El SS Californian fue un barco de vapor británico Leyland Line que es mejor conocido por su inacción durante el hundimiento del RMS Titanic a pesar de ser el barco más cercano en el área. A juzgar por la evidencia disponible, el Californian fue probablemente el único barco que vio el Titanic , o al menos sus cohetes, durante el hundimiento. [2] [3] La investigación del Senado de los Estados Unidos y la investigación del Comisionado Británico de Naufragios sobre el hundimiento concluyeron que el californiano podría haber salvado muchas o todas las vidas que se perdieron, si se hubiera montado una pronta respuesta al Titanic. 's cohetes de socorro. [4] La investigación del Senado de los Estados Unidos fue particularmente crítica con el capitán del barco, Stanley Lord , y calificó su inacción durante el desastre de "reprensible". [5]
SS Californian la mañana siguiente al hundimiento del Titanic . | |
Historia | |
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Reino Unido | |
Nombre: | SS Californiano |
Homónimo: | Estado de California |
Dueño: | Línea Leyland |
Puerto de registro: | Liverpool, Reino Unido |
Ruta: | Cruces del océano atlántico |
Constructor: | Compañía de ingeniería y construcción naval de Caledon , Dundee , Escocia |
Costo: | £ 105,000 (equivalente a aproximadamente £ 11,500,000 en 2019) [1] |
Número de astillero: | 159 [1] |
Lanzado: | 26 de noviembre de 1901 |
Adquirido: | 30 de enero de 1902 |
Viaje inaugural: | 31 de enero de 1902 |
Identificación: |
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Destino: | Hundido por submarinos alemanes, el 9 de noviembre de 1915, a 98 km al suroeste del cabo Matapan , Grecia . |
Características generales | |
Tipo: | Buque de vapor |
Tonelaje: | 6.223 brutos , 4.038 netos |
Largo: | 447 pies (136 m) LOA |
Haz: | 53 pies (16 m) |
Profundidad: | 30,5 pies |
Cubiertas: | 6 (3 en la superestructura [puente volante, cubierta de paseo y cubierta de refugio] y 3 debajo de la cubierta) |
Propulsión: |
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Velocidad: |
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Barcos y lanchas de desembarco transportados: | 6 (4 botes salvavidas, 1 gig y 1 pinaza) con capacidad total para 218 personas. |
Capacidad: | 102 (pasajeros y tripulación) |
Tripulación: | 55 oficiales y tripulación |
A pesar de estas críticas, nunca se presentaron cargos formales contra Lord y su tripulación por su inacción. Lord cuestionó los hallazgos y pasaría el resto de su vida tratando de limpiar su nombre. En 1992, la Subdivisión de Investigación de Accidentes Marítimos del Gobierno del Reino Unido volvió a examinar el caso y, aunque condenó la inacción del californiano y el capitán Lord, también concluyó que, debido al tiempo limitado disponible, "el efecto de que los californianos tomaran las medidas adecuadas no habría sido más que poner sobre ella la tarea realmente realizada por Carpatia , es decir, el rescate de los que escaparon ... [ninguna] acción razonablemente probable del Capitán Lord podría haber llevado a un resultado diferente de la tragedia ". [6] [7]
El Californian fue hundido posteriormente el 9 de noviembre de 1915 por los submarinos alemanes SM U-34 y U-35 , en el Mediterráneo Oriental durante la Primera Guerra Mundial .
