, March 2008" (PDF).
  36. ^ Soros, George (10 October 2008). "Denmark Offers a Model Mortgage Market" – via www.wsj.com.
  37. ^ "SDLTM28400 - Stamp Duty Land Tax Manual - HMRC internal manual - GOV.UK". www.hmrc.gov.uk.

External links

  • Mortgages at Curlie
  • Mortgages: For Home Buyers and Homeowners at USA.gov
  • Australian Securities & Investments Commission (ASIC) Home Loans