Roma ( italiano y latín : Roma [ˈRoːma] ( escuchar ) ) es la capital y una comuna especialde Italia (llamada Comune di Roma Capitale ), así como la capital de la región de Lazio . La ciudad ha sido un asentamiento humano importante durante casi tres milenios. Con 2.860.009 habitantes en 1.285 km 2 (496,1 millas cuadradas), [1] también es la comuna más poblada del país. Es la tercera ciudad más poblada de la Unión Europea por población dentro de los límites de la ciudad. Es el centro de la Ciudad Metropolitana de Roma., que tiene una población de 4.355.725 habitantes, lo que la convierte en la ciudad metropolitana más poblada de Italia. [2] Su área metropolitana es la tercera más poblada de Italia. [3] Roma se encuentra en la parte centro-occidental de la península italiana , dentro de Lazio ( Lacio ), a lo largo de las orillas del Tíber . La Ciudad del Vaticano (el país más pequeño del mundo) [4] es un país independiente dentro de los límites de la ciudad de Roma, el único ejemplo existente de un país dentro de una ciudad; por esta razón, a veces se ha definido a Roma como la capital de dos estados. [5] [6]
Roma Roma ( italiano ) | ||||||||||||||
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Roma Capitale | ||||||||||||||
En el sentido de las agujas del reloj desde arriba: el Coliseo , la Basílica de San Pedro , el Castillo de Sant'Angelo , el Ponte Sant'Angelo , la Fontana de Trevi y el Panteón | ||||||||||||||
Bandera Escudo de armas | ||||||||||||||
Etimología: Posiblemente etrusca : Rumon , lit. 'río' | ||||||||||||||
Apodo (s): | ||||||||||||||
El territorio de la comuna ( Roma Capitale , en rojo) dentro de la Ciudad Metropolitana de Roma ( Città Metropolitana di Roma , en amarillo). El área blanca en el centro es la Ciudad del Vaticano. | ||||||||||||||
Coordenadas: 41 ° 53′N 12 ° 30′E / 41.883 ° N 12.500 ° ECoordenadas : 41 ° 53'N 12 ° 30'E / 41.883 ° N 12.500 ° E | ||||||||||||||
País | Italia [a] | |||||||||||||
Región | Lazio | |||||||||||||
ciudad metropolitana | Roma | |||||||||||||
Fundado | 753 a. C. | |||||||||||||
Fundado por | Rey Romulus | |||||||||||||
Gobierno | ||||||||||||||
• Tipo | Alcalde-Concejo Fuerte | |||||||||||||
• Alcalde | Virginia Raggi ( M5S ) | |||||||||||||
• Legislatura | Asamblea Capitolina | |||||||||||||
Área | ||||||||||||||
• Total | 1.285 km 2 (496,3 millas cuadradas) | |||||||||||||
Elevación | 21 m (69 pies) | |||||||||||||
Población (31 de diciembre de 2019) | ||||||||||||||
• Rango | 1 ° en Italia ( 3 ° en la UE ) | |||||||||||||
• Densidad | 2.236 / km 2 (5.790 / millas cuadradas) | |||||||||||||
• Comune | 2.860.009 [1] | |||||||||||||
• Ciudad Metropolitana | 4.342.212 [2] | |||||||||||||
Demonym (s) | Italiano : romano (masculino), romana (femenino) Inglés: Roman | |||||||||||||
Zona horaria | UTC + 1 ( CET ) | |||||||||||||
Código (s) CAP | 00100; 00118 al 00199 | |||||||||||||
Código (s) de área | 06 | |||||||||||||
Sitio web | comune.roma.it | |||||||||||||
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La historia de Roma abarca 28 siglos. Si bien la mitología romana data la fundación de Roma alrededor del 753 a. C., el sitio ha estado habitado durante mucho más tiempo, lo que la convierte en una de las ciudades más antiguas de Europa ocupadas continuamente . [7] La primera población de la ciudad se originó a partir de una mezcla de latinos , etruscos y sabinos . Con el tiempo, la ciudad se convirtió sucesivamente en la capital del Reino Romano , la República Romana y el Imperio Romano , y muchos la consideran la primera ciudad y metrópoli imperial . [8] Primero fue llamada La Ciudad Eterna (en latín : Urbs Aeterna ; en italiano : La Città Eterna ) por el poeta romano Tibullus en el siglo I aC, y la expresión también fue retomada por Ovidio , Virgilio y Livio . [9] [10] Roma también se llama " Caput Mundi " (Capital del Mundo). Después de la caída del Imperio en Occidente , que marcó el comienzo de la Edad Media , Roma cayó lentamente bajo el control político del Papado , y en el siglo VIII se convirtió en la capital de los Estados Pontificios , que duró hasta 1870. Inicio Con el Renacimiento , casi todos los papas desde Nicolás V (1447-1455) siguieron un programa arquitectónico y urbano coherente durante cuatrocientos años, destinado a hacer de la ciudad el centro artístico y cultural del mundo. [11] De esta manera, Roma se convirtió primero en uno de los principales centros del Renacimiento , [12] y luego en la cuna tanto del estilo barroco como del neoclasicismo . Artistas, pintores, escultores y arquitectos famosos hicieron de Roma el centro de su actividad, creando obras maestras por toda la ciudad. En 1871, Roma se convirtió en la capital del Reino de Italia , que, en 1946, se convirtió en la República Italiana .
En 2019, Roma fue la undécima ciudad más visitada del mundo con 10,1 millones de turistas, la tercera más visitada de la Unión Europea y el destino turístico más popular de Italia. [13] Su centro histórico está catalogado por la UNESCO como Patrimonio de la Humanidad . [14] Roma, ciudad anfitriona de los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 1960 , es también la sede de varios organismos especializados de las Naciones Unidas , como la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO), el Programa Mundial de Alimentos (PMA) y el Fondo Internacional para la Agricultura. Desarrollo (FIDA). La ciudad también alberga la Secretaría de la Asamblea Parlamentaria de la Unión por el Mediterráneo [15] (UpM), así como la sede de muchas empresas comerciales internacionales como Eni , Enel , TIM , Leonardo SpA y bancos nacionales e internacionales como Unicredit y BNL . El distrito de negocios EUR de Roma es el hogar de muchas empresas involucradas en la industria petrolera, la industria farmacéutica y los servicios financieros. La presencia de reconocidas marcas internacionales en la ciudad han convertido a Roma en un importante centro de moda y diseño, y los Estudios Cinecittà han sido escenario de muchas películas ganadoras de premios de la Academia . [dieciséis]
Etimología
Según el mito fundacional de la ciudad por los mismos antiguos romanos, [17] se cree que la larga tradición del origen del nombre Roma proviene del fundador y primer rey de la ciudad , Rómulo . [18]
Sin embargo, existe la posibilidad de que el nombre Rómulo en realidad se derivara de la propia Roma. [19] Ya en el siglo IV, se han propuesto teorías alternativas sobre el origen del nombre Roma . Se han propuesto varias hipótesis centrándose en sus raíces lingüísticas que, sin embargo, siguen siendo inciertas: [20]
- de Rumon o Rumen , nombre arcaico del Tíber , que a su vez está supuestamente relacionado con el verbo griego ῥέω ( rhéō ) 'fluir, fluir' y el verbo latino ruō 'apresurarse, precipitarse'; [B]
- de la palabra etrusca 𐌓𐌖𐌌𐌀 ( ruma ), cuya raíz es * ron- "pezón", con posible referencia al lobo totémico que adoptó y amamantó a los gemelos Rómulo y Remo , de nombres cognables , oa la forma de las colinas Palatina y Aventina ;
- de la palabra griega ῥώμη ( rhṓmē ), que significa fuerza . [C]
Historia
Albanis ( latinos ) Siglo X - 752 aC
(Fundación de la ciudad) IX-c. antes de Cristo
Reino romano 752–509 a. C.
República romana 509-27 a. C.
Imperio Romano 27 a.C.-285 d.C.
Imperio Romano Occidental 285–476
Reino de Odoacro 476–493
Reino ostrogótico 493–553
Imperio Romano de Oriente 553–754
Estados Pontificios 754–1870
Reino de Italia 1870–1946
Ciudad del Vaticano 1929-presente
Historia más antigua
Si bien ha habido descubrimientos de evidencia arqueológica de ocupación humana del área de Roma desde hace aproximadamente 14,000 años, la densa capa de escombros mucho más jóvenes oscurece los sitios del Paleolítico y Neolítico . [7] La evidencia de herramientas de piedra, cerámica y armas de piedra atestigua unos 10.000 años de presencia humana. Varias excavaciones apoyan la opinión de que Roma surgió de asentamientos pastorales en el monte Palatino construido sobre el área del futuro Foro Romano . Entre el final de la Edad del Bronce y el comienzo de la Edad del Hierro , cada colina entre el mar y el Capitolio estaba coronada por un pueblo (en el Capitolio, un pueblo está atestiguado desde finales del siglo XIV a. C.). [21] Sin embargo, ninguno de ellos tenía todavía una calidad urbana. [21] Hoy en día, existe un amplio consenso de que la ciudad se desarrolló gradualmente a través de la agregación (" sinoecismo ") de varios pueblos alrededor del más grande, situado sobre el Palatino. [21] Esta agregación fue facilitada por el aumento de la productividad agrícola por encima del nivel de subsistencia , lo que también permitió el establecimiento de actividades secundarias y terciarias . Estos, a su vez, impulsaron el desarrollo del comercio con las colonias griegas del sur de Italia (principalmente Ischia y Cumas ). [21] Estos desarrollos, que según la evidencia arqueológica tuvieron lugar a mediados del siglo VIII a. C., pueden considerarse como el "nacimiento" de la ciudad. [21] A pesar de las recientes excavaciones en el monte Palatino, la opinión de que Roma fue fundada deliberadamente a mediados del siglo VIII a. C., como sugiere la leyenda de Rómulo, sigue siendo una hipótesis marginal. [22]
Leyenda de la fundación de Roma
Las historias tradicionales transmitidas por los propios romanos explican la historia más antigua de su ciudad en términos de leyendas y mitos . El más familiar de estos mitos, y quizás el más famoso de todos los mitos romanos , es la historia de Rómulo y Remo , los gemelos amamantados por una loba . [17] Decidieron construir una ciudad, pero después de una discusión, Romulus mató a su hermano y la ciudad tomó su nombre. Según los analistas romanos , esto sucedió el 21 de abril de 753 a. C. [23] Esta leyenda tuvo que reconciliarse con una tradición dual, establecida más temprano en el tiempo, que hizo que el refugiado troyano Eneas escapara a Italia y encontrara la línea de romanos a través de su hijo Iulo , el homónimo de la dinastía Julio-Claudio . [24] Esto fue logrado por el poeta romano Virgilio en el primer siglo antes de Cristo. Además, Strabo menciona una historia más antigua, que la ciudad era una colonia de Arcadia fundada por Evander . Estrabón también escribe que Lucius Coelius Antipater creía que Roma fue fundada por griegos. [25] [26]
Monarquía y república
Después de la fundación por Rómulo según una leyenda, [23] Roma fue gobernada por un período de 244 años por un sistema monárquico, inicialmente con soberanos de origen latino y sabino , más tarde por reyes etruscos . La tradición transmitió siete reyes: Romulus , Numa Pompilius , Tullus Hostilius , Ancus Marcius , Tarquinius Priscus , Servius Tullius y Lucius Tarquinius Superbus . [23]
En el 509 a. C., los romanos expulsaron al último rey de su ciudad y establecieron una república oligárquica . Roma comenzó entonces un período caracterizado por luchas internas entre patricios (aristócratas) y plebeyos (pequeños terratenientes), y por la guerra constante contra las poblaciones del centro de Italia: etruscos, latinos, volscos , ecuos y marsi . [27] Tras convertirse en amo del Lacio , Roma lideró varias guerras (contra los galos , osci - samnitas y la colonia griega de Tarento , aliada con Pirro , rey de Epiro ) cuyo resultado fue la conquista de la península italiana , desde el área central. hasta Magna Graecia . [28]