Historia
Californian era un barco de vapor británico propiedad de Leyland Line , parte de la International Mercantile Marine Co. de JP Morgan . Fue construido por Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company en Dundee, Escocia , [8] y fue el barco más grande construido en Dundee hasta ese momento. [9] [10] El barco fue construido con las dimensiones máximas permitidas para amarrarlo y equiparlo en los muelles de Dundee. El tamaño y la importancia del barco para la industria de construcción naval local significó que hubo mucho interés local en su construcción a medida que avanzaba. También hubo algunos problemas: cuando las dos calderas del barco se transportaban por las calles desde una fundición hasta el astillero, el peso de ellas (transportadas en un bogie con ruedas) causó daños considerables en las carreteras de la ciudad, además de romper varios Tuberías de agua subterráneas. Más tarde, cuando se estaba utilizando una grúa para manipular un mástil en uno de los californianos 's cuatro mástiles, el larguero se enredó en cables telefónicos cercanas y los separaba. [11]
Fue diseñada principalmente para transportar algodón , pero también tenía capacidad para transportar 47 pasajeros y 55 tripulantes. La clientela principal eran aquellos pasajeros con medios demasiado limitados para viajar a bordo de grandes transatlánticos. Al ofrecerles cabañas cómodas a precios asequibles (£ 10 por cruce en la dirección Liverpool - Boston, £ 50 en la dirección opuesta), Leyland Line pudo asegurar algunas ganancias de esta manera. [12] [13] No obstante, el barco seguía siendo principalmente un carguero, como lo demuestran sus enormes búnkeres. Fue nombrada californiana de acuerdo con una tradición específica de la compañía que dio a sus barcos el nombre de uno de los 46 estados de los Estados Unidos en ese momento. [14] Medía 6.223 toneladas, 447 pies (136 m) de largo, 53 pies (16 m) en su viga, [10] y tenía una máquina de vapor de triple expansión impulsada por dos calderas de dos extremos. Su velocidad máxima promedio fue de 12 nudos (22 km / h). [15]
El alojamiento de la mayoría de los cincuenta miembros de la tripulación se encontraba debajo de la cubierta de proa. Allí se alojaron en cabañas diseñadas para cuatro a ocho personas que eran bastante incómodas, mal ventiladas e iluminadas. [16] En total, la tripulación incluía al capitán, cuatro oficiales, un operador de radio y 49 miembros de la tripulación (marineros, conductores, trimmers, etc.). [17] Las cabinas estaban ubicadas en la superestructura. Los oficiales de la tripulación residían a estribor y los pasajeros a babor. Las instalaciones para pasajeros correspondían a la segunda clase de la mayoría de los barcos de la época. Aunque los camarotes no eran de alta calidad, se mantenían cómodos y tenían iluminación eléctrica, lo que no era el caso en todos los barcos contemporáneos. Los pasajeros del Californian también tenían a su disposición una sala de fumadores en la cubierta superior de estribor, decorada con paneles de roble y linóleo, una novedad en el cambio de siglo. El comedor también estaba decorado y era cómodo. [13]
Californian fue botado el 26 de noviembre de 1901 y completó sus pruebas en el mar el 23 de enero de 1902. Desde el 31 de enero de 1902 hasta el 3 de marzo de 1902, realizó su viaje inaugural desde Dundee a Nueva Orleans, Luisiana , Estados Unidos . Posteriormente, realizó travesías transatlánticas, generalmente transportando alrededor de una treintena de pasajeros además de su carga. En 1902, Dominion Line la contrató para cinco cruces a Portland, Oregon . [18] Luego regresó al servicio Leyland Line para servir al sur de los Estados Unidos. [17] De 1901 a 1911, fue comandada sucesivamente por cuatro capitanes antes de ser finalmente puesta bajo el mando de Stanley Lord . Por su corta edad (obtuvo su certificado de capitán a los 24 años, una edad muy temprana en comparación con muchos de sus colegas) y por su espíritu de iniciativa y sus habilidades, Lord ciertamente prometió convertirse en un gran capitán de la flota mercante británica. [19]
Entre finales de 1911 y principios de 1912, California tenía un Marconi aparato inalámbrico instalado en una cabina reinstalado. Su primer operador de radio fue Cyril Furmstone Evans.
Hundimiento del Titanic
El 30 de marzo de 1912, la californiana hizo escala en Londres en un viaje a Nueva Orleans durante el cual tuvo que hacer frente a una tormenta que dañó parte de su cargamento de algodón. Stanley Lord , que había estado al mando de Californian desde el 27 de marzo de 1911, era su capitán cuando dejó el Royal Albert Dock , Liverpool , Inglaterra el 5 de abril de 1912 en su camino a Boston, Massachusetts . [20] No llevaba pasajeros en este viaje. [12] En el puente de navegación, Lord estaba acompañado por tres oficiales y un aprendiz: George Stewart (segundo al mando o primer oficial), Herbert Stone (segundo oficial), Charles Groves (tercer oficial) y el aprendiz James Gibson. [21]
