Ricardo III (2 de octubre de 1452 - 22 de agosto de 1485) fue rey de Inglaterra y señor de Irlanda desde 1483 hasta su muerte en 1485. Fue el último rey de la Casa de York y el último de la dinastía Plantagenet . Su derrota y muerte en la Batalla de Bosworth Field , la última batalla decisiva de las Guerras de las Rosas , marcó el final de la Edad Media en Inglaterra . Es el protagonista de Ricardo III , una de las obras históricas de William Shakespeare .
Ricardo III | |
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Rey de inglaterra ( más ... ) | |
Reinado | 26 de junio de 1483-22 de agosto de 1485 |
Coronación | 6 de julio de 1483 |
Predecesor | Eduardo V |
Sucesor | Enrique VII |
Nació | 2 de octubre de 1452 Fotheringhay Castle , Northamptonshire , Inglaterra |
Fallecido | 22 de agosto de 1485 (32 años) Bosworth Field , Leicestershire, Inglaterra |
Entierro | 25 de agosto de 1485 [1]
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Cónyuge | |
Asunto |
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casa | York ( Plantagenet ) |
Padre | Richard, tercer duque de York |
Mamá | Cecily Neville |
Firma |
Richard fue creado duque de Gloucester en 1461 después de que su hermano ascendiera al trono como el rey Eduardo IV . En 1472 se casó con Anne Neville , hija de Richard Neville, decimosexto conde de Warwick . Gobernó el norte de Inglaterra durante el reinado de Eduardo y participó en la invasión de Escocia en 1482. Cuando Eduardo IV murió en abril de 1483, Richard fue nombrado Lord Protector del reino del hijo mayor y sucesor de Eduardo , Eduardo V , de 12 años. . Se hicieron arreglos para la coronación de Eduardo V el 22 de junio de 1483. Antes de que el rey pudiera ser coronado, el matrimonio de sus padres fue declarado bígamo y, por lo tanto, inválido. Ahora oficialmente ilegítimos, a sus hijos se les prohibió heredar el trono. El 25 de junio, una asamblea de señores y plebeyos aprobó una declaración a tal efecto y proclamó a Ricardo como rey legítimo. Fue coronado el 6 de julio de 1483. Eduardo y su hermano menor Ricardo de Shrewsbury, duque de York , llamados los " Príncipes de la Torre ", no fueron vistos en público después de agosto y circularon acusaciones de que habían sido asesinados por orden del rey Ricardo.
Hubo dos rebeliones importantes contra Ricardo durante su reinado. En octubre de 1483, los aliados incondicionales de Eduardo IV y el antiguo aliado de Ricardo, Henry Stafford, segundo duque de Buckingham, encabezaron una revuelta fallida . Luego, en agosto de 1485, Henry Tudor y su tío, Jasper Tudor , aterrizaron en el sur de Gales con un contingente de tropas francesas y marcharon a través de Pembrokeshire , reclutando soldados. Las fuerzas de Henry derrotaron al ejército de Richard cerca de la ciudad de Market Bosworth en Leicestershire . Richard fue asesinado, lo que lo convirtió en el último rey inglés en morir en batalla. Henry Tudor luego ascendió al trono como Enrique VII.
El cadáver de Richard fue llevado a la cercana ciudad de Leicester y enterrado sin ceremonia. Se cree que su tumba original fue removida durante la Reforma inglesa , y se pensó erróneamente que sus restos habían sido arrojados al río Soar . En 2012, la Sociedad Ricardo III encargó una excavación arqueológica en el sitio anteriormente ocupado por el Priorato de los Frailes Grises . La Universidad de Leicester identificó el esqueleto encontrado en la excavación como el de Ricardo III como resultado de la datación por radiocarbono , la comparación con informes contemporáneos de su apariencia y la comparación de su ADN mitocondrial con el de dos descendientes matrilineales de su hermana Anne . Lo volvieron a enterrar en la catedral de Leicester el 26 de marzo de 2015.
Vida temprana
Richard nació el 2 de octubre de 1452 en Fotheringhay Castle en Northamptonshire , el undécimo de los doce hijos de Richard, el tercer duque de York y Cecily Neville , y el más joven que sobrevivió a la infancia. [2] Su infancia coincidió con el comienzo de lo que tradicionalmente se ha denominado las ' Guerras de las Rosas ', un período de inestabilidad política y periódica guerra civil abierta en Inglaterra durante la segunda mitad del siglo XV, [3] entre los Yorkistas , que apoyó al padre de Ricardo (un potencial aspirante al trono del rey Enrique VI desde su nacimiento), [4] y se opuso al régimen de Enrique VI y su esposa, Margarita de Anjou , [5] y los Lancaster , que eran leales a la corona. [6] En 1459, su padre y los yorkistas se vieron obligados a huir de Inglaterra, tras lo cual Richard y su hermano mayor George fueron puestos bajo la custodia de su tía Anne Neville, duquesa de Buckingham , y posiblemente del cardenal Thomas Bourchier , arzobispo de Canterbury . [7]
Cuando su padre y su hermano mayor Edmund, conde de Rutland , murieron en la batalla de Wakefield el 30 de diciembre de 1460, su madre envió a Richard y George a los Países Bajos . [8] Regresaron a Inglaterra tras la derrota de los Lancaster en la Batalla de Towton . Participaron en la coronación de su hermano mayor como el rey Eduardo IV el 28 de junio de 1461, cuando Ricardo fue nombrado duque de Gloucester y fue nombrado Caballero de la Jarretera y Caballero del Baño . Edward lo nombró el único comisionado de Array para los condados occidentales en 1464 cuando tenía 11 años. A la edad de 17, tenía un mando independiente. [9]
Richard pasó varios años durante su infancia en Middleham Castle en Wensleydale , Yorkshire , bajo la tutela de su primo Richard Neville, decimosexto conde de Warwick , más tarde conocido como 'el Hacedor de Reyes' por su papel en la Guerra de las Rosas. Warwick supervisó el entrenamiento de Richard como caballero ; en el otoño de 1465, Eduardo IV concedió a Warwick 1000 libras esterlinas para cubrir los gastos de la tutela de su hermano menor. [10] Con algunas interrupciones, Richard permaneció en Middleham desde finales de 1461 hasta principios de 1465, cuando tenía 12 años [11] o desde 1465 hasta su mayoría de edad en 1468, cuando cumplió 16. [nota 1] Mientras estaba en la finca de Warwick , es probable que conoció tanto a Francis Lovell , quien sería su firme partidario más adelante en su vida, como a la hija menor de Warwick, su futura esposa Anne Neville . [13]
Es posible que incluso en esta etapa temprana Warwick considerara a los hermanos del rey como parejas estratégicas para sus hijas, Isabel y Anne: a menudo se enviaba a jóvenes aristócratas para que se criaran en los hogares de sus futuros socios, [14] como había sido el caso caso del padre de los jóvenes duques, Ricardo de York. [15] A medida que la relación entre el rey y Warwick se volvió tensa, Eduardo IV se opuso al partido. [16] Durante la vida de Warwick, George fue el único hermano real que se casó con una de sus hijas, la mayor, Isabel, el 12 de julio de 1469, sin el permiso del rey. George se unió a la revuelta de su suegro contra el rey, [17] mientras que Richard permaneció leal a Edward, a pesar de que se rumoreaba que se había acostado con Anne. [18] [nota 2]
Richard y Edward se vieron obligados a huir a Borgoña en octubre de 1470 después de que Warwick desertó al lado de la ex reina de Lancaster, Margaret de Anjou. En 1468, la hermana de Richard, Margaret, se había casado con Carlos el Temerario , duque de Borgoña, y los hermanos podían esperar una bienvenida allí. Edward fue restaurado al trono en la primavera de 1471, luego de las batallas de Barnet y Tewkesbury , en las cuales Richard, de 18 años, jugó un papel crucial. [19]
Durante su adolescencia, y por una causa que se desconoce, Richard desarrolló una curvatura lateral de la columna . [20] En 2014, después del descubrimiento de los restos de Richard, el osteoarqueólogo Dr. Jo Appleby, de la Escuela de Arqueología e Historia Antigua de la Universidad de Leicester, tomó imágenes de la columna vertebral y reconstruyó un modelo utilizando impresión 3D , y concluyó que aunque la escoliosis espinal se veía dramático, probablemente no causó ninguna deformidad física importante que no pudiera disimularse con la ropa. [21] [22]
Matrimonio y relaciones familiares
Después de una decisiva victoria yorkista sobre los Lancasterianos en la batalla de Tewkesbury, Richard se casó con Anne Neville el 12 de julio de 1472. [23] A fines de 1470, Anne se había casado previamente con Eduardo de Westminster , único hijo de Enrique VI, para sellarla. lealtad del padre al partido de Lancaster. [24] Edward murió en la batalla de Tewkesbury el 4 de mayo de 1471, mientras que Warwick había muerto en la batalla de Barnet el 14 de abril de 1471. [25] Los planes de matrimonio de Richard lo pusieron en conflicto con su hermano George. [26] La carta de John Paston del 17 de febrero de 1472 deja en claro que George no estaba contento con el matrimonio, pero lo aceptó a regañadientes sobre la base de que "bien podría tener a mi señora como su cuñada, pero no compartirán sus medios de vida". . [27] La razón fue la herencia que Anne compartió con su hermana mayor Isabel, con quien George se había casado en 1469. No era solo el condado lo que estaba en juego; Richard Neville lo había heredado como resultado de su matrimonio con Anne Beauchamp, decimosexto condesa de Warwick . La condesa, que todavía estaba viva, era técnicamente la propietaria de las importantes propiedades de Beauchamp, ya que su padre no había dejado herederos varones. [28]
El Croyland Chronicle registra que Richard acordó un contrato prenupcial en los siguientes términos: "el matrimonio del duque de Gloucester con Anne antes mencionada iba a tener lugar, y él iba a tener tal y tantas de las tierras del conde como debería ser acordado entre ellos a través de la mediación de árbitros, mientras que el resto permanecería en posesión del Duque de Clarence ". [29] La fecha de la carta de Paston sugiere que el matrimonio todavía se estaba negociando en febrero de 1472. Para obtener el consentimiento final de George para el matrimonio, Richard renunció a la mayor parte de las tierras y propiedades del conde de Warwick, incluidos los condados de Warwick (que el Hacedor de había mantenido a la derecha de su esposa) y Salisbury y entregó a George el cargo de Gran Chambelán de Inglaterra. [30] Richard retuvo las propiedades confiscadas de Neville que ya le habían otorgado en el verano de 1471: [31] [32] Penrith, Sheriff Hutton y Middleham, donde más tarde estableció su hogar conyugal. [33]
La dispensa papal requerida se obtuvo el 22 de abril de 1472. [34] Michael Hicks ha sugerido que los términos de la dispensación subestimaron deliberadamente los grados de consanguinidad entre la pareja y, por lo tanto, el matrimonio fue ilegal sobre la base de la consanguinidad de primer grado después del matrimonio de George. a la hermana de Anne, Isabel. [24] La consanguinidad de primer grado se aplicó en el caso de Enrique VIII y la viuda de su hermano, Catalina de Aragón . En su caso, la dispensa papal se obtuvo después de que Catalina declaró que el primer matrimonio no se había consumado. [35] En el caso de Richard, habría habido consanguinidad de primer grado si Richard hubiera buscado casarse con Isabel (en caso de viudez) después de que ella se hubiera casado con su hermano George, pero no se solicitó tal consanguinidad para Anne y Richard. El matrimonio de Richard con Anne nunca fue declarado nulo y fue público para todos, incluidos los abogados seculares y canónicos durante 13 años. [36]