Los siglos III y II aC vieron el establecimiento de la hegemonía romana sobre el Mediterráneo y los Balcanes , a través de las tres guerras púnicas (264-146 a. C.) luchadas contra la ciudad de Cartago y las tres guerras macedonias (212-168 a. C.) contra Macedonia . [29] Las primeras provincias romanas se establecieron en este momento: Sicilia , Cerdeña y Córcega , Hispania , Macedonia , Acaya y África . [30]
Desde principios del siglo II a.C., el poder se disputaba entre dos grupos de aristócratas: los optimates , que representaban a la parte conservadora del Senado , y los populares , que contaban con la ayuda de la plebe (clase baja urbana) para hacerse con el poder. En el mismo período, la quiebra de los pequeños agricultores y el establecimiento de grandes propiedades esclavistas provocaron una migración a gran escala a la ciudad. La guerra continua condujo al establecimiento de un ejército profesional, que resultó ser más leal a sus generales que a la república. Por ello, en la segunda mitad del siglo II y durante el siglo I a.C. se produjeron conflictos tanto en el exterior como en el interior: tras el fallido intento de reforma social de los populares Tiberio y Cayo Graco , [31] y la guerra contra Yugurta , [31] hubo una primera guerra civil entre Cayo Mario y Sulla . [31] Siguió una gran revuelta de esclavos bajo Espartaco , [32] [32] y luego el establecimiento del primer Triunvirato con César , Pompeyo y Craso . [32]
La conquista de la Galia hizo a César inmensamente poderoso y popular, lo que condujo a una segunda guerra civil contra el Senado y Pompeyo. Después de su victoria, César se estableció como dictador de por vida . [32] Su asesinato llevó a un segundo Triunvirato entre Octavio (el sobrino nieto y heredero de César), Marco Antonio y Lepido , ya otra guerra civil entre Octavio y Antonio. [33]
Imperio
En el 27 a. C., Octavio se convirtió en princeps civitatis y tomó el título de Augusto , fundando el principado , una diarquía entre el princeps y el senado. [33] Durante el reinado de Nerón , dos tercios de la ciudad se arruinaron después del Gran Incendio de Roma y comenzó la persecución de los cristianos . [34] [35] [36] Roma se estableció como un imperio de facto , que alcanzó su mayor expansión en el siglo II bajo el emperador Trajano . Roma se confirmó como caput Mundi , es decir, la capital del mundo conocido, expresión que ya se había utilizado en el período republicano. Durante sus dos primeros siglos, el imperio fue gobernado por emperadores de las dinastías Julio-Claudio , [37] Flavio (que también construyó un anfiteatro del mismo nombre, conocido como el Coliseo ), [37] y Antonino . [38] Esta época también se caracterizó por la difusión de la religión cristiana, predicada por Jesucristo en Judea en la primera mitad del siglo I (bajo Tiberio ) y popularizada por sus apóstoles a través del imperio y más allá. [39] La época de Antonino se considera el apogeo del Imperio, cuyo territorio se extendía desde el Océano Atlántico hasta el Éufrates y desde Gran Bretaña hasta Egipto . [38]
Después del final de la dinastía Severana en 235, el Imperio entró en un período de 50 años conocido como la Crisis del siglo III durante el cual hubo numerosos golpes de Estado por parte de generales, que buscaban asegurar la región del imperio que se les había confiado debido a la debilidad de la autoridad central en Roma. Estuvo el llamado Imperio Galo del 260 al 274 y las revueltas de Zenobia y su padre desde mediados de los 260 que buscaban defenderse de las incursiones persas. Algunas regiones (Gran Bretaña, España y África del Norte) apenas se vieron afectadas. La inestabilidad provocó el deterioro económico y se produjo un rápido aumento de la inflación a medida que el gobierno devaluaba la moneda para hacer frente a los gastos. Las tribus germánicas a lo largo del Rin y al norte de los Balcanes hicieron incursiones serias y descoordinadas desde los años 250-280 que se parecían más a grupos de asalto gigantes que a intentos de asentamiento. El Imperio Persa invadió desde el este varias veces durante los años 230 al 260, pero finalmente fue derrotado. [42] El emperador Diocleciano (284) emprendió la restauración del Estado. Terminó con el Principado e introdujo la Tetrarquía que buscaba aumentar el poder estatal. La característica más marcada fue la intervención sin precedentes del Estado hasta el nivel de la ciudad: mientras que el Estado había presentado una demanda de impuestos a una ciudad y le permitió asignar los cargos, desde su reinado el Estado lo hizo hasta el nivel de las aldeas. En un vano intento por controlar la inflación, impuso controles de precios que no duraron. Él o Constantino regionalizaron la administración del imperio, lo que cambió fundamentalmente la forma en que se gobernaba creando diócesis regionales (el consenso parece haber cambiado de 297 a 313/14 como fecha de creación debido al argumento de Constantin Zuckerman en 2002 "Sur la liste de Verone et la province de grande armenie, Melanges Gilber Dagron). La existencia de unidades fiscales regionales del 286 sirvió de modelo para esta innovación sin precedentes. El emperador aceleró el proceso de destitución del mando militar de los gobernadores. De ahora en adelante, la administración civil y El mando militar estaría separado. Dio a los gobernadores más deberes fiscales y los puso a cargo del sistema de apoyo logístico del ejército como un intento de controlarlo quitando el sistema de apoyo de su control. Diocleciano gobernó la mitad oriental, residiendo en Nicomedia . En 296 , elevó a Maximiano a Augusto de la mitad occidental, donde gobernaba principalmente desde Mediolanum cuando no estaba en movimiento. [42] En 292, creó d dos emperadores "menores", los Césares, uno para cada Augusto, Constancio para Gran Bretaña, Galia y España, cuya sede del poder estaba en Tréveris y Licinio en Sirmio en los Balcanes. El nombramiento de un César no era desconocido: Diocleciano intentó convertirse en un sistema de sucesión no dinástica. Tras la abdicación en 305, los Césares tuvieron éxito y, a su vez, nombraron a dos colegas para sí mismos. [42]
Después de la abdicación de Diocleciano y Maximiano en 305 y una serie de guerras civiles entre pretendientes rivales al poder imperial, durante los años 306-313, la tetrarquía fue abandonada. Constantino el Grande emprendió una importante reforma de la burocracia, no cambiando la estructura sino racionalizando las competencias de los diversos ministerios durante los años 325-330, después de derrotar a Licinio, emperador de Oriente, a finales de 324. El tan -denominado Edicto de Milán de 313, en realidad un fragmento de una carta de Licinio a los gobernadores de las provincias orientales, otorgó libertad de culto a todos, incluidos los cristianos, y ordenó la restauración de las propiedades de la iglesia confiscadas a petición de los vicarios recién creados de diócesis. Él financió la construcción de varias iglesias y permitió que el clero actuara como árbitro en juicios civiles (una medida que no le sobrevivió pero que fue restaurada en parte mucho más tarde). Transformó la ciudad de Bizancio en su nueva residencia, que, sin embargo, no era oficialmente nada más que una residencia imperial como Milán o Tréveris o Nicomedia hasta que Constancio II le dio un prefecto de ciudad en mayo de 359; Constantinopla . [43]
El cristianismo en la forma del Credo de Nicea se convirtió en la religión oficial del imperio en 380, a través del Edicto de Tesalónica emitido en nombre de tres emperadores: Graciano, Valentiniano II y Teodosio I , con Teodosio claramente como la fuerza impulsora detrás de él. Fue el último emperador de un imperio unificado: después de su muerte en 395, sus hijos, Arcadio y Honorio dividieron el imperio en una parte occidental y otra oriental . La sede del gobierno en el Imperio Romano Occidental fue transferida a Rávena después del Sitio de Milán en 402. Durante el siglo V, los emperadores de la década de 430 residían principalmente en la ciudad capital, Roma. [43]
Roma, que había perdido su papel central en la administración del imperio, fue saqueada en 410 por los visigodos dirigidos por Alarico I , [44] pero se produjeron muy pocos daños físicos, la mayoría de los cuales fueron reparados. Lo que no se pudo reemplazar tan fácilmente fueron los artículos portátiles, como obras de arte en metales preciosos y artículos para uso doméstico (botín). Los papas embellecieron la ciudad con grandes basílicas, como Santa Maria Maggiore (con la colaboración de los emperadores). La población de la ciudad había caído de 800.000 a 450-500.000 cuando la ciudad fue saqueada en 455 por Genseric , rey de los vándalos . [45] Los débiles emperadores del siglo V no pudieron detener la decadencia, lo que llevó a la destitución de Rómulo Augusto el 22 de agosto de 476, que marcó el final del Imperio Romano Occidental y, para muchos historiadores, el comienzo de la Edad Media . [43] El declive de la población de la ciudad fue causado por la pérdida de cargamentos de granos del norte de África, a partir del 440 en adelante, y la falta de voluntad de la clase senatorial para mantener donaciones para mantener una población que era demasiado grande para los recursos disponibles. Aun así, se hicieron denodados esfuerzos para mantener el centro monumental, el palatino y los baños más grandes, que continuaron funcionando hasta el asedio gótico de 537. Los grandes baños de Constantino en el Quirinal fueron incluso reparados en 443, y la extensión de el daño exagerado y dramatizado. [46] Sin embargo, la ciudad dio una apariencia general de ruina y decadencia debido a las grandes áreas abandonadas debido a la disminución de la población. La población se redujo a 500.000 en el 452 y a 100.000 en el 500 d.C. (quizás mayor, aunque no se puede conocer una cifra segura). Después del asedio gótico de 537, la población se redujo a 30.000, pero había aumentado a 90.000 por el papado de Gregorio el Grande . [47] La disminución de la población coincidió con el colapso general de la vida urbana en Occidente en los siglos V y VI, con pocas excepciones. Las distribuciones estatales subsidiadas de cereales a los miembros más pobres de la sociedad continuaron hasta el siglo VI y probablemente impidieron que la población siguiera cayendo. [48] La cifra de 450.000 a 500.000 se basa en la cantidad de carne de cerdo, 3.629.000 libras. distribuido a los romanos más pobres durante cinco meses de invierno a razón de cinco libras romanas por persona por mes, suficiente para 145.000 personas o 1/4 o 1/3 de la población total. [49] La distribución de cereales a 80.000 poseedores de entradas al mismo tiempo sugiere 400.000 (Augustus fijó el número en 200.000 o una quinta parte de la población).