La primera semana de la travesía transcurrió sin incidentes. [22] El domingo 14 de abril a las 18:30 hora del barco , el único operador inalámbrico de California , Cyril Furmstone Evans (nacido en 1892 en Croydon , Surrey , Reino Unido ), señaló al Antillian que había tres grandes icebergs a cinco millas al sur. . [23] El operador inalámbrico del Titanic , Harold Bride, también recibió la advertencia y la envió al puente del barco unos minutos más tarde. [24]
Californian encontró un gran campo de hielo a las 22:20 hora del barco, [4] y el Capitán Lord decidió detener el barco y esperar hasta la mañana antes de continuar. [25] Antes de dejar el puente, pensó que vio la luz de un barco hacia el este, pero no podía estar seguro de que no fuera solo una estrella en ascenso. [26] Lord continuó hasta las cabañas de los ingenieros y se reunió con el jefe, a quien le contó sus planes para detenerse. Mientras hablaban, vieron acercarse las luces de un barco. Lord le preguntó a Evans si sabía de algún barco en el área, y Evans respondió: "solo el Titanic ". Lord le pidió a Evans que le informara que Californian estaba detenido y rodeado de hielo. [27] Lord ordenó a Evans que advirtiera a todos los demás barcos en el área, lo cual hizo. [28]
El operador inalámbrico en servicio del Titanic , Jack Phillips , estaba ocupado limpiando una acumulación de mensajes de pasajeros con la estación inalámbrica en Cape Race, Terranova , a 800 millas (1.300 km) de distancia, en ese momento. El mensaje de Evans de que el SS Californian estaba detenido y rodeado de hielo, debido a la relativa proximidad de los dos barcos, ahogó un mensaje separado que Phillips había estado en proceso de recibir de Cape Race, y reprendió a Evans: "Cállate, cállate ! Estoy ocupado, estoy trabajando en Cape Race! " [29] [30] Philips nunca pasó este mensaje al puente, pero en su defensa, Evans no había prefijado el mensaje con las letras, "MSG", que significa Master Service Gram, como era habitual para todos los mensajes destinados a la puente. Evans, sintiendo que había hecho lo que se le pedía a pesar del aparente rechazo grosero de Philips al mensaje, apagó su equipo inalámbrico y se fue a la cama. [31] [32] Una hora y 10 minutos más tarde, el Titanic chocó contra un iceberg. [33] Una hora y veinticinco minutos después de eso, transmitió su primera llamada de socorro.
Tercer oficial Charles Groves de la californiana testificó a la investigación británica que en el momento 23:10 de la nave, que había visto las luces de otro barco salir a la luz 10 o 12 millas de distancia, 3,5 puntos por encima de California 's estribor. Aproximadamente a las 23:30, Groves bajó para informar a Lord. [34] Este último sugirió que la lámpara Morse se pusiera en contacto con el barco , que se intentó, pero no se obtuvo respuesta. [35] Para Groves, ella era claramente un gran transatlántico, ya que tenía varias cubiertas brillantemente iluminadas. El barco finalmente pareció detenerse y apagar las luces de su cubierta a las 23:40, al mismo tiempo que el Titanic detuvo sus motores. En la investigación británica, Groves estuvo de acuerdo en que si el barco que vio hubiera girado dos puntos hacia babor, habría ocultado las luces de la cubierta. [34]
Poco después de la medianoche, el segundo oficial Herbert Stone hizo guardia desde Groves. Testificó que él también observó el barco, juzgando que estaba a unas cinco millas de distancia. Trató de señalizarla con la lámpara Morse, también sin éxito. [36] El oficial aprendiz James Gibson, que había estado haciendo la señalización Morse, testificó que a las 00:55, Stone le dijo que había observado cinco cohetes en el cielo sobre el barco cercano. [37] Stone testificó que había informado al Capitán Lord, aunque la investigación británica no preguntó si comunicó o no el número. Lord preguntó si los cohetes habían sido una señal de la compañía, pero Stone no lo sabía. Lord y Stone testificaron que Stone informó que no eran señales de socorro. [26] [36] Lord ordenó a Stone que le dijera si algo cambiaba en el barco, que siguiera señalándolo con la lámpara Morse, pero no ordenó que lo contactaran por radio. [38] [39]
Gibson testificó que Stone le había expresado su malestar por la situación: "Un barco no va a disparar cohetes en el mar por nada", dijo Stone. "Se ve muy rara fuera del agua, sus luces se ven raras". [37] Gibson observó: "Parece más bien tener un lado grande fuera del agua", y estuvo de acuerdo en que "no todo estaba bien con ella"; que era "un caso de algún tipo de angustia". [40] Stone, sin embargo, al ser interrogado por la investigación británica que se volvió cada vez más incrédula, testificó repetidamente que no pensó en ese momento que los cohetes podrían haber sido señales de socorro, [41] y que no se le ocurrió la posibilidad de él hasta que supo que el Titanic se había hundido.