En junio de 1473, Richard convenció a su suegra de que abandonara el santuario y se fuera a vivir bajo su protección en Middleham. Más adelante en el año, bajo los términos de la Ley de Reanudación de 1473, [37] George perdió algunas de las propiedades que tenía bajo concesión real y no ocultó su disgusto. La carta de John Paston de noviembre de 1473 dice que el rey Eduardo planeaba poner a sus dos hermanos menores en su lugar actuando como "un más sofocante entre ellos". [38] A principios de 1474, el Parlamento se reunió y Edward intentó reconciliar a sus hermanos declarando que ambos hombres y sus esposas disfrutarían de la herencia de Warwick como si la condesa de Warwick "estuviera naturalmente muerta". [39] Las dudas arrojadas por George sobre la validez del matrimonio de Richard y Anne fueron abordadas por una cláusula que protege sus derechos en caso de que se divorciaran (es decir, de que su matrimonio fuera declarado nulo y sin efecto por la Iglesia) y luego se volvieran a casar legalmente con cada uno. otro, y también protegió los derechos de Richard mientras esperaba un segundo matrimonio válido con Anne. [40] Al año siguiente, Richard fue recompensado con todas las tierras de Neville en el norte de Inglaterra, a expensas del primo de Anne, George Neville, primer duque de Bedford . [41] A partir de este punto, George parece haber caído progresivamente en el favor del rey Eduardo, su descontento llegó a un punto crítico en 1477 cuando, tras la muerte de Isabel, se le negó la oportunidad de casarse con María de Borgoña , la hijastra de su hermana Margaret. , a pesar de que Margaret aprobó la combinación propuesta. [42] No hay evidencia de la participación de Richard en la posterior condena y ejecución de George por un cargo de traición. [43]
Reinado de Eduardo IV
Patrimonios y títulos
A Richard se le concedió el ducado de Gloucester el 1 de noviembre de 1461, [44] y el 12 de agosto del año siguiente se le concedieron grandes propiedades en el norte de Inglaterra , incluidos los señoríos de Richmond en Yorkshire y Pembroke en Gales. Ganó las tierras confiscadas del lancasteriano John de Vere, duodécimo conde de Oxford , en East Anglia . En 1462, en su cumpleaños, fue nombrado condestable de Gloucester y Corfe Castles y almirante de Inglaterra, Irlanda y Aquitania [45] y nombrado gobernador del Norte, convirtiéndose en el noble más rico y poderoso de Inglaterra. El 17 de octubre de 1469, fue nombrado condestable de Inglaterra . En noviembre, reemplazó a William Hastings, primer barón Hastings , como presidente del Tribunal Supremo de Gales del Norte. Al año siguiente, fue nombrado administrador principal y chambelán de Gales. [46] El 18 de mayo de 1471, Richard fue nombrado Gran Chambelán y Lord Alto Almirante de Inglaterra . Siguieron otros cargos: Alto Sheriff de Cumberland vitalicio, Teniente del Norte y Comandante en Jefe contra los escoceses y Guardián hereditario de la Marcha del Oeste. [47] Dos meses más tarde, el 14 de julio, ganó el señorío de las fortalezas Sheriff Hutton y Middleham en Yorkshire y Penrith en Cumberland, que habían pertenecido a Warwick the Kingmaker. [48] Es posible que la concesión de Middleham secundara los deseos personales de Richard. [nota 3]
Exilio y regreso
Durante la última parte del reinado de Eduardo IV, Ricardo demostró su lealtad al rey, [50] en contraste con su hermano George, que se había aliado con el conde de Warwick cuando este último se rebeló hacia finales de la década de 1460. [51] Tras la rebelión de Warwick en 1470, antes de la cual había hecho las paces con Margarita de Anjou y prometido la restauración de Enrique VI al trono inglés, Richard, el barón Hastings y Anthony Woodville, segundo conde de Rivers , escaparon de la captura en Doncaster por el hermano de Warwick. , John Neville, primer marqués de Montagu . [52] El 2 de octubre zarparon de King's Lynn en dos barcos; Edward aterrizó en Marsdiep y Richard en Zelanda . [53] Se dijo que, habiendo salido de Inglaterra con tanta prisa que no poseía casi nada, Eduardo se vio obligado a pagar el pasaje con su capa de piel; ciertamente, Richard pidió prestado tres libras al alguacil de la ciudad de Zelanda. [54] Fueron alcanzados por el único Parlamento de Warwick el 26 de noviembre. [55] Residieron en Brujas con Louis de Gruthuse , que había sido el embajador de Borgoña en la corte de Eduardo, [56] pero no fue hasta que Luis XI de Francia declaró la guerra a Borgoña que Carlos, duque de Borgoña, ayudó a su regreso [ 57] proporcionando, junto con los mercaderes hanseáticos , 20.000 libras esterlinas, 36 barcos y 1200 hombres. Partieron de Flushing hacia Inglaterra el 11 de marzo de 1471. [58] El arresto de simpatizantes locales por parte de Warwick les impidió desembarcar en Yorkist East Anglia y el 14 de marzo, después de ser separados por una tormenta, sus barcos desembarcaron en Holderness . [59] La ciudad de Hull rechazó la entrada de Edward. Obtuvo la entrada a York utilizando el mismo derecho que tenía Enrique de Bolingbroke antes de deponer a Ricardo II en 1399; es decir, que simplemente estaba reclamando el ducado de York en lugar de la corona. [60] [61] Fue en el intento de Edward por recuperar su trono que Richard comenzó a demostrar su habilidad como comandante militar. [62]
1471 campaña militar
Once Edward had regained the support of his brother George, he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the crown through combat;[63] it is believed that Richard was his principal lieutenant[25] as some of the king's earliest support came from members of Richard's affinity, including Sir James Harrington[64] and Sir William Parr, who brought 600 men-at-arms to them at Doncaster.[65] Richard may have led the vanguard at the Battle of Barnet, in his first command, on 14 April 1471, where he outflanked the wing of Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter,[66] although the degree to which his command was fundamental may have been exaggerated.[67] That Richard's personal household sustained losses indicates he was in the thick of the fighting.[68] A contemporary source is clear about his holding the vanguard for Edward at Tewkesbury,[69] deployed against the Lancastrian vanguard under Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset, on 4 May 1471,[70] and his role two days later, as Constable of England, sitting alongside John Howard as Earl Marshal, in the trial and sentencing of leading Lancastrians captured after the battle.[71]
1475 invasion of France
At least in part resentful of King Louis XI's previous support of his Lancastrian opponents, and possibly in support of his brother-in-law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Edward went to parliament in October 1472 for funding a military campaign,[72] and eventually landed in Calais on 4 July 1475.[73] Richard's was the largest private contingent of his army.[74] Although well known to have publicly been against the eventual treaty signed with Louis XI at Picquigny (and absent from the negotiations, in which one of his rank would have been expected to take a leading role),[75] he acted as Edward's witness when the king instructed his delegates to the French court,[76] and received 'some very fine presents' from Louis on a visit to the French king at Amiens.[77] In refusing other gifts, which included 'pensions' in the guise of 'tribute', he was joined only by Cardinal Bourchier.[78] He supposedly disapproved of Edward's policy of personally benefiting—politically and financially—from a campaign paid for out of a parliamentary grant, and hence out of public funds.[75] Any military prowess was therefore not to be revealed further until the last years of Edward's reign.[7]
Council of the North
Richard controlled the north of England until Edward IV's death.[79] There, and especially in the city of York, he was highly regarded;[80] although it has been questioned whether this view was reciprocated by Richard.[note 4] Edward IV set up the Council of the North as an administrative body in 1472 to improve government control and economic prosperity and benefit the whole of Northern England. Kendall and later historians have suggested that this was with the intention of making Richard the Lord of the North;[82] Peter Booth, however, has argued that "instead of allowing his brother Richard carte blanche, [Edward] restricted his influence by using his own agent, Sir William Parr."[83] Richard served as its first Lord President from 1472 until his accession to the throne.[84] On his accession, he made his nephew John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, president and formally institutionalised it as an offshoot of the royal Council; all its letters and judgements were issued on behalf of the king and in his name.[85] The council had a budget of 2000 marks per annum (approximately £1320)[clarification needed] and had issued "Regulations" by July of that year: councillors to act impartially and declare vested interests, and to meet at least every three months. Its main focus of operations was Yorkshire and the north-east, and its primary responsibilities were land disputes, keeping of the king's peace, and punishing lawbreakers.[86]
War with Scotland
Richard's increasing role in the north from the mid-1470s to some extent explains his withdrawal from the royal court. He had been Warden of the West March on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470,[87] and again from May 1471; he used Penrith as a base while 'taking effectual measures' against the Scots, and 'enjoyed the revenues of the estates' of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so.[88] It was at the same time that the Duke of Gloucester was appointed sheriff of Cumberland five consecutive years, being described as 'of Penrith Castle' in 1478.[89] By 1480, war with Scotland was looming; on 12 May that year he was appointed Lieutenant-General of the North (a position created for the occasion) as fears of a Scottish invasion grew. Louis XI of France had attempted to negotiate a military alliance with Scotland (in the tradition of the "Auld Alliance"), with the aim of attacking England, according to a contemporary French chronicler.[90] Richard had the authority to summon the Border Levies and issue Commissions of Array to repel the Border raids. Together with the Earl of Northumberland, he launched counter-raids, and when the king and council formally declared war in November 1480, he was granted £10,000 for wages. The king failed to arrive to lead the English army and the result was intermittent skirmishing until early 1482. Richard witnessed the treaty with Alexander, Duke of Albany, brother of King James III of Scotland.[13] Northumberland, Stanley, Dorset, Sir Edward Woodville, and Richard with approximately 20,000 men took the town of Berwick almost immediately. The castle held until 24 August 1482, when Richard recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed from the Kingdom of Scotland. Although it is debatable whether the English victory was due more to internal Scottish divisions rather than any outstanding military prowess by Richard,[91] it was the last time that the Royal Burgh of Berwick changed hands between the two realms.[92]