Edad media
El obispo de Roma, llamado Papa , fue importante desde los primeros días del cristianismo debido al martirio de los apóstoles Pedro y Pablo allí. Los obispos de Roma también fueron vistos (y todavía son vistos por los católicos) como los sucesores de Pedro, quien es considerado el primer obispo de Roma. La ciudad adquirió así una importancia creciente como centro de la Iglesia católica . Después de la caída del Imperio Romano Occidental en el 476 d.C., Roma estuvo primero bajo el control de Odoacro y luego se convirtió en parte del Reino Ostrogodo antes de regresar al control Romano Oriental después de la Guerra Gótica , que devastó la ciudad en 546 y 550 . Su población disminuyó de más de un millón en 210 d. C. a 500.000 en 273 [50] a 35.000 después de la Guerra Gótica (535-554), [51] reduciendo la ciudad en expansión a grupos de edificios habitados intercalados entre grandes áreas de ruinas, vegetación , viñedos y huertas. [52] En general, se piensa que la población de la ciudad hasta el año 300 d.C. fue de 1 millón (las estimaciones varían de 2 millones a 750.000), disminuyendo a 750-800.000 en 400 d.C., 450-500.000 en 450 d.C. y hasta 80-100.000 en 500. AD (aunque puede haber sido el doble). [53]
Después de la invasión lombarda de Italia , la ciudad siguió siendo nominalmente bizantina, pero en realidad, los papas siguieron una política de equilibrio entre los bizantinos , los francos y los lombardos . [54] En 729, el rey lombardo Liutprand donó a la Iglesia la ciudad de Sutri en el norte del Lacio , comenzando su poder temporal. [54] En 756, Pipino el Breve , después de haber derrotado a los lombardos, otorgó al Papa jurisdicción temporal sobre el Ducado Romano y el Exarcado de Rávena , creando así los Estados Pontificios . [54] Desde este período, tres poderes intentaron gobernar la ciudad: el papa, la nobleza (junto con los jefes de las milicias, los jueces, el Senado y el pueblo), y el rey franco, como rey de los lombardos, patricius y Emperador. [54] Estos tres partidos (teocrático, republicano e imperial) fueron una característica de la vida romana durante toda la Edad Media. [54] La noche de Navidad del 800, Carlomagno fue coronado en Roma como emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico por el Papa León III : en esa ocasión, la ciudad acogió por primera vez a las dos potencias cuya lucha por el control iba a ser una constante de la edad Media. [54]
En 846, los árabes musulmanes asaltaron sin éxito las murallas de la ciudad , pero lograron saquear la basílica de San Pedro y San Pablo, ambas fuera de la muralla de la ciudad. [55] Después de la decadencia del poder carolingio , Roma cayó presa del caos feudal: varias familias nobles lucharon contra el papa, el emperador y entre sí. Eran los tiempos de Teodora y su hija Marozia , concubinas y madres de varios papas, y de Crescentius , un poderoso señor feudal, que luchó contra los emperadores Otón II y Otón III . [56] Los escándalos de este período obligaron al papado a reformarse: la elección del Papa se reservó a los cardenales y se intentó la reforma del clero. La fuerza impulsora detrás de esta renovación fue el monje Ildebrando da Soana , quien una vez elegido Papa con el nombre de Gregorio VII se involucró en la Controversia de la investidura contra el emperador Enrique IV . [56] Posteriormente, Roma fue saqueada e incendiada por los normandos al mando de Robert Guiscard, que había entrado en la ciudad en apoyo del Papa, y luego sitiada en Castel Sant'Angelo . [56]
Durante este período, la ciudad fue gobernada de forma autónoma por un senatore o patrizio . En el siglo XII, esta administración, como otras ciudades europeas, evolucionó hacia la comuna , una nueva forma de organización social controlada por las nuevas clases pudientes. [56] El Papa Lucio II luchó contra la comuna romana, y la lucha fue continuada por su sucesor, el Papa Eugenio III : en esta etapa, la comuna, aliada con la aristocracia, fue apoyada por Arnaldo da Brescia , un monje que era un religioso y Reforma Social. [57] Tras la muerte del Papa, Arnaldo fue hecho prisionero por Adriano IV , lo que marcó el final de la autonomía de la comuna. [57] Bajo el Papa Inocencio III , cuyo reinado marcó el apogeo del papado, la comuna liquidó el Senado y lo reemplazó con un Senatore , que estaba sujeto al Papa. [57]
En este período, el papado jugó un papel de importancia secular en Europa occidental , a menudo actuando como árbitro entre los monarcas cristianos y ejerciendo poderes políticos adicionales. [58] [59] [60]
En 1266, Carlos de Anjou , que se dirigía al sur para luchar contra los Hohenstaufen en nombre del Papa, fue nombrado senador. Carlos fundó la Sapienza , la universidad de Roma. [57] En ese período murió el Papa, y los cardenales, convocados en Viterbo , no pudieron ponerse de acuerdo sobre su sucesor. Esto enfureció a la gente de la ciudad, que luego desnudó el techo del edificio donde se reunieron y los encarceló hasta que nominaron al nuevo Papa; esto marcó el nacimiento del cónclave . [57] En este período, la ciudad también fue destrozada por continuas luchas entre las familias aristocráticas: Annibaldi , Caetani , Colonna , Orsini , Conti , anidados en sus fortalezas construidas sobre antiguos edificios romanos, lucharon entre sí para controlar el papado. [57]
El Papa Bonifacio VIII , nacido en Caetani, fue el último Papa en luchar por el dominio universal de la Iglesia ; proclamó una cruzada contra la familia Colonna y, en 1300, convocó el primer jubileo del cristianismo , que trajo millones de peregrinos a Roma. [57] Sin embargo, sus esperanzas fueron aplastadas por el rey francés Felipe el Hermoso , quien lo tomó prisionero y lo mató en Anagni . [57] Posteriormente, se eligió un nuevo Papa fiel a los franceses, y el papado se trasladó brevemente a Aviñón (1309-1377). [61] Durante este período, Roma fue abandonada, hasta que un hombre plebeyo, Cola di Rienzo , llegó al poder. [61] Idealista y amante de la antigua Roma, Cola soñaba con un renacimiento del Imperio Romano: después de asumir el poder con el título de Tribuno , sus reformas fueron rechazadas por la población. [61] Obligado a huir, Cola regresó como parte del séquito del cardenal Albornoz , quien fue encargado de restaurar el poder de la Iglesia en Italia. [61] De regreso al poder por un corto tiempo, Cola pronto fue linchada por la población y Albornoz tomó posesión de la ciudad. En 1377, Roma se convirtió nuevamente en la sede del papado bajo Gregorio XI . [61] El regreso del Papa a Roma en ese año desató el Cisma de Occidente (1377-1418), y durante los siguientes cuarenta años, la ciudad se vio afectada por las divisiones que sacudieron a la Iglesia. [61]
Historia moderna temprana
En 1418, el Concilio de Constanza resolvió el Cisma de Occidente y fue elegido un Papa romano, Martín V. [61] Esto trajo a Roma un siglo de paz interna, que marcó el comienzo del Renacimiento . [61] Los papas gobernantes hasta la primera mitad del siglo XVI, desde Nicolás V , fundador de la Biblioteca Vaticana , hasta Pío II , humanista y letrado, desde Sixto IV , papa guerrero, hasta Alejandro VI , inmoral y nepotista , desde Julio II , soldado y mecenas, de León X , que dio su nombre a este período ("el siglo de León X"), todos dedicaron sus energías a la grandeza y la belleza de la Ciudad Eterna y al mecenazgo de las artes. [61]
Durante esos años, el centro del Renacimiento italiano se trasladó a Roma desde Florencia. Se crearon obras majestuosas, como la nueva Basílica de San Pedro , la Capilla Sixtina y el Ponte Sisto (el primer puente que se construyó sobre el Tíber desde la antigüedad, aunque sobre cimientos romanos). Para lograrlo, los Papas contrataron a los mejores artistas de la época, incluidos Miguel Ángel , Perugino , Rafael , Ghirlandaio , Luca Signorelli , Botticelli y Cosimo Rosselli .
El período también fue infame por la corrupción papal, con muchos Papas engendrando hijos y participando en el nepotismo y la simonía . La corrupción de los Papas y los enormes gastos de sus proyectos de construcción llevaron, en parte, a la Reforma y, a su vez, a la Contrarreforma . Bajo papas extravagantes y ricos, Roma se transformó en un centro de arte, poesía, música, literatura, educación y cultura. Roma pudo competir con otras ciudades europeas importantes de la época en términos de riqueza, grandeza, artes, aprendizaje y arquitectura.
El período del Renacimiento cambió dramáticamente la faz de Roma, con obras como la Piedad de Miguel Ángel y los frescos de los Apartamentos Borgia . Roma alcanzó el punto más alto de esplendor bajo el Papa Julio II (1503-1513) y sus sucesores León X y Clemente VII , ambos miembros de la familia Medici .
En este período de veinte años, Roma se convirtió en uno de los mayores centros de arte del mundo. La antigua Basílica de San Pedro construida por el emperador Constantino el Grande [62] (que para entonces estaba en un estado ruinoso) fue demolida y comenzó una nueva. La ciudad acogió a artistas como Ghirlandaio , Perugino , Botticelli y Bramante , que construyeron el templo de San Pietro in Montorio y planearon un gran proyecto para renovar el Vaticano . Rafael, que en Roma se convirtió en uno de los pintores más famosos de Italia, creó frescos en la Villa Farnesina , las Habitaciones de Rafael y muchas otras pinturas famosas. Miguel Ángel inició la decoración del techo de la Capilla Sixtina y ejecutó la famosa estatua del Moisés para la tumba de Julio II.
Su economía era rica, con la presencia de varios banqueros toscanos, entre ellos Agostino Chigi , que era amigo de Rafael y mecenas de las artes. Antes de su temprana muerte, Rafael también promovió por primera vez la preservación de las ruinas antiguas. La Guerra de la Liga de Cognac provocó el primer saqueo de la ciudad en más de quinientos años desde el saqueo anterior ; en 1527, los Landsknechts del emperador Carlos V saquearon la ciudad , poniendo fin abrupto a la edad de oro del Renacimiento en Roma. [61]
A partir del Concilio de Trento en 1545, la Iglesia inició la Contrarreforma en respuesta a la Reforma, un cuestionamiento a gran escala de la autoridad de la Iglesia en asuntos espirituales y asuntos gubernamentales. Esta pérdida de confianza provocó importantes cambios de poder fuera de la Iglesia. [61] Bajo los papas desde Pío IV hasta Sixto V , Roma se convirtió en el centro de un catolicismo reformado y vio la construcción de nuevos monumentos que celebraban el papado. [63] Los papas y cardenales del siglo XVII y principios del XVIII continuaron el movimiento enriqueciendo el paisaje de la ciudad con edificios barrocos. [63]
Esta fue otra época nepotista; las nuevas familias aristocráticas ( Barberini , Pamphili , Chigi , Rospigliosi , Altieri , Odescalchi ) fueron protegidas por sus respectivos papas, quienes construyeron enormes edificios barrocos para sus familiares. [63] Durante la Era de las Luces , nuevas ideas llegaron a la Ciudad Eterna, donde el papado apoyó los estudios arqueológicos y mejoró el bienestar de la gente. [61] Pero no todo fue bien para la Iglesia durante la Contrarreforma. Hubo reveses en los intentos de afirmar el poder de la Iglesia, un ejemplo notable fue en 1773 cuando el Papa Clemente XIV fue obligado por los poderes seculares a suprimir la orden de los jesuitas . [61]
Tardío moderno y contemporáneo
El gobierno de los Papas fue interrumpido por la efímera República Romana (1798-1800), que se estableció bajo la influencia de la Revolución Francesa . Los Estados Pontificios fueron restaurados en junio de 1800, pero durante el reinado de Napoleón , Roma fue anexada como Departamento del Imperio Francés : primero como Departamento del Tibre (1808-1810) y luego como Departamento de Roma (1810-1814). Después de la caída de Napoleón, los Estados Pontificios fueron reconstituidos por decisión del Congreso de Viena de 1814.
En 1849, se proclamó una segunda República romana durante un año de revoluciones en 1848 . Dos de las figuras más influyentes de la unificación italiana , Giuseppe Mazzini y Giuseppe Garibaldi , lucharon por la efímera república.