A las 02:00, el barco parecía estar abandonando el área. Unos minutos más tarde, Gibson informó al Capitán Lord como tal y que se habían visto ocho cohetes blancos. Lord le preguntó si estaba seguro del color. Gibson dijo que sí y se fue. [26] [37]
At 02:20, Titanic sank. At 03:40, Stone and Gibson, still sharing the middle watch, spotted rockets to the south.[37] They did not see the ship that was firing them, but at about this same time RMS Carpathia was racing up from the southeast, firing rockets to let Titanic know that help was on the way.[42] At 04:16, Chief Officer George F. Stewart relieved Stone, and almost immediately noticed, coming into view from the south, a brilliantly lit, four-masted steamship with one funnel;[43] Carpathia arrived on the scene shortly after 04:00.[44]
Captain Lord woke up at 04:30 and went out on deck to decide how to proceed past the ice to the west. He sent Stewart to wake Evans and find out what happened to the ship they had seen to the south. They subsequently learned from the Frankfurt that the Titanic had sunk overnight.[45][46] Lord ordered the ship underway. Californian's course took her west, slowly passing through the ice field, after which she turned south. Californian was sighted at 06:00 by SS Mount Temple steaming from the north. Californian actually passed the Carpathia to the east, then turned, and headed northeast back towards the rescue ship, arriving at 08:30.[47]
Carpathia was just finishing picking up the last of Titanic's survivors. After communicating with Californian, Carpathia left the area, leaving Californian to search for any other survivors. However, Californian only found scattered wreckage, empty lifeboats and corpses,[48][49] and continued on its route to America. Upon arrival, several key crew members, including Lord and Evans, were summoned to give evidence at the American inquiry. Evans also gave evidence at the British inquiry into the tragedy. Like others involved in the disaster, he was offered a lot of money from newspapers for his story, but he refused it.[50]
Aftermath
As public knowledge grew of the Titanic disaster, questions soon arose about how the disaster occurred, as well as if and how it could have been prevented.
A United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic started on 19 April 1912, the day Californian arrived unnoticed in Boston. Initially, the world was unaware of her and her part in the Titanic disaster. On 22 April, the inquiry discovered that a ship near Titanic had failed to respond to the distress signals. The identity of the ship was unknown.[51]
The next day, a small newspaper in New England, The Clinton Daily Item, printed a shocking story claiming that Californian had refused aid to Titanic.[52] The source for the story was Californian's carpenter, James McGregor, who stated that he had been close enough to see Titanic's lights and distress rockets. By sheer coincidence, on the same day, the Boston American printed a story sourced by Californian's assistant engineer, Ernest Gill, which essentially told the same story as the Daily Item.
Captain Lord also spoke with Boston area newspapers. In a Boston Traveller article dated 19 April, Lord claimed that his ship was 30 miles from Titanic,[53] but in a Boston Post article dated 24 April, he claimed 20 miles.[54] He told the Boston Globe that his ship had spent three hours steaming around the wreck site trying to render assistance,[53] but Third Officer Grove later stated that the search ended after two hours, at 10:40.[55] When reporters asked Lord about his exact position the night of the disaster, he refused to respond, calling such information "state secrets".[56]
After the newspaper revelations on 23 April, the U.S. Senate inquiry subpoenaed Gill, as well as Captain Lord, and others from Californian. During his testimony, Gill repeated his claims.[57] Lord's testimony was conflicting and changing. For example, he detailed three totally different ice conditions. He admitted knowing about the rockets (after telling Boston newspapers that his ship had not seen any rockets) but insisted that they were not distress rockets,[58] and they were not fired from Titanic but a small steamship, the so-called "third ship" of the night.[59] Yet the testimony of Captain J. Knapp, U.S. Navy, and a part of the Navy Hydrographer's Office, made clear that Titanic and Californian were in sight of each other, and no third vessel had been in the area.[60]
The so-called "scrap log" of Californian also came under question. This is a log wherein all daily pertinent information is entered before being approved by the captain and entered into the official log. Company policy of International Mercantile Marine Co., the parent of both Leyland Line and the White Star Line, required scrap logs to be destroyed daily.[61] The official log mentioned neither a nearby ship nor rockets. At the British inquiry, Stone was not asked to recall the notations he had actually written in the scrap log, during his bridge-watch between midnight and 4:00 on 15 April.[62]