Rey de inglaterra
On the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, his 12-year-old son, Edward V, succeeded him. Richard was named Lord Protector of the Realm and at Baron Hastings' urging, Richard assumed his role and left his base in Yorkshire for London.[94] On 29 April, as previously agreed, Richard and his cousin, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, met Queen Elizabeth's brother, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, at Northampton. At the queen's request, Earl Rivers was escorting the young king to London with an armed escort of 2000 men, while Richard and Buckingham's joint escort was 600 men.[95]
Edward V himself had been sent further south to Stony Stratford. At first convivial, Richard had Earl Rivers, his nephew Richard Grey and his associate, Thomas Vaughan, arrested. They were taken to Pontefract Castle, where they were executed on 25 June on the charge of treason against the Lord Protector after appearing before a tribunal led by Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland. Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his will.[96]
After having Rivers arrested, Richard and Buckingham moved to Stony Stratford, where Richard informed Edward V of a plot aimed at denying him his role as protector and whose perpetrators had been dealt with.[97] He proceeded to escort the king to London. They entered the city on 4 May, displaying the carriages of weapons Rivers had taken with his 2000-man army. Richard first accommodated Edward in the Bishop's apartments; then, on Buckingham's suggestion, the king was moved to the royal apartments of the Tower of London, where kings customarily awaited their coronation.[98]
Within the year 1483, Richard had moved himself to the grandeur of Crosby Hall, London, then in Bishopsgate in the City of London. Robert Fabyan, in his 'The new chronicles of England and of France', writes that "the Duke caused the King (Edward V) to be removed unto the Tower and his broder with hym, and the Duke lodged himselfe in Crosbyes Place in Bisshoppesgate Strete."[99] In Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he accounts that "little by little all folke withdrew from the Tower, and drew unto Crosbies in Bishops gates Street, where the Protector kept his houshold. The Protector had the resort; the King in maner desolate."[100]
On hearing the news of her brother's 30 April arrest, the dowager queen fled to sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Joining her were her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset; her five daughters; and her youngest son, Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.[101]
On 10/11 June, Richard wrote to Ralph, Lord Neville, the City of York and others asking for their support against "the Queen, her blood adherents and affinity," whom he suspected of plotting his murder.[102] At a council meeting on 13 June at the Tower of London, Richard accused Hastings and others of having conspired against him with the Woodvilles and accusing Jane Shore, lover to both Hastings and Thomas Grey, of acting as a go-between. According to Thomas More, Hastings was taken out of the council chambers and summarily executed in the courtyard, while others, like Lord Thomas Stanley and John Morton, Bishop of Ely, were arrested.[103] Hastings was not attainted and Richard sealed an indenture that placed Hastings' widow, Katherine, directly under his own protection.[104] Bishop Morton was released into the custody of Buckingham.[105]
On 16 June, the dowager queen agreed to hand over the Duke of York to the Archbishop of Canterbury so that he might attend his brother Edward's coronation, still planned for 22 June.[106]
A clergyman is said to have informed Richard that Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid because of Edward's earlier union with Eleanor Butler, making Edward V and his siblings illegitimate. The identity of the informant, known only through the memoirs of French diplomat Philippe de Commines, was Robert Stillington, the Bishop of Bath and Wells.[107] On 22 June, a sermon was preached outside Old St. Paul's Cathedral declaring Edward IV's children bastards and Richard the rightful king.[108] Shortly after, the citizens of London, both nobles and commons, convened and drew up a petition asking Richard to assume the throne.[109] He accepted on 26 June and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 July. His title to the throne was confirmed by Parliament in January 1484 by the document Titulus Regius.[110]
The princes, who were still lodged in the royal residence of the Tower of London at the time of Richard's coronation, disappeared from sight after the summer of 1483.[111] Although after his death Richard III was accused of having Edward and his brother killed, notably by More and in Shakespeare's play, the facts surrounding their disappearance remain unknown.[112] Other culprits have been suggested, including Buckingham and even Henry VII, although Richard remains a suspect.[113]
After the coronation ceremony, Richard and Anne set out on a royal progress to meet their subjects. During this journey through the country, the king and queen endowed King's College and Queens' College at Cambridge University, and made grants to the church.[114] Still feeling a strong bond with his northern estates, Richard later planned the establishment of a large chantry chapel in York Minster with over 100 priests.[115] He also founded the College of Arms.[116][117]
Buckingham's rebellion of 1483
In 1483, a conspiracy arose among a number of disaffected gentry, many of whom had been supporters of Edward IV and the "whole Yorkist establishment".[118][119] The conspiracy was nominally led by Richard's former ally, the Duke of Buckingham,[note 5] although it had begun as a Woodville-Beaufort conspiracy (being "well underway" by the time of the Duke's involvement).[121] Indeed, Davies has suggested that it was "only the subsequent parliamentary attainder that placed Buckingham at the centre of events", in order to blame a single disaffected magnate motivated by greed, rather than "the embarrassing truth" that those opposing Richard were actually "overwhelmingly Edwardian loyalists".[122] It is possible that they planned to depose Richard III and place Edward V back on the throne, and that when rumours arose that Edward and his brother were dead, Buckingham proposed that Henry Tudor should return from exile, take the throne and marry Elizabeth of York, elder sister of the Princes in the Tower. However, it has also been pointed out that as this narrative stems from Richard's own parliament of 1484, it should probably be treated "with caution".[123] For his part, Buckingham raised a substantial force from his estates in Wales and the Marches.[124] Henry, in exile in Brittany, enjoyed the support of the Breton treasurer Pierre Landais, who hoped Buckingham's victory would cement an alliance between Brittany and England.[125]
Some of Henry Tudor's ships ran into a storm and were forced to return to Brittany or Normandy,[126] while Henry himself anchored off Plymouth for a week before learning of Buckingham's failure.[127] Buckingham's army was troubled by the same storm and deserted when Richard's forces came against them. Buckingham tried to escape in disguise, but was either turned in by a retainer for the bounty Richard had put on his head, or was discovered in hiding with him.[128] He was convicted of treason and beheaded in Salisbury,[129] near the Bull's Head Inn, on 2 November. His widow, Catherine Woodville, later married Jasper Tudor, the uncle of Henry Tudor.[130] Richard made overtures to Landais, offering military support for Landais's weak regime under Francis II, Duke of Brittany, in exchange for Henry. Henry fled to Paris, where he secured support from the French regent Anne of Beaujeu, who supplied troops for an invasion in 1485.[131]
Death at the Battle of Bosworth Field
On 22 August 1485, Richard met the outnumbered forces of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard rode a white courser (an especially swift and strong horse).[132] The size of Richard's army has been estimated at 8,000 and Henry's at 5,000, but exact numbers are not known, though the royal army is believed to have "substantially" outnumbered Henry's.[133] The traditional view of the king's famous cries of "Treason!"[134] before falling was that during the battle Richard was abandoned by Baron Stanley (made Earl of Derby in October),[135] Sir William Stanley, and Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland. However, the role of Northumberland is unclear; his position was with the reserve—behind the king's line—and he could not easily have moved forward without a general royal advance, which did not take place.[136] Indeed, the physical confines behind the crest of Ambion Hill, combined with a difficulty of communications, probably physically hampered any attempt he made to join the fray.[137] Despite appearing "a pillar of the Ricardian regime",[138] and his previous loyalty to Edward IV,[139] Baron Stanley's wife, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was Henry Tudor's mother,[140] and Stanley's inaction combined with his brother's entering the battle on Tudor's behalf was fundamental to Richard's defeat.[141] The death of Richard's close companion John Howard, Duke of Norfolk, may have had a demoralising effect on the king and his men. Either way, Richard led a cavalry charge deep into the enemy ranks in an attempt to end the battle quickly by striking at Henry Tudor himself.[142]
Accounts note that King Richard fought bravely and ably during this manoeuvre, unhorsing Sir John Cheyne, a well-known jousting champion, killing Henry's standard bearer Sir William Brandon and coming within a sword's length of Henry Tudor before being surrounded by Sir William Stanley's men and killed.[143] The Burgundian chronicler Jean Molinet says that a Welshman struck the death-blow with a halberd while Richard's horse was stuck in the marshy ground.[144] It was said that the blows were so violent that the king's helmet was driven into his skull.[145] The contemporary Welsh poet Guto'r Glyn implies a leading Welsh Lancastrian, Rhys ap Thomas, or one of his men killed the king, writing that he "killed the boar, shaved his head".[144][146][147] The identification in 2013 of King Richard's body shows that the skeleton had 11 wounds, eight of them to the skull, clearly inflicted in battle and suggesting he had lost his helmet.[148] Professor Guy Rutty, from the University of Leicester, said: "The most likely injuries to have caused the king's death are the two to the inferior aspect of the skull—a large sharp force trauma possibly from a sword or staff weapon, such as a halberd or bill, and a penetrating injury from the tip of an edged weapon."[149] The skull showed that a blade had hacked away part of the rear of the skull. Richard III was the last English king to be killed in battle.[150] Henry Tudor succeeded Richard as King Henry VII. He married the Yorkist heiress Elizabeth of York, Edward IV's daughter and Richard III's niece.