Roma se convirtió entonces en el centro de las esperanzas de la reunificación italiana después de que el resto de Italia se uniera como Reino de Italia en 1861 con la capital temporal en Florencia . Ese año Roma fue declarada capital de Italia a pesar de que todavía estaba bajo el control del Papa. Durante la década de 1860, los últimos vestigios de los Estados Pontificios estuvieron bajo la protección francesa gracias a la política exterior de Napoleón III . Las tropas francesas estaban estacionadas en la región bajo control papal. en 1870 las tropas francesas se retiraron debido al estallido de la guerra franco-prusiana . Las tropas italianas pudieron capturar Roma ingresando a la ciudad a través de una brecha cerca de Porta Pia . El Papa Pío IX se declaró prisionero en el Vaticano . En 1871, la capital de Italia se trasladó de Florencia a Roma. [64] En 1870 la población de la ciudad era de 212.000 habitantes, todos los cuales vivían en el área circunscrita por la ciudad antigua, y en 1920, la población era de 660.000. Una parte significativa vivía fuera de las murallas en el norte y al otro lado del Tíber en el área del Vaticano.
Soon after World War I in late 1922 Rome witnessed the rise of Italian Fascism led by Benito Mussolini, who led a march on the city. He did away with democracy by 1926, eventually declaring a new Italian Empire and allying Italy with Nazi Germany in 1938. Mussolini demolished fairly large parts of the city centre in order to build wide avenues and squares which were supposed to celebrate the fascist regime and the resurgence and glorification of classical Rome.[65] The interwar period saw a rapid growth in the city's population which surpassed one million inhabitants soon after 1930. During World War II, due to the art treasuries and the presence of the Vatican, Rome largely escaped the tragic destiny of other European cities. However, on 19 July 1943, the San Lorenzo district was bombed by Anglo-American forces, resulting in about 3,000 immediate deaths and 11,000 wounded of whom another 1,500 died. Mussolini was arrested on 25 July 1943. On the date of the Italian Armistice 8 September 1943 the city was occupied by the Germans. The Pope declared Rome an open city. It was liberated on 4 June 1944.
Rome developed greatly after the war as part of the "Italian economic miracle" of post-war reconstruction and modernisation in the 1950s and early 1960s. During this period, the years of la dolce vita ("the sweet life"), Rome became a fashionable city, with popular classic films such as Ben Hur, Quo Vadis, Roman Holiday and La Dolce Vita filmed in the city's iconic Cinecittà Studios. The rising trend in population growth continued until the mid-1980s when the comune had more than 2.8 million residents. After this, the population declined slowly as people began to move to nearby suburbs.
Gobierno
Local government
Rome constitutes a comune speciale, named "Roma Capitale",[66] and is the largest both in terms of land area and population among the 8,101 comuni of Italy. It is governed by a mayor and a city council. The seat of the comune is the Palazzo Senatorio on the Capitoline Hill, the historic seat of the city government. The local administration in Rome is commonly referred to as "Campidoglio", the Italian name of the hill.
Administrative and historical subdivisions
Since 1972, the city has been divided into administrative areas, called municipi (sing. municipio) (until 2001 named circoscrizioni).[67] They were created for administrative reasons to increase decentralisation in the city. Each municipio is governed by a president and a council of twenty-five members who are elected by its residents every five years. The municipi frequently cross the boundaries of the traditional, non-administrative divisions of the city. The municipi were originally 20, then 19,[68] and in 2013, their number was reduced to 15.[69]
Rome is also divided into differing types of non-administrative units. The historic centre is divided into 22 rioni, all of which are located within the Aurelian Walls except Prati and Borgo. These originate from the 14 regions of Augustan Rome, which evolved in the Middle Ages into the medieval rioni.[70] In the Renaissance, under Pope Sixtus V, they again reached fourteen, and their boundaries were finally defined under Pope Benedict XIV in 1743.
A new subdivision of the city under Napoleon was ephemeral, and there were no serious changes in the organisation of the city until 1870 when Rome became the third capital of Italy. The needs of the new capital led to an explosion both in the urbanisation and in the population within and outside the Aurelian walls. In 1874, a fifteenth rione, Esquilino, was created on the newly urbanised zone of Monti. At the beginning of the 20th century other rioni were created (the last one was Prati – the only one outside the Walls of Pope Urban VIII – in 1921). Afterwards, for the new administrative subdivisions of the city, the term "quartiere" was used. Today all the rioni are part of the first Municipio, which therefore coincides completely with the historical city (Centro Storico).
Metropolitan and regional government
Rome is the principal town of the Metropolitan City of Rome, operative since 1 January 2015. The Metropolitan City replaced the old provincia di Roma, which included the city's metropolitan area and extends further north until Civitavecchia. The Metropolitan City of Rome is the largest by area in Italy. At 5,352 square kilometres (2,066 sq mi), its dimensions are comparable to the region of Liguria. Moreover, the city is also the capital of the Lazio region.[71]
National government
Rome is the national capital of Italy and is the seat of the Italian Government. The official residences of the President of the Italian Republic and the Italian Prime Minister, the seats of both houses of the Italian Parliament and that of the Italian Constitutional Court are located in the historic centre. The state ministries are spread out around the city; these include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is located in Palazzo della Farnesina near the Olympic stadium.
Geografía
Location
Rome is in the Lazio region of central Italy on the Tiber (Italian: Tevere) river. The original settlement developed on hills that faced onto a ford beside the Tiber Island, the only natural ford of the river in this area. The Rome of the Kings was built on seven hills: the Aventine Hill, the Caelian Hill, the Capitoline Hill, the Esquiline Hill, the Palatine Hill, the Quirinal Hill, and the Viminal Hill. Modern Rome is also crossed by another river, the Aniene, which flows into the Tiber north of the historic centre.
Although the city centre is about 24 kilometres (15 mi) inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea, the city territory extends to the shore, where the south-western district of Ostia is located. The altitude of the central part of Rome ranges from 13 metres (43 ft) above sea level (at the base of the Pantheon) to 139 metres (456 ft) above sea level (the peak of Monte Mario).[72] The Comune of Rome covers an overall area of about 1,285 square kilometres (496 sq mi), including many green areas.
Topography
Throughout the history of Rome, the urban limits of the city were considered to be the area within the city's walls. Originally, these consisted of the Servian Wall, which was built twelve years after the Gaulish sack of the city in 390 BC. This contained most of the Esquiline and Caelian hills, as well as the whole of the other five. Rome outgrew the Servian Wall, but no more walls were constructed until almost 700 years later, when, in 270 AD, Emperor Aurelian began building the Aurelian Walls. These were almost 19 kilometres (12 mi) long, and were still the walls the troops of the Kingdom of Italy had to breach to enter the city in 1870. The city's urban area is cut in two by its ring-road, the Grande Raccordo Anulare ("GRA"), finished in 1962, which circles the city centre at a distance of about 10 km (6 mi). Although when the ring was completed most parts of the inhabited area lay inside it (one of the few exceptions was the former village of Ostia, which lies along the Tyrrhenian coast), in the meantime quarters have been built which extend up to 20 km (12 mi) beyond it.
The comune covers an area roughly three times the total area within the Raccordo and is comparable in area to the entire metropolitan cities of Milan and Naples, and to an area six times the size of the territory of these cities. It also includes considerable areas of abandoned marshland which is suitable neither for agriculture nor for urban development.
As a consequence, the density of the comune is not that high, its territory being divided between highly urbanised areas and areas designated as parks, nature reserves, and for agricultural use.
Clima
Rome has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa),[73] with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters.
Its average annual temperature is above 21 °C (70 °F) during the day and 9 °C (48 °F) at night. In the coldest month, January, the average temperature is 12.6 °C (54.7 °F) during the day and 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) at night. In the warmest month, August, the average temperature is 31.7 °C (89.1 °F) during the day and 17.3 °C (63.1 °F) at night.
December, January and February are the coldest months, with a daily mean temperature of approximately 8 °C (46 °F). Temperatures during these months generally vary between 10 and 15 °C (50 and 59 °F) during the day and between 3 and 5 °C (37 and 41 °F) at night, with colder or warmer spells occurring frequently. Snowfall is rare but not unheard of, with light snow or flurries occurring on some winters, generally without accumulation, and major snowfalls on a very rare occurrence (the most recent ones were in 2018, 2012 and 1986).[74][75][76]
The average relative humidity is 75%, varying from 72% in July to 77% in November. Sea temperatures vary from a low of 13.9 °C (57.0 °F) in February to a high of 25.0 °C (77.0 °F) in August.[77]
Climate data for Rome Urbe Airport (altitude: 24 m sl, 7 km north from Colosseum satellite view) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 20.2 (68.4) | 23.6 (74.5) | 27.0 (80.6) | 28.3 (82.9) | 33.1 (91.6) | 36.8 (98.2) | 40.0 (104.0) | 39.6 (103.3) | 37.6 (99.7) | 31.4 (88.5) | 26.0 (78.8) | 22.8 (73.0) | 40.0 (104.0) |
Average high °C (°F) | 12.6 (54.7) | 14.0 (57.2) | 16.5 (61.7) | 18.9 (66.0) | 23.9 (75.0) | 28.1 (82.6) | 31.5 (88.7) | 31.7 (89.1) | 27.5 (81.5) | 22.4 (72.3) | 16.5 (61.7) | 13.2 (55.8) | 21.4 (70.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.4 (45.3) | 8.4 (47.1) | 10.4 (50.7) | 12.9 (55.2) | 17.3 (63.1) | 21.2 (70.2) | 24.2 (75.6) | 24.5 (76.1) | 20.9 (69.6) | 16.4 (61.5) | 11.2 (52.2) | 8.2 (46.8) | 15.3 (59.5) |
Average low °C (°F) | 2.1 (35.8) | 2.7 (36.9) | 4.3 (39.7) | 6.8 (44.2) | 10.8 (51.4) | 14.3 (57.7) | 16.9 (62.4) | 17.3 (63.1) | 14.3 (57.7) | 10.5 (50.9) | 5.8 (42.4) | 3.1 (37.6) | 9.1 (48.4) |
Record low °C (°F) | −9.8 (14.4) | −6.0 (21.2) | −9.0 (15.8) | −2.5 (27.5) | 3.7 (38.7) | 6.2 (43.2) | 9.8 (49.6) | 8.6 (47.5) | 5.4 (41.7) | 0.0 (32.0) | −7.2 (19.0) | −5.4 (22.3) | −9.8 (14.4) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 69.5 (2.74) | 75.8 (2.98) | 59.0 (2.32) | 76.2 (3.00) | 49.1 (1.93) | 40.7 (1.60) | 21.0 (0.83) | 34.1 (1.34) | 71.8 (2.83) | 107.0 (4.21) | 109.9 (4.33) | 84.4 (3.32) | 798.5 (31.44) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 7.6 | 7.4 | 7.8 | 8.8 | 5.6 | 4.1 | 2.3 | 3.2 | 5.6 | 7.7 | 9.1 | 8.5 | 77.7 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 120.9 | 132.8 | 167.4 | 201.0 | 263.5 | 285.0 | 331.7 | 297.6 | 237.0 | 195.3 | 129.0 | 111.6 | 2,473 |
Source: Servizio Meteorologico[78] (1971–2000) |
Demografía
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1861 | 194,500 | — |
1871 | 212,432 | +9.2% |
1881 | 273,952 | +29.0% |
1901 | 422,411 | +54.2% |
1911 | 518,917 | +22.8% |
1921 | 660,235 | +27.2% |
1931 | 930,926 | +41.0% |
1936 | 1,150,589 | +23.6% |
1951 | 1,651,754 | +43.6% |
1961 | 2,188,160 | +32.5% |
1971 | 2,781,993 | +27.1% |
1981 | 2,840,259 | +2.1% |
1991 | 2,775,250 | −2.3% |
2001 | 2,663,182 | −4.0% |
2011 | 2,617,175 | −1.7% |
2017 | 2,876,051 | +9.9% |
Source: ISTAT, 2001 |
In 550 BC, Rome was the second largest city in Italy, with Tarentum being the largest.[citation needed] It had an area of about 285 hectares (700 acres) and an estimated population of 35,000. Other sources suggest the population was just under 100,000 from 600 to 500 BC.[79][80] When the Republic was founded in 509 BC the census recorded a population of 130,000. The republic included the city itself and the immediate surroundings. Other sources suggest a population of 150,000 in 500 BC. It surpassed 300,000 in 150 BC.[81][82][83][84][85]
The size of the city at the time of the Emperor Augustus is a matter of speculation, with estimates based on grain distribution, grain imports, aqueduct capacity, city limits, population density, census reports, and assumptions about the number of unreported women, children and slaves providing a very wide range. Glenn Storey estimates 450,000 people, Whitney Oates estimates 1.2 million, Neville Morely provides a rough estimate of 800,000 and excludes earlier suggestions of 2 million.[86][87][88][89] Estimates of the city's population vary. A.H.M. Jones estimated the population at 650,000 in the mid-fifth century. The damage caused by the sackings may have been overestimated. The population had already started to decline from the late fourth century onward, although around the middle of the fifth century it seems that Rome continued to be the most populous city of the two parts of the Empire.[90] According to Krautheimer it was still close to 800,000 in 400 AD; had declined to 500,000 by 452, and dwindled to perhaps 100,000 in 500 AD. After the Gothic Wars, 535–552, the population may have dwindled temporarily to 30,000. During the pontificate of Pope Gregory I (590–604), it may have reached 90,000, augmented by refugees.[91] Lancon estimates 500,000 based on the number of 'incisi' enrolled as eligible to receive bread, oil and wine rations; the number fell to 120,000 in the reform of 419.[92] Neil Christie, citing free rations for the poorest, estimated 500,000 in the mid-fifth century and still a quarter of a million at the end of the century.[93] Novel 36 of Emperor Valentinian III records 3.629 million pounds of pork to be distributed to the needy at 5 lbs. per month for the five winter months, sufficient for 145,000 recipients. This has been used to suggest a population of just under 500,000. Supplies of grain remained steady until the seizure of the remaining provinces of North Africa in 439 by the Vandals, and may have continued to some degree afterwards for a while. The city's population declined to less than 50,000 people in the Early Middle Ages from 700 AD onward. It continued to stagnate or shrink until the Renaissance.[94]
When the Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome in 1870, the city had a population of about 225,000. Less than half the city within the walls was built up in 1881 when the population recorded was 275,000. This increased to 600,000 by the eve of World War I. The Fascist regime of Mussolini tried to block an excessive demographic rise of the city but failed to prevent it from reaching one million people by the early 1930s.[citation needed][clarification needed] Population growth continued after the Second World War, helped by a post-war economic boom. A construction boom also created many suburbs during the 1950s and 1960s.