On 2 May, the British Court of Formal Investigation began. Again, Lord gave conflicting, changing, and evasive testimony. By way of contrast, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia, at each inquiry, gave consistent and forthright testimony. It is significant[citation needed] that, during the British Inquiry, Rostron was asked to confirm an affidavit he had made to the United States Inquiry. Among the other things in his affidavit, he confirmed that "It was daylight at about 4.20 a.m. At 5 o'clock it was light enough to see all around the horizon. We then saw two steamships to the northwards, perhaps 7 or 8 miles distant. Neither of them was Californian."[63]
During the inquiry, the crew of Californian, like Captain Lord, gave conflicting testimonies. Most notably, Lord said he was not told that the nearby ship had disappeared, contradicting testimony from James Gibson who said he reported it, and Lord had acknowledged him.[37]
Also during the inquiries, Titanic survivors recalled seeing the lights of another ship after Titanic had hit the iceberg. To Titanic's Fourth Officer Boxhall, the other ship appeared to be off Titanic's bow, five miles (8 km) away and heading in her direction. Just like Californian's officers, Boxhall attempted signaling the ship with a Morse lamp, but received no response.[64] However, Titanic lookout Frederick Fleet, who was in the crow's nest when the iceberg was sighted and remained there for another forty minutes, testified at the US inquiry that he did not see the lights of another ship while in the crow's nest. He only saw a light later after leaving the ship on a lifeboat.[65]
Titanic's Captain Edward Smith had felt the ship was close enough that he ordered the first lifeboats launched on the port side to row over to the ship, drop off the passengers, and come back to Titanic for more. Moreover, lifeboat occupants reported the other ship's lights were seen from the lifeboats throughout the night; one lifeboat rowed towards them but never seemed to get any closer.[66][page needed]
Both the American and British inquires found that Californian must have been closer than the 19.5 miles (31.4 km) claimed by Captain Lord, and that each ship was visible from the other. Indeed, when Carpathia arrived at the wreck site, a vessel was clearly seen to the north; this was later identified as Californian.[67] Both inquiries concluded that Captain Lord had failed to provide proper assistance to Titanic, the British Inquiry concluding further Californian's responding to Titanic's rockets and going to assist "… might have saved many if not all of the lives that were lost."[4]
In the months and years following the disaster, numerous preventive safety measures were enacted. The United States passed the Radio Act of 1912, which required 24-hour radio watch on all ships in case of an emergency. The first International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea formed a treaty that also required 24-hour radio monitoring and standardized the use of distress rockets.
Despite the criticisms of Lord's conduct, no formal charges were ever brought against him. As a result, he had no right of appeal against the inquiry's findings.[68] The issue lay dormant for almost half a century, when the publication of Walter Lord's (unrelated to Captain Lord) book A Night to Remember in 1955 and the release of the 1958 film of the same name prompted Lord to seek a re-hearing of the Inquiry relating to his ship, to counter the allegations made in the book and his portrayal in the film. Petitions presented to the UK Government in 1965 and 1968 by the Mercantile Marine Service Association (MMSA), a union to which Captain Lord belonged, failed to get the matter re-examined.[69] However, when the wreck of the Titanic was discovered by Ballard's expedition in 1985, it was found to be 13 miles from its reported position (the location accepted by both inquiries), so the Board of Trade ordered a re-examination.[70]
The British Government's Marine Accident Investigation Branch (MAIB) concluded its reappraisal of evidence in 1992. The conclusions were those of Deputy Chief Inspector, James de Coverly, stating: "What is significant, however, is that no ship was seen by the Titanic until well after the collision … watch was maintained with officers on the bridge and seamen in the crow’s nest, and with their ship in grave danger the lookout for another vessel which could come to their help must have been most anxious and keen. It is in my view inconceivable that the Californian or any other ship was within the visible horizon of the Titanic during that period; it equally follows that the Titanic can't have been within the Californian’s horizon."
The report went on: "More probably, in my view, the ship seen by Californian was another, unidentified, vessel."[71]
The original investigator of the 1992 reappraisal was a Captain Barnett, who unlike de Coverly, concluded "that the Titanic was seen by the Californian and indeed kept under observation from 23:00 or soon after on 14 April until she sank … [based on] the evidence from Captain Lord and the two watch officers, Mr. Grove and Mr. Stone."[71] It was after Barnett's original report was submitted that Captain de Coverly was given the task of further examination. Both Barnett and de Coverly had concluded that Titanic's rockets had been seen and that Stone and Lord had not responded appropriately to signals of distress.