Polydore Vergil, Henry VII's official historian, recorded that "King Richard, alone, was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies".[151] Richard's naked body was then carried back to Leicester tied to a horse, and early sources strongly suggest that it was displayed in the collegiate Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke,[152] prior to being buried at Greyfriars Church in Leicester.[153][154] In 1495, Henry VII paid £50 (equivalent to £41,397 in 2019) for a marble and alabaster monument.[154] According to a discredited tradition, during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, his body was thrown into the River Soar,[155][156] although other evidence suggests that a memorial stone was visible in 1612, in a garden built on the site of Greyfriars.[154] The exact location was then lost, owing to more than 400 years of subsequent development,[157] until archaeological investigations in 2012 revealed the site of the garden and Greyfriars Church. There was a memorial ledger stone in the choir of the cathedral, since replaced by the tomb of the king, and a stone plaque on Bow Bridge where tradition had falsely suggested that his remains had been thrown into the river.[158]
According to another tradition, Richard consulted a seer in Leicester before the battle who foretold that "where your spur should strike on the ride into battle, your head shall be broken on the return". On the ride into battle, his spur struck the bridge stone of Bow Bridge in the city; legend states that as his corpse was carried from the battle over the back of a horse, his head struck the same stone and was broken open.[159]
Asunto
Richard and Anne had one son, Edward of Middleham, who was born between 1474 and 1476.[160][161] He was created Earl of Salisbury on 15 February 1478,[162] and Prince of Wales on 24 August 1483, and died in March 1484, less than two months after he had been formally declared heir apparent.[163] After the death of his son, Richard appointed his nephew John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, as Lieutenant of Ireland, an office previously held by his son Edward.[164] Lincoln was the son of Richard's older sister, Elizabeth, Duchess of Suffolk. After his wife's death, Richard commenced negotiations with John II of Portugal to marry John's pious sister, Joanna, Princess of Portugal. She had already turned down several suitors because of her preference for the religious life.[165]
Richard had two acknowledged illegitimate children, John of Gloucester and Katherine Plantagenet. Also known as 'John of Pontefract', John of Gloucester was appointed Captain of Calais in 1485. Katherine married William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, in 1484. Neither the birth dates nor the names of the mothers of either of the children is known. Katherine was old enough to be wedded in 1484, when the age of consent was twelve, and John was knighted in September 1483 in York Minster, and so most historians agree that they were both fathered when Richard was a teenager.[166][167] There is no evidence of infidelity on Richard's part after his marriage to Anne Neville in 1472 when he was around 20.[168] This has led to a suggestion by the historian A. L. Rowse that Richard "had no interest in sex".[169]
Michael Hicks and Josephine Wilkinson have suggested that Katherine's mother may have been Katherine Haute, on the basis of the grant of an annual payment of 100 shillings made to her in 1477. The Haute family was related to the Woodvilles through the marriage of Elizabeth Woodville's aunt, Joan Woodville, to William Haute. One of their children was Richard Haute, Controller of the Prince's Household. Their daughter, Alice, married Sir John Fogge; they were ancestors to Catherine Parr, sixth wife of King Henry VIII.[170] They also suggest that John's mother may have been Alice Burgh. Richard visited Pontefract from 1471, in April and October 1473, and in early March 1474, for a week. On 1 March 1474, he granted Alice Burgh £20 a year for life "for certain special causes and considerations". She later received another allowance, apparently for being engaged as a nurse for his brother George's son, Edward of Warwick. Richard continued her annuity when he became king.[171][172] John Ashdown-Hill has suggested that John was conceived during Richard's first solo expedition to the eastern counties in the summer of 1467 at the invitation of John Howard and that the boy was born in 1468 and named after his friend and supporter. Richard himself noted John was still a minor (not being yet 21) when he issued the royal patent appointing him Captain of Calais on 11 March 1485, possibly on his seventeenth birthday.[166]
Both of Richard's illegitimate children survived him, but they seem to have died without issue and their fate after Richard's demise at Bosworth is not certain. John received a £20 annuity from Henry VII, but there are no mentions of him in contemporary records after 1487 (the year of the Battle of Stoke Field). He may have been executed in 1499, though no record of this exists beyond an assertion by George Buck over a century later.[173] Katherine apparently died before her cousin Elizabeth of York's coronation on 25 November 1487, since her husband Sir William Herbert is described as a widower by that time.[166][7] Katherine's burial place was located in the London parish church of St James Garlickhithe,[note 6] between Skinner's Lane and Upper Thames Street.[175] The mysterious Richard Plantagenet, who was first mentioned in Francis Peck's Desiderata Curiosa (a two-volume miscellany published 1732–1735) was said to be a possible illegitimate child of Richard III and is sometimes referred to as "Richard the Master-Builder" or "Richard of Eastwell", but it has also been suggested he could have been Richard, Duke of York, one of the missing Princes in the Tower.[176] He died in 1550.[177]
Legado
Richard's Council of the North, described as his "one major institutional innovation", derived from his ducal council following his own viceregal appointment by Edward IV; when Richard himself became king, he maintained the same conciliar structure in his absence.[178] It officially became part of the royal council machinery under the presidency of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln in April 1484, based at Sandal Castle in Wakefield.[85] It is considered to have greatly improved conditions for northern England, as it was intended to keep the peace and punish lawbreakers, as well as resolving land disputes.[86] Bringing regional governance directly under the control of central government, it has been described as the king's "most enduring monument", surviving unchanged until 1641.[86]
In December 1483, Richard instituted what later became known as the Court of Requests, a court to which poor people who could not afford legal representation could apply for their grievances to be heard.[179] He also improved bail in January 1484, to protect suspected felons from imprisonment before trial and to protect their property from seizure during that time.[180][181] He founded the College of Arms in 1484,[116][117] he banned restrictions on the printing and sale of books,[182] and he ordered the translation of the written Laws and Statutes from the traditional French into English.[183] He ended the arbitrary benevolence (a device by which Edward IV raised funds),[184] made it punishable to conceal from a buyer of land that a part of the property had already been disposed of to somebody else,[185] required that land sales be published,[185] laid down property qualifications for jurors, restricted the abusive Courts of Piepowders,[186] regulated cloth sales,[187] instituted certain forms of trade protectionism,[188][189] prohibited the sale of wine and oil in fraudulent measure,[189] and prohibited fraudulent collection of clergy dues,[189] among others. Churchill implies he improved the law of trusts.[190]
Richard's death at Bosworth resulted in the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, which had ruled England since the succession of Henry II in 1154.[191] The last legitimate male Plantagenet, Richard's nephew Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of his brother George, Duke of Clarence), was executed by Henry VII in 1499.[192]
Reputation
There are numerous contemporary, or near-contemporary, sources of information about the reign of Richard III.[193] These include the Croyland Chronicle, Commines' Mémoires, the report of Dominic Mancini, the Paston Letters, the Chronicles of Robert Fabyan and numerous court and official records, including a few letters by Richard himself. However, the debate about Richard's true character and motives continues, both because of the subjectivity of many of the written sources, reflecting the generally partisan nature of writers of this period, and because none was written by men with an intimate knowledge of Richard.[194]
During Richard's reign, the historian John Rous praised him as a "good lord" who punished "oppressors of the commons", adding that he had "a great heart".[195][196] In 1483 the Italian observer Mancini reported that Richard enjoyed a good reputation and that both "his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers".[197][198] His bond to the City of York, in particular, was such that on hearing of Richard's demise at the battle of Bosworth the City Council officially deplored the king's death, at the risk of facing the victor's wrath.[199]
During his lifetime he was the subject of some attacks. Even in the North in 1482 a man was prosecuted for offences against the Duke of Gloucester, saying he did "nothing but grin at" the city of York. In 1484 the discreditory actions took the form of hostile placards, the only surviving one being William Collingbourne's lampoon of July 1484 "The Cat, the Rat, and Lovell the Dog, all rule England under a Hog" which was pinned to the door of St. Paul's Cathedral and referred to Richard himself (the Hog) and his most trusted councillors William Catesby, Richard Ratcliffe and Francis, Viscount Lovell.[200] On 30 March 1485 Richard felt forced to summon the Lords and London City Councillors to publicly deny the rumours that he had poisoned Queen Anne and that he had planned a marriage to his niece Elizabeth,[201] at the same time ordering the Sheriff of London to imprison anyone spreading such slanders.[202] The same orders were issued throughout the realm, including York where the royal pronouncement recorded in the City Records dates 5 April 1485 and carries specific instructions to suppress seditious talk and remove and destroy evidently hostile placards unread.[203][204]
As for Richard's physical appearance, most contemporary descriptions bear out the evidence that aside from having one shoulder higher than the other (with chronicler Rous not able to correctly remember which one, as slight as the difference was), Richard had no other noticeable bodily deformity. John Stow talked to old men who, remembering him, said "that he was of bodily shape comely enough, only of low stature"[205] and a German traveller, Nicolas von Poppelau, who spent ten days in Richard's household in May 1484, describes him as "three fingers taller than himself...much more lean, with delicate arms and legs and also a great heart."[206] Six years after Richard's death, in 1491, a schoolmaster named William Burton, on hearing a defence of Richard, launched into a diatribe, accusing the dead king of being "a hypocrite and a crookback...who was deservedly buried in a ditch like a dog."[207]
Richard's death encouraged the furtherance of this later negative image by his Tudor successors due to the fact that it helped to legitimise Henry VII's seizure of the throne.[208] The Richard III Society contends that this means that "a lot of what people thought they knew about Richard III was pretty much propaganda and myth building."[209] The Tudor characterisation culminated in the famous fictional portrayal of him in Shakespeare's play Richard III as a physically deformed, Machiavellian villain, ruthlessly committing numerous murders in order to claw his way to power;[210] Shakespeare's intention perhaps being to use Richard III as a vehicle for creating his own Marlowesque protagonist.[211] Rous himself in his History of the Kings of England, written during Henry VII's reign, initiated the process. He reversed his earlier position,[212] and now portrayed Richard as a freakish individual who was born with teeth and shoulder-length hair after having been in his mother's womb for two years. His body was stunted and distorted, with one shoulder higher than the other, and he was "slight in body and weak in strength".[213] Rous also attributes the murder of Henry VI to Richard, and claims that he poisoned his own wife.[214] Jeremy Potter, a former Chair of the Richard III Society, claims that "At the bar of history Richard III continues to be guilty because it is impossible to prove him innocent. The Tudors ride high in popular esteem."[215]
Polydore Vergil and Thomas More expanded on this portrayal, emphasising Richard's outward physical deformities as a sign of his inwardly twisted mind. More describes him as "little of stature, ill-featured of limbs, crook-backed ... hard-favoured of visage".[196] Vergil also says he was "deformed of body ... one shoulder higher than the right".[196] Both emphasise that Richard was devious and flattering, while planning the downfall of both his enemies and supposed friends. Richard's good qualities were his cleverness and bravery. All these characteristics are repeated by Shakespeare, who portrays him as having a hunch, a limp and a withered arm.[216][217] With regard to the "hunch", the second quarto edition of Richard III (1598) used the term "hunched-backed" but in the First Folio edition (1623) it became "bunch-backed".[218]
Richard's reputation as a promoter of legal fairness persisted, however. William Camden in his Remains Concerning Britain (1605) states that Richard, "albeit he lived wickedly, yet made good laws".[219] Francis Bacon also states that he was "a good lawmaker for the ease and solace of the common people".[220] In 1525, Cardinal Wolsey upbraided the aldermen and Mayor of London for relying on a statute of Richard to avoid paying an extorted tax (benevolence) but received the reply "although he did evil, yet in his time were many good acts made."[221][222]