In mid-2010, there were 2,754,440 residents in the city proper, while some 4.2 million people lived in the greater Rome area (which can be approximately identified with its administrative metropolitan city, with a population density of about 800 inhabitants/km2 stretching over more than 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi)). Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 17.00% of the population compared to pensioners who number 20.76%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of a Roman resident is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Rome grew by 6.54%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56%.[95] The current[when?] birth rate of Rome is 9.10 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.[citation needed]
The urban area of Rome extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 3.9 million.[96] Between 3.2 and 4.2 million people live in the Rome metropolitan area.[97][98][99][100][101]
Ethnic groups
According to the latest statistics conducted by ISTAT,[102] approximately 9.5% of the population consists of non-Italians. About half of the immigrant population consists of those of various other European origins (chiefly Romanian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Albanian) numbering a combined total of 131,118 or 4.7% of the population. The remaining 4.8% are those with non-European origins, chiefly Filipinos (26,933), Bangladeshis (12,154), and Chinese (10,283).
The Esquilino rione, off Termini Railway Station, has evolved into a largely immigrant neighbourhood. It is perceived as Rome's Chinatown. Immigrants from more than a hundred different countries reside there. A commercial district, Esquilino contains restaurants featuring many kinds of international cuisine. There are wholesale clothes shops. Of the 1,300 or so commercial premises operating in the district 800 are Chinese-owned; around 300 are run by immigrants from other countries around the world; 200 are owned by Italians.[103]
Religion
Much like the rest of Italy, Rome is predominantly Christian, and the city has been an important centre of religion and pilgrimage for centuries, the base of the ancient Roman religion with the pontifex maximus and later the seat of the Vatican and the pope. Before the arrival of the Christians in Rome, the Religio Romana (literally, the "Roman Religion") was the major religion of the city in classical antiquity. The first gods held sacred by the Romans were Jupiter, the Most High, and Mars, the god of war, and father of Rome's twin founders, Romulus and Remus, according to tradition. Other deities such as Vesta and Minerva were honoured. Rome was also the base of several mystery cults, such as Mithraism. Later, after St Peter and St Paul were martyred in the city, and the first Christians began to arrive, Rome became Christian, and the Old St. Peter's Basilica was constructed in 313 AD. Despite some interruptions (such as the Avignon papacy), Rome has for centuries been the home of the Roman Catholic Church and the Bishop of Rome, otherwise known as the Pope.
Despite the fact that Rome is home to the Vatican City and St. Peter's Basilica, Rome's cathedral is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, in the south-east of the city centre. There are around 900 churches in Rome in total. Aside from the cathedral itself, some others of note include the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, the Basilica di San Clemente, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and the Church of the Gesù. There are also the ancient Catacombs of Rome underneath the city. Numerous highly important religious educational institutions are also in Rome, such as the Pontifical Lateran University, Pontifical Biblical Institute, Pontifical Gregorian University, and Pontifical Oriental Institute.
Since the end of the Roman Republic, Rome is also the centre of an important Jewish community,[110] which was once based in Trastevere, and later in the Roman Ghetto. There lies also the major synagogue in Rome, the Tempio Maggiore.
Vatican City
The territory of Vatican City is part of the Mons Vaticanus (Vatican Hill), and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields, where St. Peter's Basilica, the Apostolic Palace, the Sistine Chapel, and museums were built, along with various other buildings. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Being separated from the city on the west bank of the Tiber, the area was a suburb that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV, later expanded by the current fortification walls of Paul III, Pius IV, and Urban VIII.
When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that created the Vatican state was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop. For some parts of the border, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of the boundary, and for a small part a new wall was constructed.
The territory includes Saint Peter's Square, separated from the territory of Italy only by a white line along with the limit of the square, where it borders Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione, which runs from the Tiber to St. Peter's. This grand approach was designed by architects Piacentini and Spaccarelli, on the instructions of Benito Mussolini and in accordance with the church, after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty. According to the Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas, enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies.
Peregrinaje
Rome has been a major Christian pilgrimage site since the Middle Ages. People from all over the Christian world visit Vatican City, within the city of Rome, the seat of the papacy. The city became a major pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages. Apart from brief periods as an independent city during the Middle Ages, Rome kept its status as Papal capital and holy city for centuries, even when the Papacy briefly relocated to Avignon (1309–1377). Catholics believe that the Vatican is the last resting place of St. Peter.
Pilgrimages to Rome can involve visits to many sites, both within Vatican City and in Italian territory. A popular stopping point is the Pilate's stairs: these are, according to the Christian tradition, the steps that led up to the praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem, which Jesus Christ stood on during his Passion on his way to trial.[111] The stairs were, reputedly, brought to Rome by Helena of Constantinople in the fourth century. For centuries, the Scala Santa has attracted Christian pilgrims who wished to honour the Passion of Jesus. Other objects of pilgrimage include several catacombs built in imperial times, in which Christians prayed, buried their dead and performed worship during periods of persecution, and various national churches (among them San Luigi dei francesi and Santa Maria dell'Anima), or churches associated with individual religious orders, such as the Jesuit Churches of Jesus and Sant'Ignazio.
Traditionally, pilgrims in Rome (as well as devout Romans) visit the seven pilgrim churches (Italian: Le sette chiese) in 24 hours. This custom, mandatory for each pilgrim in the Middle Ages, was codified in the 16th century by Saint Philip Neri. The seven churches are the four major basilicas (St Peter in the Vatican, St Paul outside the Walls, St John in Lateran and Santa Maria Maggiore), while the other three are San Lorenzo fuori le mura (an Early Christian basilica), Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (a church founded by Helena, the mother of Constantine, which hosts fragments of wood attributed to the holy cross) and San Sebastiano fuori le mura (which lies on the Appian Way and is built above the Catacombs of San Sebastiano).
Paisaje urbano
Architecture
Rome's architecture over the centuries has greatly developed, especially from the Classical and Imperial Roman styles to modern fascist architecture. Rome was for a period one of the world's main epicentres of classical architecture, developing new forms such as the arch, the dome and the vault.[113] The Romanesque style in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries was also widely used in Roman architecture, and later the city became one of the main centres of Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical architecture.[113]
Ancient Rome
One of the symbols of Rome is the Colosseum (70–80 AD), the largest amphitheatre ever built in the Roman Empire. Originally capable of seating 60,000 spectators, it was used for gladiatorial combat. Important monuments and sites of ancient Rome include the Roman Forum, the Domus Aurea, the Pantheon, Trajan's Column, Trajan's Market, the Catacombs, the Circus Maximus, the Baths of Caracalla, Castel Sant'Angelo, the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Ara Pacis, the Arch of Constantine, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the Bocca della Verità.
Medieval
The medieval popular quarters of the city, situated mainly around the Capitol, were largely demolished between the end of the 19th century and the fascist period, but many notable buildings still remain. Basilicas dating from Christian antiquity include Saint Mary Major and Saint Paul outside the Walls (the latter largely rebuilt in the 19th century), both housing precious fourth century AD mosaics. Notable later medieval mosaics and frescoes can be also found in the churches of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Santi Quattro Coronati, and Santa Prassede. Secular buildings include a number of towers, the largest being the Torre delle Milizie and the Torre dei Conti, both next to the Roman Forum, and the huge outdoor stairway leading up to the basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli.
Renaissance and Baroque
Rome was a major world centre of the Renaissance, second only to Florence, and was profoundly affected by the movement. Among others, a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture in Rome is the Piazza del Campidoglio by Michelangelo. During this period, the great aristocratic families of Rome used to build opulent dwellings as the Palazzo del Quirinale (now seat of the President of the Italian Republic), the Palazzo Venezia, the Palazzo Farnese, the Palazzo Barberini, the Palazzo Chigi (now seat of the Italian Prime Minister), the Palazzo Spada, the Palazzo della Cancelleria, and the Villa Farnesina.
Many of the famous city's squares – some huge, majestic and often adorned with obelisks, some small and picturesque – took their present shape during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. The principal ones are Piazza Navona, the Spanish Steps, Campo de' Fiori, Piazza Venezia, Piazza Farnese, Piazza della Rotonda and Piazza della Minerva. One of the most emblematic examples of Baroque art is the Trevi Fountain by Nicola Salvi. Other notable 17th-century baroque palaces are the Palazzo Madama, now the seat of the Italian Senate, and the Palazzo Montecitorio, now the seat of the Chamber of Deputies of Italy.