The 1992 MAIB report concluded that Captain Lord and his crew's actions "fell far short of what was needed".[72] The report did concede that even if "proper action had been taken", Californian could not have arrived on the scene until "well after the sinking".[68] It also noted that when he did know of Titanic's distress, Lord twice took his ship across an ice field to help search for survivors.[73] Captain Lord's chief defender and union attorney, Leslie Harrison, who had led the fight to have the Californian incident re-examined by the British government, called the dual conclusions of the report "an admission of failure to achieve the purpose of the reappraisal."[74]
The 1992 report by the MAIB was published just months after their publication of another controversial report, on the subject of the Marchioness disaster of 1989.[75] This report had led to questions over the evidence-gathering, conduct and judgements of the MAIB.[75]
Author Paul Lee accused Captain Lord of an "inability or unwillingness to adjust to an entirely new situation."[52] Although Lord had stopped his ship upon encountering ice, the British inquiry concluded that if Californian had acted upon the rockets and pushed through the ice, the Californian "might have saved many, if not all, of the lives that were lost".[4] The U.S Senate inquiry was also critical of Lord's inaction, the final report stating that "such conduct, whether arising from indifference or gross carelessness, is most reprehensible, and places upon the commander the Californian a grave responsibility.".[5]
Senator William Alden Smith, in a speech to the U.S. Senate inquiry, said: "the failure of Capt. Lord to arouse the wireless operator on his ship, who could have easily ascertained the name of the vessel in distress and reached her in time to avert loss of life, places a tremendous responsibility upon this officer from which it will be very difficult for him to escape."[76] Author Daniel Allen Butler wrote: "The crime of Stanley Lord was not that he may have ignored the Titanic’s rockets, but that he unquestionably ignored someone’s cry for help."[77]
Others have suggested that, considering all the circumstances, there was actually little if anything the Californian could have done to prevent or reduce the loss of life. Allegations have been made that trade unions defending Captain Lord succeeded in influencing the reports from the official investigations before they were available to the public.[78] Williams and Kamps wrote in Titanic and the Californian: "Bearing [the] distance in mind, and recalling that a mere fifty-five minutes had elapsed from the time Captain Lord was first informed about the rockets to the moment the Titanic slipped beneath the waves, it would have been nothing short of a miracle for Lord to bring his ship to the Titanic and effect a rescue in such a short space of time."[79]
Titanic historian Tim Maltin theorized that the Californian's inaction was the result of a cold water mirage, or Superior mirage, arising from differences in air temperature over the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the colder waters of the Labrador Current. Maltin suggested that this would cause a superior refraction, superimposing and stretching and distorting the edge of the sea and lifting images of objects, distorting their appearance. This would explain why the Titanic's morse lamp was believed to be a flickering oil lamp on the mast of a much smaller ship, and why Capt. Lord thought the Titanic was a different vessel. If correct, Maltin's theory may further explain why the Titanic's lookouts did not spot the iceberg earlier.[80]
Cyril Evans continued his service with the Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company and its successor companies (Eastern Telegraph Company and Cable & Wireless: the later part of his career was spent as manager for Cable and Wireless on the West Indian island of St Lucia) for the rest of his life. He also served at sea in World War I and World War II, running mobile telecommunications for the British Army in North Africa and then Italy. He married and raised a family. In the film A Night to Remember, Evans was portrayed by Geoffrey Bayldon.
World War I
On 2 July 1913, Californian was docked in Veracruz when a fire erupted in her no.3 & 4 holds, sustaining serious damage to herself and her cargo.[81][82][unreliable source?]
Californian continued in normal commercial service until World War I, when the British government took control of her. She was responsible for transporting equipments and troops for the Allies mired in the Battle of Gallipoli.[83]
On 9 November 1915, while en route from Salonica to Marseilles, she was torpedoed by the German U-boat SM U-34. While she was under tow by a French patrol boat, she was torpedoed again, and, around 7:45am,[84] she sank in 10–13,000 feet of water, approximately 60 miles (50 nmi; 100 km) south-southwest of Cape Matapan, Greece by SM U-35, killing one person (fireman Richard John Harding)[85] and injuring two others.[81] To date, Californian's wreck remains undiscovered.[86] Californian went down less than 200 miles (170 nmi; 320 km) from where HMHS Britannic, Titanic's sister ship, would be sunk by a mine just over a year later.[87]
En la cultura popular
The involvement of the Californian in the sinking of the Titanic is examined in the 2012 BBC TV drama SOS - The Titanic Inquiry. The drama tells the story of the original British Inquiry into the sinking of Titanic and whether the Californian was in near enough proximity to the vessel to rescue some, if not all, of the 1,500 lives lost.[88]
The 2016 novel The Midnight Watch by David Dyer explores the Titanic tragedy from the perspective of the crew of the Californian. The narrative centres around a fictional American reporter who tries to uncover what really happened on board the Californian that fateful night .[89]
Ver también
- Marchioness, another ship that was subject to a controversial MAIB report at a similar time to the Californian.
Referencias
- ^ a b "Caledon Built – Dundee Ships", Friends of Dundee City Archives
- ^ https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/abandoning-titanic-promo/5432/. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ^ Ringle, Ken (30 June 1991). "THE SHIP THAT PASSED IN THE NIGHT". Retrieved 24 October 2020.