Richard was a practicing Catholic, as shown by his personal Book of Hours, surviving in the Lambeth Palace library. As well as conventional aristocratic devotional texts, the book contains a Collect of Saint Ninian, referencing a saint popular in the Anglo-Scottish Borders.[223]
Despite this, the image of Richard as a ruthless power-grabber remained dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th century philosopher and historian David Hume described him as a man who used dissimulation to conceal "his fierce and savage nature" and who had "abandoned all principles of honour and humanity".[224] Hume acknowledged that some historians have argued "that he was well qualified for government, had he legally obtained it; and that he committed no crimes but such as were necessary to procure him possession of the crown", but he dismissed this view on the grounds that Richard's exercise of arbitrary power encouraged instability.[225] The most important late 19th-century biographer of the king was James Gairdner, who also wrote the entry on Richard in the Dictionary of National Biography.[226] Gairdner stated that he had begun to study Richard with a neutral viewpoint, but became convinced that Shakespeare and More were essentially correct in their view of the king, despite some exaggerations.[227]
Richard was not without his defenders, the first of whom was Sir George Buck, a descendant of one of the king's supporters, who completed The history of King Richard the Third in 1619.[228] The authoritative Buck text was published only in 1979, though a corrupted version was published by Buck's great-nephew in 1646.[229] Buck attacked the "improbable imputations and strange and spiteful scandals" related by Tudor writers, including Richard's alleged deformities and murders. He located lost archival material, including the Titulus Regius, but also claimed to have seen a letter written by Elizabeth of York, according to which Elizabeth sought to marry the king.[230] Elizabeth's supposed letter was never produced. Documents which later emerged from the Portuguese royal archives show that after Queen Anne's death, Richard's ambassadors were sent on a formal errand to negotiate a double marriage between Richard and the Portuguese king's sister Joanna,[7] of Lancastrian descent,[231] and between Elizabeth of York and Joanna's cousin Manuel, Duke of Viseu (later King of Portugal).[166]
Significant among Richard's defenders was Horace Walpole. In Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third (1768), Walpole disputed all the alleged murders and argued that Richard may have acted in good faith. He also argued that any physical abnormality was probably no more than a minor distortion of the shoulders.[232] However, he retracted his views in 1793 after the Terror, stating he now believed that Richard could have committed the crimes he was charged with,[233] although Pollard observes that this retraction is frequently overlooked by later admirers of Richard.[234] Other defenders of Richard include the noted explorer Clements Markham, whose Richard III: His Life and Character (1906) replied to the work of Gairdner. He argued that Henry VII killed the princes and that the bulk of evidence against Richard was nothing more than Tudor propaganda.[235] An intermediate view was provided by Alfred Legge in The Unpopular King (1885). Legge argued that Richard's "greatness of soul" was eventually "warped and dwarfed" by the ingratitude of others.[236]
Some twentieth-century historians have been less inclined to moral judgement,[237] seeing Richard's actions as a product of the unstable times. In the words of Charles Ross, "the later fifteenth century in England is now seen as a ruthless and violent age as concerns the upper ranks of society, full of private feuds, intimidation, land-hunger, and litigiousness, and consideration of Richard's life and career against this background has tended to remove him from the lonely pinnacle of Villainy Incarnate on which Shakespeare had placed him. Like most men, he was conditioned by the standards of his age."[238] The Richard III Society, founded in 1924 as "The Fellowship of the White Boar", is the oldest of several groups dedicated to improving his reputation. Other contemporary historians still describe him as a "power-hungry and ruthless politician" who was still most probably "ultimately responsible for the murder of his nephews."[239][240]
In culture
Apart from Shakespeare, Richard appears in many other works of literature. Two other plays of the Elizabethan era predated Shakespeare's work. The Latin-language drama Richardus Tertius (first known performance in 1580) by Thomas Legge is believed to be the first history play written in England. The anonymous play The True Tragedy of Richard III (c. 1590), performed in the same decade as Shakespeare's work, was probably an influence on Shakespeare.[241] Neither of the two plays places any emphasis on Richard's physical appearance, though the True Tragedy briefly mentions that he is "A man ill shaped, crooked backed, lame armed" and "valiantly minded, but tyrannous in authority". Both portray him as a man motivated by personal ambition, who uses everyone around him to get his way. Ben Jonson is also known to have written a play Richard Crookback in 1602, but it was never published and nothing is known about its portrayal of the king.[242]
Marjorie Bowen's 1929 novel Dickon set the trend for pro-Ricardian literature.[243] Particularly influential was The Daughter of Time (1951) by Josephine Tey, in which a modern detective concludes that Richard III is innocent in the death of the Princes.[244][245][246] Other novelists such as Valerie Anand in the novel Crown of Roses (1989) have also offered alternative versions to the theory that he murdered them.[247] Sharon Kay Penman, in her historical novel The Sunne in Splendour, attributes the death of the Princes to the Duke of Buckingham.[248] In the mystery novel The Murders of Richard III by Elizabeth Peters (1974) the central plot revolves around the debate as to whether Richard III was guilty of these and other crimes.[249] A sympathetic portrayal is given in The Founding (1980), the first volume in The Morland Dynasty series by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles.[250]
One film adaptation of Shakespeare's play Richard III is the 1955 version directed and produced by Laurence Olivier, who also played the lead role.[251][252] Also notable are the 1995 film version starring Ian McKellen, set in a fictional 1930s fascist England,[253][254] and Looking for Richard, a 1996 documentary film directed by Al Pacino, who plays the title character as well as himself.[255][256] The play has been adapted for television on several occasions.[257][258][259]
Descubrimiento de restos
On 24 August 2012, the University of Leicester and Leicester City Council, in association with the Richard III Society, announced that they had joined forces to begin a search for the remains of King Richard. The search for Richard III was led by Philippa Langley of the Society's Looking For Richard Project with the archaeological work led by University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS).[260][261][262][263][264] Experts set out to locate the lost site of the former Greyfriars Church (demolished during Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries), and to discover whether his remains were still interred there.[265][266] By comparing fixed points between maps in a historical sequence, the search located the church, where Richard's body had been hastily buried without pomp in 1485, its foundations identifiable beneath a modern-day city centre car park.[267]
The excavators announced on 5 September 2012 that they had identified Greyfriars Church[268] and two days later that they had identified the location of Robert Herrick's garden, where the memorial to Richard III stood in the early 17th century.[269] A human skeleton was found beneath the Church's choir.[270]
Improbably, the excavators found the remains in the first location in which they dug at the car park. Coincidentally, they lay almost directly under a roughly painted R on the tarmac. This had existed since the early 2000s to signify a reserved parking space.[271][272][273]
On 12 September, it was announced that the skeleton discovered during the search might be that of Richard III. Several reasons were given: the body was of an adult male; it was buried beneath the choir of the church; and there was severe scoliosis of the spine, possibly making one shoulder[268] higher than the other (to what extent depended on the severity of the condition). Additionally, there was an object that appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine; and there were perimortem injuries to the skull. These included a relatively shallow orifice, which is most likely to have been caused by a rondel dagger, and a scooping depression to the skull, inflicted by a bladed weapon, most probably a sword.
Further, the bottom of the skull presented a gaping hole, where a halberd had cut away and entered it. Forensic pathologist Dr Stuart Hamilton stated that this injury would have left the individual's brain visible, and most certainly would have been the cause of death. Dr Jo Appleby, the osteo-archaeologist who excavated the skeleton, concurred and described the latter as "a mortal battlefield wound in the back of the skull". The base of the skull also presented another fatal wound in which a bladed weapon had been thrust into it, leaving behind a jagged hole. Closer examination of the interior of the skull revealed a mark opposite this wound, showing that the blade penetrated to a depth of 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in).[274]
In total, the skeleton presented ten wounds: four minor injuries on the top of the skull, one dagger blow on the cheekbone, one cut on the lower jaw, two fatal injuries on the base of the skull, one cut on a rib bone, and one final wound on the pelvis, most probably inflicted after death. It is generally accepted that postmortem, Richard's naked body was tied to the back of a horse, with his arms slung over one side and his legs and buttocks over the other. This presented a tempting target for onlookers, and the angle of the blow on the pelvis suggests that one of them stabbed Richard's right buttock with substantial force, as the cut extends from the back all the way to the front of the pelvic bone and was most probably an act of humiliation. It is also possible that Richard suffered other injuries which left no trace on the skeleton.[275][276][277]
British historian John Ashdown-Hill had used genealogical research in 2004 to trace matrilineal descendants of Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Richard's elder sister.[278][279][280][281] A British-born woman who emigrated to Canada after the Second World War, Joy Ibsen (née Brown), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line.[282][283] Her mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J, which by deduction, should also be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III.[166] Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the research team on 24 August 2012. His mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation site and used to identify King Richard.[284][285][286][287]
On 4 February 2013, the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was beyond reasonable doubt that of King Richard III. This conclusion was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence,[288] soil analysis, and dental tests (there were some molars missing as a result of caries), as well as physical characteristics of the skeleton which are highly consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard's appearance.[289] The team announced that the "arrowhead" discovered with the body was a Roman-era nail, probably disturbed when the body was first interred. However, there were numerous perimortem wounds on the body, and part of the skull had been sliced off with a bladed weapon;[209] this would have caused rapid death. The team concluded that it is unlikely that the king was wearing a helmet in his last moments. Soil taken from the remains was found to contain microscopic roundworm eggs. Several eggs were found in samples taken from the pelvis, where the king's intestines were, but not from the skull and only very small numbers were identified in soil surrounding the grave. The findings suggest that the higher concentration of eggs in the pelvic area probably arose from a roundworm infection the king suffered in his life, rather than from human waste dumped in the area at a later date, researchers said. The mayor of Leicester announced that the king's skeleton would be re-interred at Leicester Cathedral in early 2014, but a judicial review of that decision delayed the reinterment for a year.[290] A museum to Richard III was opened in July 2014 in the Victorian school buildings next to the Greyfriars grave site.[279][288][291]
The proposal to have King Richard buried in Leicester attracted some controversy. Those who challenged the decision included fifteen "collateral [non-direct] descendants of Richard III",[292] represented by the Plantagenet Alliance, who believed that the body should be reburied in York, as they claim the king wished.[293] In August 2013, they filed a court case in order to contest Leicester's claim to re-inter the body within its cathedral, and propose the body be buried in York instead. However, Michael Ibsen, who gave the DNA sample that identified the king, gave his support to Leicester's claim to re-inter the body in their cathedral.[293] On 20 August, a judge ruled that the opponents had the legal standing to contest his burial in Leicester Cathedral, despite a clause in the contract which had authorized the excavations requiring his burial there. He urged the parties, though, to settle out of court in order to "avoid embarking on the Wars of the Roses, Part Two".[294][295] The Plantagenet Alliance, and the supporting fifteen collateral descendants, also faced the challenge that "Basic maths shows Richard, who had no surviving children but five siblings, could have millions of 'collateral' descendants"[292] undermining the group's claim to represent "the only people who can speak on behalf of him".[292] A ruling in May 2014 decreed that there are "no public law grounds for the Court interfering with the decisions in question".[296] The remains were taken to Leicester Cathedral on 22 March 2015 and reinterred on 26 March.[297]