Neoclassicism
In 1870, Rome became the capital city of the new Kingdom of Italy. During this time, neoclassicism, a building style influenced by the architecture of antiquity, became the predominant influence in Roman architecture. During this period, many great palaces in neoclassical styles were built to host ministries, embassies, and other government agencies. One of the best-known symbols of Roman neoclassicism is the Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II or "Altar of the Fatherland", where the Grave of the Unknown Soldier, who represents the 650,000 Italian soldiers who died in World War I, is located.
Fascist architecture
The Fascist regime that ruled in Italy between 1922 and 1943 had its showcase in Rome. Mussolini ordered the construction of new roads and piazzas, resulting in the destruction of older roads, houses, churches and palaces erected during papal rule. The main activities during his government were: the "isolation" of the Capitoline Hill; Via dei Monti, later renamed Via del'Impero, and finally Via dei Fori Imperiali; Via del Mare, later renamed Via del Teatro di Marcello; the "isolation" of the Mausoleum of Augustus, with the erection of Piazza Augusto Imperatore; and Via della Conciliazione.
Architecturally, Italian Fascism favoured the most modern movements, such as Rationalism. Parallel to this, in the 1920s another style emerged, named "Stile Novecento", characterised by its links with ancient Roman architecture. Two important complexes in the latter style are the Foro Mussolini, now Foro Italico, by Enrico Del Debbio, and the Città universitaria ("University city"), by Marcello Piacentini, also author of the controversial destruction of part of the Borgo rione to open Via della Conciliazione.
The most important Fascist site in Rome is the EUR district, designed in 1938 by Piacentini. This new quarter emerged as a compromise between Rationalist and Novecento architects, the former being led by Giuseppe Pagano. The EUR was originally conceived for the 1942 world exhibition, and was called "E.42" ("Esposizione 42"). The most representative buildings of EUR are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana (1938–1943), and the Palazzo dei Congressi, examples of the Rationalist style. The world exhibition never took place, because Italy entered the Second World War in 1940, and the buildings were partly destroyed in 1943 in fighting between the Italian and German armies and later abandoned. The quarter was restored in the 1950s when the Roman authorities found that they already had the seed of an off-centre business district of the type that other capitals were still planning (London Docklands and La Défense in Paris). Also, the Palazzo della Farnesina, the current seat of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was designed in 1935 in pure Fascist style.
Parks and gardens
Public parks and nature reserves cover a large area in Rome, and the city has one of the largest areas of green space among European capitals.[114] The most notable part of this green space is represented by the large number of villas and landscaped gardens created by the Italian aristocracy. While most of the parks surrounding the villas were destroyed during the building boom of the late 19th century, some of them remain. The most notable of these are the Villa Borghese, Villa Ada, and Villa Doria Pamphili. Villa Doria Pamphili is west of the Gianicolo hill, comprising some 1.8 square kilometres (0.7 sq mi). The Villa Sciarra is on the hill, with playgrounds for children and shaded walking areas. In the nearby area of Trastevere, the Orto Botanico (Botanical Garden) is a cool and shady green space. The old Roman hippodrome (Circus Maximus) is another large green space: it has few trees but is overlooked by the Palatine and the Rose Garden ('roseto comunale'). Nearby is the lush Villa Celimontana, close to the gardens surrounding the Baths of Caracalla. The Villa Borghese garden is the best known large green space in Rome, with famous art galleries among its shaded walks. Overlooking Piazza del Popolo and the Spanish Steps are the gardens of Pincio and Villa Medici. There is also a notable pine wood at Castelfusano, near Ostia. Rome also has a number of regional parks of much more recent origin, including the Pineto Regional Park and the Appian Way Regional Park. There are also nature reserves at Marcigliana and at Tenuta di Castelporziano.
Fountains and aqueducts
Rome is a city famous for its numerous fountains, built-in all different styles, from Classical and Medieval, to Baroque and Neoclassical. The city has had fountains for more than two thousand years, and they have provided drinking water and decorated the piazzas of Rome. During the Roman Empire, in 98 AD, according to Sextus Julius Frontinus, the Roman consul who was named curator aquarum or guardian of the water of the city, Rome had nine aqueducts which fed 39 monumental fountains and 591 public basins, not counting the water supplied to the Imperial household, baths, and owners of private villas. Each of the major fountains was connected to two different aqueducts, in case one was shut down for service.[115]
During the 17th and 18th century, the Roman popes reconstructed other ruined Roman aqueducts and built new display fountains to mark their termini, launching the golden age of the Roman fountain. The fountains of Rome, like the paintings of Rubens, were expressions of the new style of Baroque art. They were crowded with allegorical figures and filled with emotion and movement. In these fountains, sculpture became the principal element, and the water was used simply to animate and decorate the sculptures. They, like baroque gardens, were "a visual representation of confidence and power".[116]
Statues
Rome is well known for its statues but, in particular, the talking statues of Rome. These are usually ancient statues which have become popular soapboxes for political and social discussion, and places for people to (often satirically) voice their opinions. There are two main talking statues: the Pasquino and the Marforio, yet there are four other noted ones: il Babuino, Madama Lucrezia, il Facchino and Abbot Luigi. Most of these statues are ancient Roman or classical, and most of them also depict mythical gods, ancient people or legendary figures; il Pasquino represents Menelaus, Abbot Luigi is an unknown Roman magistrate, il Babuino is supposed to be Silenus, Marforio represents Oceanus, Madama Lucrezia is a bust of Isis, and il Facchino is the only non-Roman statue, created in 1580, and not representing anyone in particular. They are often, due to their status, covered with placards or graffiti expressing political ideas and points of view. Other statues in the city, which are not related to the talking statues, include those of the Ponte Sant'Angelo, or several monuments scattered across the city, such as that to Giordano Bruno in the Campo de'Fiori.
Obelisks and columns
The city hosts eight ancient Egyptian and five ancient Roman obelisks, together with a number of more modern obelisks; there was also formerly (until 2005) an ancient Ethiopian obelisk in Rome.[117] The city contains some of obelisks in piazzas, such as in Piazza Navona, St Peter's Square, Piazza Montecitorio, and Piazza del Popolo, and others in villas, thermae parks and gardens, such as in Villa Celimontana, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Pincian Hill. Moreover, the centre of Rome hosts also Trajan's and Antonine Column, two ancient Roman columns with spiral relief. The Column of Marcus Aurelius is located in Piazza Colonna and it was built around 180 AD by Commodus in memory of his parents. The Column of Marcus Aurelius was inspired by Trajan's Column at Trajan's Forum, which is part of the Imperial Fora[118]
Bridges
The city of Rome contains numerous famous bridges which cross the Tiber. The only bridge to remain unaltered until today from the classical age is Ponte dei Quattro Capi, which connects the Isola Tiberina with the left bank. The other surviving – albeit modified – ancient Roman bridges crossing the Tiber are Ponte Cestio, Ponte Sant'Angelo and Ponte Milvio. Considering Ponte Nomentano, also built during ancient Rome, which crosses the Aniene, currently there are five ancient Roman bridges still remaining in the city.[119] Other noteworthy bridges are Ponte Sisto, the first bridge built in the Renaissance above Roman foundations; Ponte Rotto, actually the only remaining arch of the ancient Pons Aemilius, collapsed during the flood of 1598 and demolished at the end of the 19th century; and Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II, a modern bridge connecting Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Borgo. Most of the city's public bridges were built in Classical or Renaissance style, but also in Baroque, Neoclassical and Modern styles. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the finest ancient bridge remaining in Rome is the Ponte Sant'Angelo, which was completed in 135 AD, and was decorated with ten statues of the angels, designed by Bernini in 1688.[120]
Catacombs
Rome has an extensive amount of ancient catacombs, or underground burial places under or near the city, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. Though most famous for Christian burials, they include pagan and Jewish burials, either in separate catacombs or mixed together. The first large-scale catacombs were excavated from the 2nd century onwards. Originally they were carved through tuff, a soft volcanic rock, outside the boundaries of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. Currently, maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the Papacy which has invested in the Salesians of Don Bosco the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome.
Economía
As the capital of Italy, Rome hosts all the principal institutions of the nation, including the Presidency of the Republic, the government (and its single Ministeri), the Parliament, the main judicial Courts, and the diplomatic representatives of all the countries for the states of Italy and Vatican City. Many international institutions are located in Rome, notably cultural and scientific ones, such as the American Institute, the British School, the French Academy, the Scandinavian Institutes, and the German Archaeological Institute. There are also specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the FAO. Rome also hosts major international and worldwide political and cultural organisations, such as the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Food Programme (WFP), the NATO Defense College and the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM).
According to the GaWC study of world cities, Rome is a "Beta +" city.[121] The city was ranked in 2014 as 32nd in the Global Cities Index, the highest in Italy.[122] With a 2005 GDP of €94.376 billion (US$121.5 billion),[123][needs update] the city produces 6.7% of the national GDP (more than any other single city in Italy), and its unemployment rate, lowered from 11.1% to 6.5% between 2001 and 2005, is now one of the lowest rates of all the European Union capital cities.[123] Rome's economy grows at around 4.4% annually and continues to grow at a higher rate in comparison to any other city in the rest of the country.[123] This means that were Rome a country, it would be the world's 52nd richest country by GDP, near to the size to that of Egypt. Rome also had a 2003 GDP per capita of €29,153 (US$37,412), which was second in Italy, (after Milan), and is more than 134.1% of the EU average GDP per capita.[124][needs update] Rome, on the whole, has the highest total earnings in Italy, reaching €47,076,890,463 in 2008,[125][needs update] yet, in terms of average workers' incomes, the city places itself 9th in Italy, with €24,509.[125] On a global level, Rome's workers receive the 30th highest wages in 2009, coming three places higher than in 2008, in which the city ranked 33rd.[126][needs update] The Rome area had a GDP amounting to $167.8 billion, and $38,765 per capita.[127]
Although the economy of Rome is characterised by the absence of heavy industry and it is largely dominated by services, high-technology companies (IT, aerospace, defence, telecommunications), research, construction and commercial activities (especially banking), and the huge development of tourism are very dynamic and extremely important to its economy. Rome's international airport, Fiumicino, is the largest in Italy, and the city hosts the head offices of the vast majority of the major Italian companies, as well as the headquarters of three of the world's 100 largest companies: Enel, Eni, and Telecom Italia.[128]
Universities, national radio and television and the movie industry in Rome are also important parts of the economy: Rome is also the hub of the Italian film industry, thanks to the Cinecittà studios, working since the 1930s. The city is also a centre for banking and insurance as well as electronics, energy, transport, and aerospace industries. Numerous international companies and agencies headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues, and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR); the Torrino (further south from the EUR); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina.
Educación
Rome is a nationwide and major international centre for higher education, containing numerous academies, colleges and universities. It boasts a large variety of academies and colleges, and has always been a major worldwide intellectual and educational centre, especially during Ancient Rome and the Renaissance, along with Florence.[129] According to the City Brands Index, Rome is considered the world's second most historically, educationally and culturally interesting and beautiful city.[130]
Rome has many universities and colleges. Its first university, La Sapienza (founded in 1303), is one of the largest in the world, with more than 140,000 students attending; in 2005 it ranked as Europe's 33rd best university[131] and in 2013 the Sapienza University of Rome ranked as the 62nd in the world and the top in Italy in its World University Rankings.[132] and has been ranked among Europe's 50 and the world's 150 best colleges.[133] In order to decrease the overcrowding of La Sapienza, two new public universities were founded during the last decades: Tor Vergata in 1982, and Roma Tre in 1992. Rome hosts also the LUISS School of Government,[134] Italy's most important graduate university in the areas of international affairs and European studies as well as LUISS Business School, Italy's most important business school. Rome ISIA was founded in 1973 by Giulio Carlo Argan and is Italy's oldest institution in the field of industrial design.