- ^ a b c d "Circumstances in Connection with the SS Californian". British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry. 30 July 1912. Archived from the original on 6 May 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ a b "United States Senate Inquiry Report: Pleas for Help; Steamship "Californian's" responsibility". Titanic Inquiry Project. 30 July 1912. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
- ^ Clarke, Jim (11 April 2012). "Titanic disaster: How history has judged Bolton's sea captains". BBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
- ^ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 18. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 37
- ^ Wright, Jerry (2011). "Some Dundee Ships". Friends of Dundee City Archives. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ a b Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 38
- ^ Duzen, Harland (18 October 2018). "The SS Californian and Dundee: Scotland's Forgotten Leviathan". encyclopedia-titanica.org.
- ^ a b Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 20
- ^ a b Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 43
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 46
- ^ Mark Chirnside 2004, p. 309
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 39
- ^ a b Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 44
- ^ The Great Ocean Liners
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 48
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 50
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 51
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 52
- ^ "Testimony of Cyril F. Evans". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
[the ice warning] is dated 6.30 p. m. "A.T.S." which means apparent time ship … The sent date was 5.35 p.m., New York time.
- ^ "Testimony of Harold S. Bride, recalled". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
(The Attorney General.): Could you tell us how long it was after you got the message that you delivered it on the bridge? Bride: About two minutes.
- ^ Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 22
- ^ a b c "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
When I came off the bridge, at half-past 10, I pointed out to the officer that I thought I saw a light coming along, and it was a most peculiar light, and we had been making mistakes all along with the stars, thinking they were signals … He said he thought it was a star, and I did not say anything more.
- ^ "Testimony of Stanley Lord". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
I said, "Let the 'Titanic' know that we are stopped, surrounded by ice."
- ^ A Night to Remember p.24
- ^ "Acquitting the Iceberg". Encyclopedia Titanica. 15 October 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
Phillips was tired and on edge and Cyril Evans' call burst in on him like a thunderclap; so loud, we are assured, it hurt his ears.
- ^ Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 23
- ^ "Testimony of Cyril F. Evans". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 5 May 2016.
At 11.25 I still had the phones on my ears and heard him still working Cape Race, about two or three minutes before the half-hour ship's time, that was, and at 11.35 I put the phones down and took off my clothes and turned in.
- ^ Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 24 - 25
- ^ Mark Chirnside 2004, p. 155
- ^ a b "Testimony of Charles V. Groves". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
- ^ "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
We signaled her, at half-past 11, with the Morse lamp. She did not take the slightest notice of it.
- ^ a b "Testimony of Herbert Stone". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ a b c d e "Testimony of James Gibson". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 25
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 55
- ^ "Testimony of James Gibson, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Testimony of Herbert Stone, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 94
- ^ "Testimony of George F. Stewart". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ "Electronic copies of the inquiries into the disaster". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 96
- ^ "Testimony of George F. Stewart, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 202
- ^ Clarke, Jim (11 April 2012). "History judges Titanic captains". BBC News. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
- ^ Gérard Piouffre 2009, p. 202
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 101
- ^ Lee, Paul (2008). The Titanic and the Indifferent Stranger. Paul Lee. pp. 15–18.
- ^ a b Lee, Paul (2008). The Titanic and the Indifferent Stranger. Paul Lee. p. 180.
- ^ a b Lee, Paul (2008). The Titanic and the Indifferent Stranger. Paul Lee. p. 13.
- ^ Lee, Paul (2008). The Titanic and the Indifferent Stranger. Paul Lee. p. 22.
- ^ "Testimony of Charles V. Groves". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
- ^ Hamer, John (2013). RMS Olympic. Rossendale Books. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-291-63862-2.
- ^ "Testimony of Ernest Gill". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
Senator SMITH: Captain, did you see any distress signals on Sunday night, either rockets or the Morse signals? Mr. LORD: No sir; I did not. The officer on watch saw some signals, but he said they were not distress signals.
- ^ "Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
I said, 'This is not the Titanic; there is no doubt about it.'
- ^ "Testimony of John J. Knapp". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Testimony of George F. Stewart, cont". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
- ^ Molony, Senan (2006). Titanic and the Mystery Ship. The History Press. p. 278.
- ^ "Testimony of Arthur H. Rostron". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Testimony of Joseph G. Boxhall". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Testimony of Frederick Fleet". Titanic Inquiry Project. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Bartlett, W.B. (2010). 9 Hours to Hell, the Survivors' Story. Amberly. ISBN 9781848684225.
- ^ Butler, Daniel Allen (26 May 2009). The Other Side of the Night. Casemate. p. 186. ISBN 9781935149705.