On 5 February 2013 Professor Caroline Wilkinson of the University of Dundee conducted a facial reconstruction of Richard III, commissioned by the Richard III Society, based on 3D mappings of his skull.[298] The face is described as "warm, young, earnest and rather serious".[299] On 11 February 2014 the University of Leicester announced the project to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and one of his living relatives, Michael Ibsen, whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains. Richard III thus became the first ancient person of known historical identity whose genome has been sequenced.[300] In 2016 contemporary British artist Alexander de Cadenet presented a skull portrait of Richard III in conjunction with Leicester University. The portraits have been produced using University of Leicester forensic X-ray scans of the king.[301][302]
In November 2014, the results of the testing were announced, confirming that the maternal side was as previously thought.[303] The paternal side, however, demonstrated some variance from what had been expected, with the DNA showing no links to the purported descendants of Richard's great-great-grandfather Edward III of England through Henry Somerset, 5th Duke of Beaufort. This could be the result of covert illegitimacy that does not reflect the accepted genealogies between Richard and Edward III or between Edward III and the 5th Duke of Beaufort.[303][304][305]
Reburial and tomb
After his death in battle in 1485, Richard III's body was buried in Greyfriars Church in Leicester.[7] Following the discoveries of Richard's remains in 2012, it was decided that they should be reburied at Leicester Cathedral,[306] despite feelings in some quarters that he should have been reburied in York Minster.[307] His remains were carried in procession to the cathedral on 22 March 2015, and reburied on 26 March 2015[308] at a religious re-burial service at which both Tim Stevens, the Bishop of Leicester, and Justin Welby, the Archbishop of Canterbury, officiated. The British royal family was represented by the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester and the Countess of Wessex. The actor Benedict Cumberbatch, who later portrayed him in The Hollow Crown television series, read a poem by poet laureate Carol Ann Duffy.[259][309]
Richard's cathedral tomb was designed by the architects van Heyningen and Haward.[310] The tombstone is deeply incised with a cross, and consists of a rectangular block of white Swaledale fossil stone, quarried in North Yorkshire. It sits on a low plinth made of dark Kilkenny marble, incised with Richard's name, dates and motto (Loyaulte me lie – loyalty binds me). The plinth also carries his coat of arms in pietra dura.[311] The remains of Richard III are in a lead-lined inner casket,[312] inside an outer English oak coffin crafted by Michael Ibsen, a direct descendant of Richard's sister Anne, and laid in a brick-lined vault below the floor, and below the plinth and tombstone.[311] The original 2010 raised tomb design had been proposed by Langley's "Looking For Richard Project" and fully funded by members of the Richard III Society. The proposal was publicly launched by the Society on 13 February 2013 but rejected by Leicester Cathedral in favour of a memorial slab.[313][314][315] However, following a public outcry, the Cathedral changed its position and on 18 July 2013 announced its agreement to give King Richard III a raised tomb monument.[316][317]
Títulos, estilos, honores y armas
On 1 November 1461, Richard gained the title of Duke of Gloucester; in late 1461, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter.[319] Following the death of King Edward IV, he was made Lord Protector of England. Richard held this office from 30 April to 26 June 1483, when he made himself king. As King of England, Richard was styled Dei Gratia Rex Angliae et Franciae et Dominus Hiberniae (By the Grace of God, King of England and France and Lord of Ireland).
Informally, he may have been known as "Dickon", according to a sixteenth-century legend of a note, warning of treachery, that was sent to the Duke of Norfolk on the eve of Bosworth:
Jack of Norfolk, be not too bold,
For Dickon, thy master, is bought and sold.[320]
Arms
As Duke of Gloucester, Richard used the Royal Arms of England quartered with the Royal Arms of France, differenced by a label argent of three points ermine, on each point a canton gules, supported by a blue boar.[321][322] As sovereign, he used the arms of the kingdom undifferenced, supported by a white boar and a lion.[322] His motto was Loyaulte me lie, "Loyalty binds me"; and his personal device was a white boar.[323]
Ascendencia
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Ver también
- King Richard III Visitor Centre, Leicester
- Ricardian (Richard III)
- Richard III Museum, York
Notas
- ^ "From November 1461 until 1465 all references to Richard place him in locations south of the river Trent. It may have been partly to appease Warwick's injured feelings towards the rising influence of the king's new Woodville in-laws that he was given the honour of taking Richard into his household to complete his education, probably at some time in 1465".[12]
- ^ As late as 1469 rumours were still linking Richard's name with Anne Neville's. In August of that year, by which time Clarence had married Isabel, an Italian observer in London mistakenly reported that Warwick had married his two daughters to the king's brothers (Cal. Milanese Papers, I, pp. 118–120).
- ^ Says Kendall, "Richard had won his way back to Middleham Castle". However, any personal attachment he may have felt to Middleham was likely mitigated in his adulthood, as surviving records demonstrate he spent less time there than at Barnard Castle and Pontefract." "No great magnate or royal duke in the fifteenth century had a 'home' in the twentieth-century sense of the word. Richard of Gloucester formed no more of a personal attachment to Middleham than he did to Barnard Castle or Pontefract, at both of which surviving records suggest he spent more time."[49]
- ^ Hanham has raised "the charge of hypocrisy",[81] suggesting "that Richard would 'grin' at the city", and questioning whether he was either as popular or as devoted to the region as sometimes thought.[81]
- ^ Rosemary Horrox notes that "Buckingham was an exception amongst the rebels as, far from being a previous favourite, he 'had been refused any political role by Edward IV'."[120]
- ^ Specifically, in the Vinter's Hall, Thameside.[174]
Referencias
- ^ Carson, Ashdown-Hill, Johnson, Johnson & Langley, p. 8.
- ^ Baldwin 2013.
- ^ Pollard (2000), p. 15.
- ^ Ross 1974, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Pollard (2008).
- ^ Griffiths (2008).
- ^ a b c d e Horrox 2013.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 41–42.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 40.
- ^ Scofield (2016), p. 216, n.6, quoting Tellers' Roll, Mich. 5 Edw. IV (no. 36), m. 2.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 34–44, 74.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), pp. 36–37, 240.
- ^ a b Ross (1974), p. 9.
- ^ Licence (2013), p. 63.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 68.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 45.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 522.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 87–89.
- ^ "Spine". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
A very pronounced curve in the spine was visible when the body was first uncovered, evidence of scoliosis which may have meant that Richard's right shoulder was noticeably higher than his left....The type of scoliosis seen here is known as idiopathic adolescent onset scoliosis. The word idiopathic means that the reason for its development is not entirely clear, although there is probably a genetic component. The term adolescent onset indicates that the deformity wasn't present at birth, but developed after the age of ten. It is quite possible that the scoliosis was progressive...
- ^ "Richard III: Team rebuilds 'most famous spine'". BBC News. London. 29 May 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
- ^ Duffin, Claire (17 August 2014). "Richard III, the 'hunchback king', really could have been a formidable warrior... and his body double can prove it". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
- ^ "Timeline". Richard III: Rumour and Reality. Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past, University of York. Retrieved 8 July 2014.
- ^ a b Hicks (2006).
- ^ a b Ross 1981, p. 21.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 27.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 115. The East Anglian Paston family have left historians a rich source of historical information for the lives of the English gentry of the period in a large collection of surviving letters.
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 81–82.
- ^ Riley (1908), p. 470.
- ^ Kendall (1956).
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 58.
- ^ "Northern Properties and Influence". Richard III: Rumour and Reality. Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past, University of York. CPR 1467–77, p. 260. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 128.
- ^ Clarke (2005), p. 1023. "In fact, [Richard and Anne] had sought a dispensation to marry from the penitentiary in early 1472, for it was granted on 22 April that year, and they probably married shortly afterwards."
- ^ Scarisbrick (1968), p. 8.
- ^ Barnfield (2007), p. 85.
- ^ Cobbett (1807), p. 431.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 190.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 30.
- ^ Given-Wilson et al. (2005), "Edward IV: October 1472, Second Roll", items 20–24.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 31.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 132.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 146.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 6.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 9.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 136.
- ^ Hicks (2001), p. 74.
- ^ Hicks (2001), p. 82.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 125.
- ^ Hicks (2009), p. 75.
- ^ Hicks (2004). "After 1466 Clarence was not the ally for which Edward IV had presumably hoped. He embroiled himself in a dangerous feud in the north midlands and associated himself politically with Warwick, who graduated from direction of Edward's affairs in the early 1460s to outright opposition."
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 152.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 19.
- ^ Lulofs (1974).
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 155.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 153.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 159.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 160.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 161.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 163.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 20.
- ^ Hicks (2009), p. 98.
- ^ Gillingham (1981), p. 191.
- ^ Horrox 1989, p. 41.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 164.
- ^ Kinross (1979), p. 89.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 93–99.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 22.
- ^ Gillingham (1981), p. 206.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 22, citing 'The Arrivall'.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 172.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 206.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 223.
- ^ Grant (1993), p. 116.
- ^ a b Ross (1981), p. 34.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 230.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 233.
- ^ Hampton (1975), p. 10.
- ^ Hicks (2009), p. 57.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 133.
- ^ a b Hanham (1975), p. 64.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 105.
- ^ Booth (1997).
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 143, n. 55..
- ^ a b Ross (1981), p. 182.
- ^ a b c Ross (1981), p. 183.
- ^ Scofield (2016), p. 534.
- ^ Ferguson (1890), p. 238.
- ^ Lysons & Lysons (1816), "Parishes: Newton-Regny – Ponsonby", pp. 142–150.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 278, citing Phillipe de Commynes
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 143, n. 53. However, Ross cites a letter from Edward IV in May 1480, the letter of appointment to his position as Lieutenant-General referred to his "proven capacity in the arts of war".
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 44–47.
- ^ Rous (1980), p. 63.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 95.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 207–210.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 252–254.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 96, citing Mancini.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 162–163.
- ^ "Robert Fabyan: 'The Concordaunce of Hystoryes' | Richard III Society – American Branch". Retrieved 13 May 2020.
- ^ "The history of Crosby Place | British History Online". www.british-history.ac.uk. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 212–213.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 99.
- ^ Horrox (2004).
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 209–210.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 20.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 101.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 215–216.
- ^ Hicks (2001), p. 117.
- ^ Wood (1975), pp. 269–270, quoting a letter of instruction sent to Lord Mountjoy two days following Richard's assumption of the throne. However, Wood goes on to observe that "the impressions conveyed by this document are in many respects demonstrably false."[better source needed]
- ^ Given-Wilson et al. (2005), "Richard III: January 1484", item 5.