Rome contains many pontifical universities and other institutes, including the British School at Rome, the French School in Rome, the Pontifical Gregorian University (the oldest Jesuit university in the world, founded in 1551), Istituto Europeo di Design, the Scuola Lorenzo de' Medici, the Link Campus of Malta, and the Università Campus Bio-Medico. Rome is also the location of two American Universities; The American University of Rome[135] and John Cabot University as well as St. John's University branch campus, John Felice Rome Center, a campus of Loyola University Chicago and Temple University Rome, a campus of Temple University.[136] The Roman Colleges are several seminaries for students from foreign countries studying for the priesthood at the Pontifical Universities.[137] Examples include the Venerable English College, the Pontifical North American College, the Scots College, and the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome.
Rome's major libraries include: the Biblioteca Angelica, opened in 1604, making it Italy's first public library; the Biblioteca Vallicelliana, established in 1565; the Biblioteca Casanatense, opened in 1701; the National Central Library, one of the two national libraries in Italy, which contains 4,126,002 volumes; The Biblioteca del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, specialised in diplomacy, foreign affairs and modern history; the Biblioteca dell'Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana; the Biblioteca Don Bosco, one of the largest and most modern of all Salesian libraries; the Biblioteca e Museo teatrale del Burcardo, a museum-library specialised in history of drama and theatre; the Biblioteca della Società Geografica Italiana, which is based in the Villa Celimontana and is the most important geographical library in Italy, and one of Europe's most important;[138] and the Vatican Library, one of the oldest and most important libraries in the world, which was formally established in 1475, though in fact much older and has 75,000 codices, as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula. There are also many specialist libraries attached to various foreign cultural institutes in Rome, among them that of the American Academy in Rome, the French Academy in Rome and the Bibliotheca Hertziana – Max Planck Institute of Art History, a German library, often noted for excellence in the arts and sciences;[139]
Cultura
Entertainment and performing arts
Rome is an important centre for music, and it has an intense musical scene, including several prestigious music conservatories and theatres. It hosts the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (founded in 1585), for which new concert halls have been built in the new Parco della Musica, one of the largest musical venues in the world. Rome also has an opera house, the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, as well as several minor musical institutions. The city also played host to the Eurovision Song Contest in 1991 and the MTV Europe Music Awards in 2004.
Rome has also had a major impact on music history. The Roman School was a group of composers of predominantly church music, which were active in the city during the 16th and 17th centuries, therefore spanning the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. The term also refers to the music they produced. Many of the composers had a direct connection to the Vatican and the papal chapel, though they worked at several churches; stylistically they are often contrasted with the Venetian School of composers, a concurrent movement which was much more progressive. By far the most famous composer of the Roman School is Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose name has been associated for four hundred years with smooth, clear, polyphonic perfection. However, there were other composers working in Rome, and in a variety of styles and forms.
Between 1960 and 1970 Rome was considered to be as a “new Hollywood” because of the many actors and directors who worked there; Via Vittorio Veneto had transformed into a glamour place where you could meet famous people.[140]
Tourism
Rome today is one of the most important tourist destinations of the world, due to the incalculable immensity of its archaeological and artistic treasures, as well as for the charm of its unique traditions, the beauty of its panoramic views, and the majesty of its magnificent "villas" (parks). Among the most significant resources are the many museums – Musei Capitolini, the Vatican Museums and the Galleria Borghese and others dedicated to modern and contemporary art – aqueducts, fountains, churches, palaces, historical buildings, the monuments and ruins of the Roman Forum, and the Catacombs. Rome is the third most visited city in the EU, after London and Paris, and receives an average of 7–10 million tourists a year, which sometimes doubles on holy years. The Colosseum (4 million tourists) and the Vatican Museums (4.2 million tourists) are the 39th and 37th (respectively) most visited places in the world, according to a recent study.[141]
Rome is a major archaeological hub, and one of the world's main centres of archaeological research. There are numerous cultural and research institutes located in the city, such as the American Academy in Rome,[142] and The Swedish Institute at Rome.[143] Rome contains numerous ancient sites, including the Forum Romanum, Trajan's Market, Trajan's Forum,[144] the Colosseum, and the Pantheon, to name but a few. The Colosseum, arguably one of Rome's most iconic archaeological sites, is regarded as a wonder of the world.[145][146]
Rome contains a vast and impressive collection of art, sculpture, fountains, mosaics, frescos, and paintings, from all different periods. Rome first became a major artistic centre during ancient Rome, with forms of important Roman art such as architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Metal-work, coin die and gem engraving, ivory carvings, figurine glass, pottery, and book illustrations are considered to be 'minor' forms of Roman artwork.[147] Rome later became a major centre of Renaissance art, since the popes spent vast sums of money for the constructions of grandiose basilicas, palaces, piazzas and public buildings in general. Rome became one of Europe's major centres of Renaissance artwork, second only to Florence, and able to compare to other major cities and cultural centres, such as Paris and Venice. The city was affected greatly by the baroque, and Rome became the home of numerous artists and architects, such as Bernini, Caravaggio, Carracci, Borromini and Cortona.[148] In the late 18th century and early 19th century, the city was one of the centres of the Grand Tour,[149] when wealthy, young English and other European aristocrats visited the city to learn about ancient Roman culture, art, philosophy, and architecture. Rome hosted a great number of neoclassical and rococo artists, such as Pannini and Bernardo Bellotto. Today, the city is a major artistic centre, with numerous art institutes[150] and museums.
Rome has a growing stock of contemporary and modern art and architecture. The National Gallery of Modern Art has works by Balla, Morandi, Pirandello, Carrà, De Chirico, De Pisis, Guttuso, Fontana, Burri, Mastroianni, Turcato, Kandisky, and Cézanne on permanent exhibition. 2010 saw the opening of Rome's newest arts foundation, a contemporary art and architecture gallery designed by acclaimed Iraqi architect Zaha Hadid. Known as MAXXI – National Museum of the 21st Century Arts it restores a dilapidated area with striking modern architecture. Maxxi[151] features a campus dedicated to culture, experimental research laboratories, international exchange and study and research. It is one of Rome's most ambitious modern architecture projects alongside Renzo Piano's Auditorium Parco della Musica[152] and Massimiliano Fuksas' Rome Convention Center, Centro Congressi Italia EUR, in the EUR district, due to open in 2016.[153] The convention centre features a huge translucent container inside which is suspended a steel and teflon structure resembling a cloud and which contains meeting rooms and an auditorium with two piazzas open to the neighbourhood on either side.
Fashion
Rome is also widely recognised as a world fashion capital. Although not as important as Milan, Rome is the fourth most important centre for fashion in the world, according to the 2009 Global Language Monitor after Milan, New York, and Paris, and beating London.[154]
Major luxury fashion houses and jewellery chains, such as Valentino, Bulgari, Fendi,[155] Laura Biagiotti, Brioni, and Renato Balestra, are headquartered or were founded in the city. Also, other major labels, such as Gucci, Chanel, Prada, Dolce & Gabbana, Armani, and Versace have luxury boutiques in Rome, primarily along its prestigious and upscale Via dei Condotti.
Cuisine
Rome's cuisine has evolved through centuries and periods of social, cultural, and political changes. Rome became a major gastronomical centre during the ancient Age. Ancient Roman cuisine was highly influenced by Ancient Greek culture, and after, the empire's enormous expansion exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques.
Later, during the Renaissance, Rome became well known as a centre of high-cuisine, since some of the best chefs of the time worked for the popes. An example of this was Bartolomeo Scappi, who was a chef working for Pius IV in the Vatican kitchen, and he acquired fame in 1570 when his cookbook Opera dell'arte del cucinare was published. In the book he lists approximately 1000 recipes of the Renaissance cuisine and describes cooking techniques and tools, giving the first known picture of a fork.[156]
The Testaccio rione, Rome's trade and slaughterhouse area, was often known as the "belly" or "slaughterhouse" of Rome, and was inhabited by butchers, or vaccinari.[157] The most common or ancient Roman cuisine included the "fifth quarter".[157] The old-fashioned coda alla vaccinara (oxtail cooked in the way of butchers)[157] is still one of the city's most popular meals and is part of most of Rome's restaurants' menus. Lamb is also a very popular part of Roman cuisine, and is often roasted with spices and herbs.[157]
In the modern age, the city developed its own peculiar cuisine, based on products of the nearby Campagna, as lamb and vegetables (globe artichokes are common).[158] In parallel, Roman Jews – present in the city since the 1st century BC – developed their own cuisine, the cucina giudaico-romanesca. Examples of Roman dishes include "Saltimbocca alla Romana" – a veal cutlet, Roman-style; topped with raw ham and sage and simmered with white wine and butter; "Carciofi alla romana" – artichokes Roman-style; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised; "Carciofi alla giudia" – artichokes fried in olive oil, typical of Roman Jewish cooking; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised; "Spaghetti alla carbonara" – spaghetti with bacon, eggs and pecorino, and "Gnocchi di semolino alla romana" – semolina dumpling, Roman-style, to name but a few.[159]
Cinema
Rome hosts the Cinecittà Studios,[160] the largest film and television production facility in continental Europe and the centre of the Italian cinema, where many of today's biggest box office hits are filmed. The 99-acre (40 ha) studio complex is 9.0 kilometres (5.6 mi) from the centre of Rome and is part of one of the biggest production communities in the world, second only to Hollywood, with well over 5,000 professionals – from period costume makers to visual effects specialists. More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, from recent features like The Passion of the Christ, Gangs of New York, HBO's Rome, The Life Aquatic and Dino De Laurentiis' Decameron, to such cinema classics as Ben-Hur, Cleopatra, and the films of Federico Fellini.[citation needed]
Founded in 1937 by Benito Mussolini, the studios were bombed by the Western Allies during the Second World War. In the 1950s, Cinecittà was the filming location for several large American film productions, and subsequently became the studio most closely associated with Federico Fellini. Today, Cinecittà is the only studio in the world with pre-production, production, and full post-production facilities on one lot, allowing directors and producers to walk in with their script and "walkout" with a completed film.[citation needed]
Language
Although associated today only with Latin, ancient Rome was in fact multilingual. In the highest antiquity, Sabine tribes shared the area of what is today Rome with Latin tribes. The Sabine language was one of the Italic group of ancient Italian languages, along with Etruscan, which would have been the main language of the last three kings who ruled the city till the founding of the Republic in 509 BC. Urganilla, or Plautia Urgulanilla, wife of Emperor Claudius, is thought to have been a speaker of Etruscan many centuries after this date, according to Suetonius' entry on Claudius. However Latin, in various evolving forms, was the main language of classical Rome, but as the city had immigrants, slaves, residents, ambassadors from many parts of the world it was also multilingual. Many educated Romans also spoke Greek, and there was a large Greek, Syriac and Jewish population in parts of Rome from well before the Empire.