"There was another vessel within sight of the Carpathia, facing to the west, north of where the Titanic's lifeboats waited, but clearly within visual distance of where the Titanic sank. It was the Californian.
- ^ a b "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 18. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
- ^ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 1. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 2. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ a b "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 12. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 15. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN"" (PDF). Marine Accident Investigation Branch. 2 April 1992. p. 16. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
- ^ Harrison, Leslie (1992). A Titanic Myth: The Californian Incident. S.P.A. ISBN 9781854211842.[page needed]
- ^ a b Hartley, Hazel (2001). Exploring Sport & Leisure Disasters: A Socio-Legal Perspective. London: Cavendish Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-85941-650-1.
- ^ "Speech of Senator William Alden Smith, cont". United States Senate Inquiry. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Butler, Daniel Allen (26 May 2009). The Other Side of the Night. Casemate. p. 199. ISBN 9781935149705.
- ^ Butler, Daniel Allen (2011). Unsinkable: The Full Story. Frontline Books. p. 241. ISBN 9781848326415.
- ^ Williams, Thomas; Kamps, Rob (2007). Titanic and the Californian. The History Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780752467610. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Levy, Nigel (Director) (15 April 2012). Titanic's Final Mystery (Motion Picture). Various: Breen, Simon.
- ^ a b "SS Californian". 11 March 2014 – via Flickr.
- ^ https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-ships/californian.html
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 214
- ^ "Читать онлайн "The Sea Hunters II: More True Adventures with Famous Shipwrecks" автора Касслер Клайв - RuLit - Страница 70". rulit.me.
- ^ "Californian". Encyclopedia Titanica.
- ^ Tennent, A.J (2006). British Merchant Ships Sunk by U-boats in World War One. Periscope Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 9781904381365. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ Daniel Allen Butler 2009, p. 215
- ^ "Titanic drama focuses on Californian question". BBC News. 15 April 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
- ^ Krist, Gary (29 April 2016). "'The Midnight Watch,' by David Dyer (Published 2016)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
Bibliografía
- "Caledon Built – Dundee Ships" (PDF). Friends of Dundee City Archives. Friends of Dundee. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- Butler, Daniel Allen (2009). The Other Side of the Night: The Carpathia, the Californian and the Night the Titanic Was Lost. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-935149-02-6.
- Chirnside, Mark (2004). The Olympic-class ships: Olympic, Titanic, Britannic. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2868-3.
- Codet, François; Mendez, Olivier; Dufief, Alain; Gavard-Perret, Franck (2011). Les Français du Titanic (in French). Rennes: Marine Editions. ISBN 978-2-35743-065-5.
- Lee, Paul (2008). The Titanic and the Indifferent Stranger. Paul Lee. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-9563015-0-5.
- Lord, Walter (1955). A Night to Remember (2005 ed.). New York, New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-8050-7764-3.
- MAIB. Titanic: Reappraisal of Evidence (PDF).
- Tennent, A.J. (2006). British Merchant Ships Sunk by U-boats in World War One. Cornwall, U.K.: Periscope Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904381-36-5.
- Piouffre, Gérard (2009). Le Titanic ne répond plus (in French). Paris: Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-584196-4.
- Riffenburgh, Beau (2008). Toute l'histoire du Titanic. Sélection du Reader's Digest. ISBN 978-2-7098-1982-4.
Otras lecturas
- Butler, Daniel Allen. The Other Side of the Night. Casemate, 2009.
- Lee, Paul. The Indifferent Stranger, electronic book, 2008.
- Eaton, John P. and Haas, Charles A. Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995.
- Halpern, Samuel. Strangers on the Horizon: Titanic and Californian – A Forensic Approach, 2019.
- Lord, Walter. The Night Lives On. Morrow and Company, 1986.
- Lynch, Donald and Marschall, Ken. Titanic: An Illustrated History. Hyperion, 1995.
- Molony, Senan. Titanic and the Mystery Ship. Tempus Publishing, 2006.
- Padfield, Peter. The Titanic and the Californian. The John Day Company, 1965.
- Reade, Leslie. The Ship That Stood Still: The Californian and Her Mysterious Role in the Titanic Disaster. W. W. Norton & Co Inc, 1993.
- Dyer, David (2016), The Midnight Watch, Atlantic Books, 2016
enlaces externos
- Californian Crew List with Biographies
- Captain Stanley Lord
- SS Californian
- SS Californian on Facebook
- A PV Solves a Puzzle by Senan Molony
- The Californian Incident, A Reality Check
- The Titanic and the Californian
Coordinates: 35°32′30″N 22°06′06″E / 35.54167°N 22.10167°E / 35.54167; 22.10167