- ^ Grummitt (2013), p. 116.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 96–104.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 487–489.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 290.
- ^ Jones (2014), pp. 96–97.
- ^ a b Wagner (1967), p. 130.
- ^ a b "History". College of Arms. Archived from the original on 1 June 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
In 1484 [the Royal heralds] were granted a charter of incorporation by Richard III, and given a house in Coldharbour in Upper Thames Street, London to keep their records in.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 105.
- ^ Hicks (2009), p. 211.
- ^ Horrox 1989, p. 132.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 111.
- ^ Davies (2011).
- ^ Horrox 1989, p. 153.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 105–119.
- ^ Costello (1855), pp. 17–18, 43–44.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 274.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 26, n. 2.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 25, n. 5.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), pp. 25–26.
- ^ Davies (2011). "Following Bosworth, Katherine Stafford was married, by 7 November 1485, to the new king's 55-year-old bachelor uncle, Jasper Tudor, now duke of Bedford."
- ^ Chrimes (1999), pp. 29–30.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 365.
- ^ Jones (2014).
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 367.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 55.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 218. "Northumberland's rearguard was never seriously engaged, nor could be, whatever the proclivities of its commander".
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 222.
- ^ Bennett (2008).
- ^ Bennett (2008). "Sir William Stanley was among the first to rally to Edward, and he may have brought [Thomas Stanley]'s good wishes with him ... Appointed steward of the king's household late in 1471, [Thomas Stanley] was thenceforward a regular member of the royal council.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 186.
- ^ Gillingham (1981), p. 244.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 218, 222.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 223–224.
- ^ a b Griffiths (1993), p. 43.
- ^ Penn (2013), p. 9.
- ^ Rees (2008), p. 211. "The original Welsh is 'Lladd y baedd, eilliodd ei ben'. The usual meaning of eilliodd is 'shaved', which might mean 'chopped off' or 'sliced'"
- ^ Thomas, Jeffrey L. (2009). "Sir Rhys ap Thomas". Castles of Wales Website. Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Watson, Greig (4 February 2013). "Richard III dig: Grim clues to the death of a king". BBC News. London. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ "Richard III died in battle after losing helmet, new research shows". The Guardian. London. Press Association. 16 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- ^ "King Richard III killed by blows to skull". BBC News. London. 17 September 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 368.
- ^ Ashdown-Hill et al. (2014).
- ^ Ashdown-Hill (2013), p. 94.
- ^ a b c Baldwin (1986), pp. 21–22.
- ^ Baldwin (1986).
- ^ "'Strong evidence' Richard III's body has been found – with a curved spine". The Daily Telegraph. London. 12 September 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Baldwin (1986), p. 24.
- ^ Ashdown-Hill (2015).
- ^ "Legends about the Battle of Bosworth". Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 25 July 2006. Retrieved 5 July 2009.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 29, n. 2. "1476".
- ^ Pollard (2004). "Although [Edward's date of birth] is usually attributed to 1474, the Tewkesbury chronicle records the birth of an unnamed son at Middleham in 1476."
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 33.
- ^ Pollard (2004). "The child Edward ... was created prince of Wales on 24 August [1483]. ... He was formally declared heir apparent to the throne in parliament in February 1484. ... by the end of March 1484 the prince was dead."
- ^ Kendall 1956, pp. 349–350, 563.
- ^ Williams (1983).
- ^ a b c d e Ashdown-Hill (2013).
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 42.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 387.
- ^ Rowse (1966), p. 190.
- ^ Paget (1977).
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 156–158.
- ^ Wilkinson (2008), pp. 228–229, 235–254.
- ^ Given-Wilson & Curteis (1984), p. 161.
- ^ Barron (2004), p. 420.
- ^ Steer (2014).
- ^ Baldwin (2007).
- ^ Andrews (2000), p. 90.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 181.
- ^ Kleineke (2007).
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 188.
- ^ Higginbotham, Susan (16 December 2008). "Richard III and Bail". History Refreshed. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
- ^ Woodger, Douglas (September 1997). "The Statutes of King Richard III's Parliament". Richard III Society of Canada. Archived from the original on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ Cheetham & Fraser (1972).
- ^ Hanbury (1962), p. 106.
- ^ a b Kendall (1956), p. 340.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 341.
- ^ Hanbury (1962), p. 109.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 343.
- ^ a b c Hanbury (1962).
- ^ Churchill (1956), pp. 360–361.
- ^ "Who Was Richard III?". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Archived from the original on 4 December 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 92. "Tudor reason of State had claimed the first of its many victims."
- ^ "Back to Basics for Newcomers". Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Hanham (1975).
- ^ John Rous in Hanham (1975), p. 121.
- ^ a b c Ross (1981), pp. xxii–xxiv.
- ^ Langley & Jones 2013.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 150–151, quoting from Mancini's De Occupatione Regni Anglie per Riccardum Tercium: "After the death of Clarence, he [Richard] came very rarely to court. He kept himself within his own lands and set out to acquire the loyalty of his people through favours and justice. The good reputation of his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers. Such was his renown in warfare, that whenever a difficult and dangerous policy had to be undertaken, it would be entrusted to his direction and his generalship. By these arts Richard acquired the favour of the people and avoided the jealousy of the queen, from whom he lived far separated."
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 444. "The day after the battle, John Sponer galloped into York to bring news of King Richard's overthrow...to the Mayor and Aldermen hastily assembled in the council chamber", "it was showed by...John Spooner...that king Richard, late mercifully reigning upon us, was through great treason piteously slain and murdered, to the great heaviness of this City". York Records, p. 218.
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 237–238.
- ^ Cheetham & Fraser (1972), pp. 175–176.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 395, quoting from the court minutes of the Mercer's company, 31 March 1485.
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 238–239.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 395–396.
- ^ Buck (1706), p. 548.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 537.
- ^ Pollard (1991), p. 200 quoting York records, pp. 220–222
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 247–249.
- ^ a b Mackintosh, Eliza (4 February 2013). "'Beyond reasonable doubt,' bones are the remains of England's King Richard III". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Shakespeare (n.d.), Richard III.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 426. The comparison is with Barabas in Marlowe's Jew of Malta of a couple of years earlier.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 419.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 420.
- ^ Hammond, Peter (November 2003). "These Supposed Crimes: Four Major Accusations (the Murders of Edward of Lancaster, Henry VI, Clarence and Queene Anne) Discussed and Illustrated". To Prove a Villain: The Real Richard III (Exhibition at the Royal National Theatre, London, 27 March – 27 April 1991). Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 14 July 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Potter (1994), p. 4.
- ^ Shakespeare (n.d.), Henry VI, Part 3, act 3, scene 2, lines 155–161.Why, Love forswore me in my mother's womb,
And, for I should not deal in her soft laws,
She did corrupt frail nature with some bribe
To shrink mine arm up like a wither'd shrub;
To make an envious mountain on my back,
Where sits deformity to mock my body;
To shape my legs of an unequal size; - ^ Clemen (1977), p. 51.
- ^ Shipley (1984), p. 127.
- ^ Camden (1870), p. 293.
- ^ Bacon & Lumby (1885).
- ^ Potter (1994), p. 23.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 217.
- ^ Sutton & Visser-Fuchs. The Hours of Richard III (1996) pp.41-44 ISBN 0750911840
- ^ Hume (1864), pp. 345–346.
- ^ Hume (1864), p. 365.
- ^ Gairdner (1896).
- ^ Gairdner (1898), p. xi.
- ^ Buck, George (1979). Kincaid, Arthur (ed.). The history of King Richard the Third (1619). Gloucester: Alan Sutton. ISBN 0904387267. OCLC 233671890.
- ^ Buck, George (1647). The history of the life and reigne of Richard the Third. London: W. Wilson. OCLC 1126494788. Retrieved 14 May 2021 – via the Internet Archive.
- ^ "Elizabeth of York". Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
- ^ Williams 1983, p. 139.
- ^ Walpole (1798), Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third, pp. 103–184.
- ^ Walpole (1798), Postscript to my Historic Doubts, written in February 1793, pp. 220–251.
- ^ Pollard (1991), p. 216.
- ^ Myers 1968, pp. 199–200.
- ^ Legge (1885), p. viii.
- ^ Myers (1968), pp. 200–202.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. liii.
- ^ Hebron, Michael (15 March 2016). "Richard III and the Will to Power". Discovering Literature: Shakespeare & Renaissance. British Library. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
- ^ Hogenboom, Melissa (15 September 2012). "Richard III: The people who want everyone to like the infamous king". BBC News Magazine. London. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
- ^ Churchill (1976).
- ^ McEvoy (2008), p. 4.
- ^ Brown (1973), p. 369. "[Dickon] tells the story of Richard himself, a 'handsome, earnest young man' who always speaks the truth, is unswervingly loyal to his brother Edward IV, and by an unkind destiny becomes a King of 'deep unhappiness,' plagued by hostile supernatural forces although personally blameless."
- ^ Kelly (2000), p. 134.
- ^ Polsky, Sara (24 March 2015). "The Detective Novel That Convinced a Generation Richard III Wasn't Evil". Page-Turner. New Yorker. New York: Condé Nast. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
- ^ Dugdale, John (26 March 2018). "The many versions of Richard III: from Shakespeare to Game of Thrones". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ "Book Review: Crown of Roses". Publishers Weekly. New York: Cahners. 1 January 1989. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
- ^ Johnson, George (2 February 1990). "New and Noteworthy: The Sunne in Splendour". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
- ^ Peters (2004).
- ^ Harrod-Eagles (1981).
- ^ Brooke, Michael. "Richard III (1955)". BFI Screenonline. British Film Institute. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann, Alex (1 April 2015). "Richard III: Laurence Olivier's melodramatic baddie is seriously limp". Reel History. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
- ^ "Ian McKellen is Richard III". Sir Ian McKellen: Official Home Page. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
- ^ Mitchell (1997), p. 135. "Loncraine and McKellen's film adaptation, set in 1930s England, also explores the question of what would have happened if Hitler had invaded England. ... The House of York in this War of the Roses is depicted as the Nazi Party, and Richard in a Nazi uniform seals his fate as eternity's archvillain."
- ^ "Looking for Richard". Cannes Film Festival. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
- ^ Aune (2006).
- ^ Brooke, Michael. "Tragedy of Richard III, The (1983)". BFI Screenonline. British Film Institute. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- ^ Griffin (1966), pp. 385–387.
- ^ a b Billington, Michael (21 May 2016). "Benedict Cumberbatch proves a superb villain in The Hollow Crown's Richard III". Theatre Blog. The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
- ^ Langley & Jones (2013), pp. 11–29, 240–248.
- ^ Ashdown-Hill et al. (2014), pp. 38–52, 71–81, including back cover.