Latin evolved during the Middle Ages into a new language, the "volgare". The latter emerged as the confluence of various regional dialects, among which the Tuscan dialect predominated, but the population of Rome also developed its own dialect, the Romanesco. The Romanesco spoken during the Middle Ages was more like a southern Italian dialect, very close to the Neapolitan language in Campania. The influence of the Florentine culture during the renaissance, and above all, the immigration to Rome of many Florentines following the two Medici Popes (Leo X and Clement VII), caused a major shift in the dialect, which began to resemble more the Tuscan varieties. This remained largely confined to Rome until the 19th century, but then expanded to other zones of Lazio (Civitavecchia, Latina and others), from the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the rising population of Rome and to improving transportation systems. As a consequence of education and media like radio and television, Romanesco became more similar to standard Italian but does not represent standard Italian. Dialectal literature in the traditional form of Romanesco includes the works of such authors as Giuseppe Gioachino Belli (one of the most important Italian poets altogether), Trilussa and Cesare Pascarella. It is worth remembering though that Romanesco was a "lingua vernacola" (vernacular language), meaning that for centuries, it did not have a written form but it was only spoken by the population.
Contemporary Romanesco is mainly represented by popular actors and actresses, such as Alberto Sordi, Aldo Fabrizi, Anna Magnani. Carlo Verdone, Enrico Montesano, Gigi Proietti and Nino Manfredi.
Rome's historic contribution to language in a worldwide sense is much more extensive, however. Through the process of Romanization, the peoples of Italy, Gallia, the Iberian Peninsula and Dacia developed languages which derive directly from Latin and were adopted in large areas of the world, all through cultural influence, colonisation and migration. Moreover, also modern English, because of the Norman Conquest, borrowed a large percentage of its vocabulary from the Latin language. The Roman or Latin alphabet is the most widely used writing system in the world used by the greatest number of languages.[161]
Rome has long hosted artistic communities, foreign resident communities and many foreign religious students or pilgrims and so has always been a multilingual city. Today because of mass tourism, many languages are used in servicing tourism, especially English which is widely known in tourist areas, and the city hosts large numbers of immigrants and so has many multilingual immigrant areas.
Deportes
Association football is the most popular sport in Rome, as in the rest of the country. The city hosted the final games of the 1934 and 1990 FIFA World Cup. The latter took place in the Stadio Olimpico, which is also the shared home stadium for local Serie A clubs S.S. Lazio, founded in 1900, and A.S. Roma, founded in 1927, whose rivalry in the Derby della Capitale has become a staple of Roman sports culture.[163] Footballers who play for these teams and are also born in the city tend to become especially popular, as has been the case with players such as Francesco Totti and Daniele De Rossi (both for A.S. Roma), and Alessandro Nesta (for S.S. Lazio).
Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics, with great success, using many ancient sites such as the Villa Borghese and the Thermae of Caracalla as venues. For the Olympic Games many new facilities were built, notably the new large Olympic Stadium (which was then enlarged and renewed to host several matches and the final of the 1990 FIFA World Cup), the Stadio Flaminio, the Villaggio Olimpico (Olympic Village, created to host the athletes and redeveloped after the games as a residential district), ecc. Rome made a bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics but it was withdrawn before the deadline for applicant files.[164][165]
Further, Rome hosted the 1991 EuroBasket and is home to the internationally recognised basketball team Virtus Roma. Rugby union is gaining wider acceptance. Until 2011 the Stadio Flaminio was the home stadium for the Italy national rugby union team, which has been playing in the Six Nations Championship since 2000. The team now plays home games at the Stadio Olimpico because the Stadio Flaminio needs works of renovation in order to improve both its capacity and safety. Rome is home to local rugby union teams such as Rugby Roma (founded in 1930 and winner of five Italian championships, the latter in 1999–2000), Unione Rugby Capitolina and S.S. Lazio 1927 (rugby union branch of the multisport club S.S. Lazio).
Every May, Rome hosts the ATP Masters Series tennis tournament on the clay courts of the Foro Italico. Cycling was popular in the post-World War II period, although its popularity has faded. Rome has hosted the final portion of the Giro d'Italia three times, in 1911, 1950, and 2009. Rome is also home to other sports teams, including volleyball (M. Roma Volley), handball or waterpolo.
Transporte
Rome is at the centre of the radial network of roads that roughly follow the lines of the ancient Roman roads which began at the Capitoline Hill and connected Rome with its empire. Today Rome is circled, at a distance of about 10 km (6 mi) from the Capitol, by the ring-road (the Grande Raccordo Anulare or GRA).
Due to its location in the centre of the Italian peninsula, Rome is the principal railway node for central Italy. Rome's main railway station, Termini, is one of the largest railway stations in Europe and the most heavily used in Italy, with around 400 thousand travellers passing through every day. The second-largest station in the city, Roma Tiburtina, has been redeveloped as a high-speed rail terminus.[166] As well as frequent high-speed day trains to all major Italian cities, Rome is linked nightly by 'boat train' sleeper services to Sicily, and internationally by overnight sleeper services to Munich and Vienna by ÖBB Austrian railways.
Rome is served by three airports. The intercontinental Leonardo da Vinci International Airport, Italy's chief airport is located within the nearby Fiumicino, south-west of Rome. The older Rome Ciampino Airport is a joint civilian and military airport. It is commonly referred to as "Ciampino Airport", as it is located beside Ciampino, south-east of Rome. A third airport, the Roma-Urbe Airport, is a small, low-traffic airport located about 6 km (4 mi) north of the city centre, which handles most helicopter and private flights.
Although the city has its own quarter on the Mediterranean Sea (Lido di Ostia), this has only a marina and a small channel-harbour for fishing boats. The main harbour which serves Rome is Port of Civitavecchia, located about 62 kilometres (39 miles) northwest of the city.[167]
The city suffers from traffic problems largely due to this radial street pattern, making it difficult for Romans to move easily from the vicinity of one of the radial roads to another without going into the historic centre or using the ring-road. These problems are not helped by the limited size of Rome's metro system when compared to other cities of similar size. In addition, Rome has only 21 taxis for every 10,000 inhabitants, far below other major European cities.[168] Chronic congestion caused by cars during the 1970s and 1980s led to restrictions being placed on vehicle access to the inner city-centre during the hours of daylight. Areas, where these restrictions apply, are known as Limited Traffic Zones (Zona a Traffico Limitato (ZTL) in Italian). More recently, heavy night-time traffic in Trastevere, Testaccio and San Lorenzo has led to the creation of night-time ZTLs in those districts.
A 3-line metro system called the Metropolitana operates in Rome. Construction on the first branch started in the 1930s.[169] The line had been planned to quickly connect the main railway station with the newly planned E42 area in the southern suburbs, where 1942 the World Fair was supposed to be held. The event never took place because of war, but the area was later partly redesigned and renamed EUR (Esposizione Universale di Roma: Rome Universal Exhibition) in the 1950s to serve as a modern business district. The line was finally opened in 1955, and it is now the south part of the B Line.
The A line opened in 1980 from Ottaviano to Anagnina stations, later extended in stages (1999–2000) to Battistini. In the 1990s, an extension of the B line was opened from Termini to Rebibbia. This underground network is generally reliable (although it may become very congested at peak times and during events, especially the A line) as it is relatively short.
The A and B lines intersect at Roma Termini station. A new branch of the B line (B1) opened on 13 June 2012 after an estimated building cost of €500 million. B1 connects to line B at Piazza Bologna and has four stations over a distance of 3.9 km (2 mi).
A third line, the C line, is under construction with an estimated cost of €3 billion and will have 30 stations over a distance of 25.5 km (16 mi). It will partly replace the existing Termini-Pantano rail line. It will feature full automated, driverless trains.[170] The first section with 15 stations connecting Pantano with the quarter of Centocelle in the eastern part of the city, opened on 9 November 2014.[171] The end of the work was scheduled in 2015, but archaeological findings often delay underground construction work.
A fourth line, D line, is also planned. It will have 22 stations over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). The first section was projected to open in 2015 and the final sections before 2035, but due to the city's financial crisis, the project has been put on hold.
Above-ground public transport in Rome is made up of a bus, tram and urban train network (FR lines). The bus, tram, metro and urban railways network is run by Atac S.p.A. (which originally stood for the Municipal Bus and Tramways Company, Azienda Tramvie e Autobus del Comune in Italian). The bus network has in excess of 350 bus lines and over eight thousand bus stops, whereas the more-limited tram system has 39 km (24 mi) of track and 192 stops.[172] There is also one trolleybus line, opened in 2005, and additional trolleybus lines are planned.[173]
Entidades, organizaciones e implicaciones internacionales
Among the global cities, Rome is unique in having two sovereign entities located entirely within its city limits, the Holy See, represented by the Vatican City State, and the territorially smaller Sovereign Military Order of Malta. The Vatican is an enclave of the Italian capital city and a sovereign possession of the Holy See, which is the Diocese of Rome and the supreme government of the Roman Catholic Church. Rome, therefore, hosts foreign embassies to the Italian government, to the Holy See, to the Order of Malta and to certain international organisations. Several international Roman Colleges and Pontifical Universities are located in Rome.
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome and its official seat is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran (of which the President of the French Republic is ex officio the "first and only honorary canon", a title held by the heads of the French state since King Henry IV of France). Another body, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM), took refuge in Rome in 1834, due to the conquest of Malta by Napoleon in 1798. It is sometimes classified as having sovereignty but does not claim any territory in Rome or anywhere else, hence leading to dispute over its actual sovereign status.
Rome is the seat of the so-called Polo Romano[174] made up by three main international agencies of the United Nations: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
Rome has traditionally been involved in the process of European political integration. The Treaties of the EU are located in Palazzo della Farnesina, the seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, because the Italian government is the depositary of the treaties. In 1957 the city hosted the signing of the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community (predecessor to the European Union), and also played host to the official signing of the proposed European Constitution in July 2004.
Rome is the seat of the European Olympic Committee and of the NATO Defense College. The city is the place where the Statute of the International Criminal Court and the European Convention on Human Rights were formulated.
The city hosts also other important international entities such as the IDLO (International Development Law Organisation), the ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property) and the UNIDROIT (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law).
Relaciones Internacionales
Twin towns and sister cities
Since 9 April 1956, Rome is exclusively and reciprocally twinned only with:
- Paris, France, 1956
- Solo Parigi è degna di Roma; solo Roma è degna di Parigi.(in Italian)
- Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris.(in French)
- "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris." [175][176][177][178][179]
Other relationships
Rome's other partner cities are:[180]
- Achacachi, Bolivia
- Algiers, Algeria
- Beijing, China[181][182]
- Belgrade, Serbia
- Brasília, Brazil
- Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Cairo, Egypt
- Cincinnati, United States
- Kyiv, Ukraine
- Kobanî, Syria[183]
- Kraków, Poland[184]
- Madrid, Spain[185]
- Multan, Pakistan[186]
- New Delhi, India
- New York City, United States[187]
- Plovdiv, Bulgaria
- Seoul, South Korea[188][189]
- Sydney, Australia
- Tirana, Albania[190][191]
- Tehran, Iran
- Tokyo, Japan[192]
- Tongeren, Belgium
- Tunis, Tunisia[193]
- Washington, D.C., United States[194]
Ver también
- Outline of Rome
- Tourism in Italy
Notas
- ^ Excluding Vatican City.
- ^ This hypothesis originates from the Roman Grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus. However, the Greek verb descends from the Proto-Indo-European root *srew- (compare Ancient Greek ῥεῦμα (rheûma) 'a stream, flow, current', the Thracian river name Στρυμών (Strumṓn) and Proto-Germanic *strauma- 'stream'; if it was related, however, the Latin river name would be expected to begin with **Frum-, like Latin frīgeō 'to freeze' from the root *sreyHg-) and the Latin verb from *h₃rew-.
- ^ This hypothesis originates from Plutarch.
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Bibliografía
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enlaces externos
- Comune of Rome (in Italian)
- APT (official Tourist Office) of the City of Rome (in English)
- Rome Museums – Official site (in English)
- Capitoline Museums (in English)
- Geographic data related to Rome at OpenStreetMap