- ^ "The remains of King Richard III reinterred in Leicester Cathedral, in pictures". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
Philippa Langley, who led the quest to find the remains of King Richard III ...
- ^ Sabur, Rozina (22 May 2015). "Hunt for the grave of a medieval king: first check the car park". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ Earle, Laurence (10 February 2013). "Philippa Langley: Hero or Villain?". The Independent. London. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
- ^ "Historic search for King Richard III begins in Leicester" (Press release). University of Leicester. 24 August 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
- ^ "Hunt for Richard III's remains under car park". ABC News. Sydney. Agence France-Presse. 27 August 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ "Greyfriars Project – Update, Friday 31 August". University of Leicester. 31 August 2012. Retrieved 1 September 2012.
- ^ a b "Search for Richard III Confirms that Remains Are the Long-Lost Church of the Grey Friars". University of Leicester. 5 September 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Greyfriars Project – Update, 7 September". University of Leicester. 7 September 2012. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
- ^ "Richard III dig: 'Strong evidence' bones belong to king". BBC News. London. 12 September 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
- ^ Warzynski, Peter A. (3 February 2013). "Richard III dig: 'R' marks the spot where skeleton found in Leicester car park". Leicester Mercury. Local World. Archived from the original on 19 November 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
- ^ "Burying Richard III: The hunch paid off". The Economist. London. 28 March 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
- ^ Langley, Philippa J. "Looking for Richard Project". Retrieved 7 December 2018.
- ^ "Skull". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ "Osteology". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ "Injuries to Body". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ Burns, John F. (24 September 2012). "DNA could cleanse a king besmirched; tests of skeletal remains may bring re-evaluation of the reviled Richard III". International Herald Tribune. La Défense, France – via Questia (article excerpt).
- ^ Kennedy, Maev (4 February 2013). "Richard III: DNA confirms twisted bones belong to king". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
- ^ a b "Richard III dig: DNA confirms bones are king". BBC News. London. 4 February 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Fricker, Martin (5 February 2013). "Edinburgh-based writer reveals how her intuition led archaeologists to remains of King Richard III". Daily Record. Glasgow: Trinity Mirror. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ "Lines of Descent". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ^ "Female-Line Family Tree". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Ashdown-Hill, John; Davis, Evans (4 February 2013). "Richard III dig: 'It does look like him'". Today (Radio programme). London. BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 7 February 2013 – via BBC News.
- ^ Boswell, Randy (27 August 2012). "Canadian family holds genetic key to Richard III puzzle". canada.com. Don Mills, Ontario: Postmedia News. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
- ^ "Results of the DNA Analysis". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Geneticist Dr Turi King and Genealogist Professor Kevin Schürer Give Key Evidence on the DNA Testing". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Burns, John F. (4 February 2013). "Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Richard III DNA results announced – Leicester University reveals identity of human remains found in car park". Leicester Mercury. Archived from the original on 21 April 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ "What the Bones Can and Can't Tell Us". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
- ^ Warzynski, Peter A. (23 May 2014). "Richard III: Leicester wins the battle of the bones". Leicester Mercury. Local World. Archived from the original on 24 May 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
- ^ "News: January Opening". King Richard III Visitor Centre. 29 December 2014. Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
- ^ a b c Watson, Greig (13 September 2013). "The Plantagenet Alliance: Who do they think they are?". BBC News. London. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- ^ a b "Richard III: King's reburial row goes to judicial review". BBC News. London. 16 August 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
- ^ R (on the application of Plantagenet Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Justice & Anor, [2013] EWHC B13 (Admin) (15 August 2013).
- ^ Greene, David; Montagne, Renée (20 August 2013). "English Debate What To Do With Richard III's Remains". Morning Edition (Radio programme, with transcript). Washington, DC. National Public Radio. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
- ^ R (on the application of Plantagenet Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Justice & Ors, [2014] EWHC 1662 (QB) (23 May 2014).
- ^ "Richard III reburial court bid fails". BBC News. London. 23 May 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
- ^ "Richard III: Facial reconstruction shows king's features". BBC News Online. 5 February 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
- ^ "Dundee experts reconstruct face of Richard III 528 years after his death" (Press release). University of Dundee. 5 February 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ^ "Genomes of Richard III and his proven relative to be sequenced" (Press release). University of Leicester, Wellcome Trust and Leverhulme Trust. 11 February 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
- ^ "New skull artwork of King Richard III to go on display". Itv.
- ^ "Striking skull portraits of King Richard III". Science Daily.
- ^ a b King et al. (2014).
- ^ Rincon, Paul (2 December 2014). "Richard III's DNA throws up infidelity surprise". BBC News. London. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ "Richard III DNA study raises doubts about royal claims of centuries of British monarchs, researchers say". ABC News. Sydney. Agence France-Presse. 2 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- ^ "Richard III: Leicester welcomes king's remains". BBC News. London. 22 March 2018. Archived from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
- ^ "York Minster says Richard III should be buried in Leicester". BBC News. London. 7 February 2013. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
- ^ "Richard III: Leicester Cathedral reburial service for king". BBC News Online. 26 March 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
- ^ Duffy, Carol Ann (26 March 2015). "Richard by Carol Ann Duffy". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
- ^ Withstandley, Kate (27 March 2015). "Our Tomb for Richard III is Revealed". van Heyningen and Haward Architects. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
- ^ a b "Richard III Tomb and Burial". Leicester Cathedral. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
- ^ "Richard III's remains sealed inside coffin at Leicester University". BBC News. 16 March 2015.
- ^ Hubball, Louise (13 February 2013). "A tomb fit for a king has been designed for Richard III". BBC News. London. Archived from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ Britten, Nick (13 March 2013). "Cathedral criticised for being 'out of touch' over King Richard III's resting place". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
- ^ Warzynski, Peter A. (14 March 2013). "Richard III: Stone slab to mark final resting place of king, says Leicester Cathedral". Leicester Mercury. Local World. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "Richard III: Give king tomb, not slab, says online poll". Leicester Mercury. Local World. 14 March 2013. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
- ^ Warzynski, Peter A. (18 July 2013). "Richard III will be buried in a raised tomb not slab, says Leicester Cathedral". Leicester Mercury. Local World. Archived from the original on 21 July 2013. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
- ^ "Boar mount belonging to Richard III detected". The Daily Telegraph. London. 3 December 2012. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 44. "By early February 1462 a helm, crest and sword marked his stall ... in the Chapel of St. George."
- ^ Grant (1972), p. 15.
- ^ Velde, François R. (5 August 2013). "Marks of Cadency in the British Royal Family". Heraldica.org. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
- ^ a b Brunet (1889), p. 202.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 132–133.
- ^ Watson 1896, p. 181.
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- Peters, Elizabeth (2004) [1st pub. 1974]. The Murders of Richard III. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 9780060597191.
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has extra text (help) - Shakespeare, William (n.d.). Mowat, Barbara; Werstine, Paul; Poston, Michael; Niles, Rebecca (eds.). Shakespeare's Plays, Sonnets and Poems. Folger Digital Texts. Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library. Retrieved 9 December 2018.
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Otras lecturas
- Bowen, Marjorie (2014) [1st pub. 1929]. Dickon. Project Gutenberg Australia. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- Carson, Annette (2009). Richard III: The Maligned King. Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 9780752452081.
- Carson, Annette (2015). Richard Duke of Gloucester as Lord Protector and High Constable of England. Horstead, England: Imprimis Imprimatur. ISBN 9780957684041.
- Dockray, Keith (1997). Richard III: A Sourcebook. Stroud, England: Sutton. ISBN 978-0750914796.
- Dockray, Keith; Hammond, Peter W. (2013). Richard III: From Contemporary Chronicles, Letters and Records (rev. ed.). Stroud, England: Fonthill Media. ISBN 9781781553138.
- Drewett, Richard; Redhead, Mark (1984). The Trial of Richard III. Stroud, England: Sutton. ISBN 9780862991982.
- England, Barbara, ed. (1986). Richard III and the North of England. University of Hull. ISBN 978-0859580311.
- Fields, Bertram (1998). Royal Blood: Richard III and the Mystery of the Princes. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0060392697.
- Greyfriars Research Team; Kennedy, Maev; Foxhall, Lin (2015). The Bones of a King: Richard III Rediscovered. Chichester, England: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781118783146.
- Hammond, Peter W.; Sutton, Anne (1985). Richard III: The Road to Bosworth Field. London: Constable. ISBN 978-0094661608.
- Hancock, Peter A. (2011). Richard III and the Murder in the Tower (reprint ed.). Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 9780752457970.
- Horspool, David (2015). Richard III: A Ruler and his Reputation. London: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1620405093.
- Kendall, Paul Murray (1992). Richard III: The Great Debate. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393003109.
- Lamb, V. B. (2015). The Betrayal of Richard III. Revised by Hammond, Peter W. Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 9780750962995.
- Markham, Clements R. (1906). Richard III: His Life and Character, Reviewed in the Light of Recent Research. London: Smith, Elder. OCLC 3306738. OL 6982482M. Retrieved 4 December 2018 – via the Internet Archive.
- Seward, Desmond (1997). Richard III: England's Black Legend. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140266344.
- Sutton, Anne. "Richard III: His Parliament". Richard III Society. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- Sutton, Anne; Hammond, Peter W. (1984). The Coronation of Richard III: The Extant Documents. New York: St Martin's. ISBN 978-0312169794.
- Sutton, Anne; Visser-Fuchs, Livia (1997). Richard III's Books. Stroud, England: Sutton. ISBN 978-0750914062.
- Weir, Alison (1995). The Princes in the Tower. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345391780.
- Wood, Charles T. (1991). Joan of Arc and Richard III: Sex, Saints, and Government in the Middle Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195069518.
enlaces externos
- King Richard III Visitor Centre, Leicester
- The Richard III Society website
- The Richard III Society, American Branch website
- Information about the discovery of Richard III from the University of Leicester
- Portraits of Richard III at the Wayback Machine (archived 20 July 2006), with commentary by Pamela Tudor-Craig
Richard III of England House of York Cadet branch of the House of Plantagenet Born: 2 October 1452 Died: 22 August 1485 | ||
Regnal titles | ||
---|---|---|
Preceded by Edward V | King of England 1483–1485 | Succeeded by Henry VII |
Military offices | ||
Preceded by The Earl of Kent | Lord High Admiral 1462–1470 | Succeeded by The Earl of Warwick |
Preceded by The Earl of Warwick | Lord High Admiral 1471–1483 | Succeeded by The Duke of Norfolk |
Political offices | ||
Preceded by The Earl Rivers | Lord High Constable 1469–1470 | Succeeded by The Earl of Oxford |
Preceded by The Earl of Oxford | Lord High Constable 1471–1483 | Succeeded by The Duke of Buckingham |