El escandio es un elemento químico con el símbolo Sc y número atómico 21. Un elemento de bloque d metálico de color blanco plateado , históricamente se ha clasificado como un elemento de tierras raras , [6] junto con el itrio y los lantánidos . Fue descubierto en 1879 mediante análisis espectral de los minerales euxenita y gadolinita de Escandinavia .
Escandio | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Pronunciación | / S k æ n d i ə m / | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Apariencia | blanco plateado | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Peso atómico estándar A r, estándar (Sc) | 44,955 908 (5) [1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Escandio en la tabla periódica | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Número atómico ( Z ) | 21 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Grupo | grupo 3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Período | período 4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cuadra | bloque d | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Configuración electronica | [ Ar ] 3d 1 4s 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electrones por capa | 2, 8, 9, 2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Propiedades físicas | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Fase en STP | sólido | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Punto de fusion | 1814 K (1541 ° C, 2806 ° F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Punto de ebullición | 3109 K (2836 ° C, 5136 ° F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Densidad (cerca de rt ) | 2,985 g / cm 3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
cuando es líquido (a mp ) | 2,80 g / cm 3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Calor de fusión | 14,1 kJ / mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Calor de vaporización | 332,7 kJ / mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Capacidad calorífica molar | 25,52 J / (mol · K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Presión de vapor
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Propiedades atómicas | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Estados de oxidación | 0, [2] +1, [3] +2, [4] +3 (un óxido anfótero ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Electronegatividad | Escala de Pauling: 1,36 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Energías de ionización |
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Radio atómico | empírico: 162 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Radio covalente | 170 ± 7 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Radio de Van der Waals | 211 p. M. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Líneas espectrales de escandio | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Otras propiedades | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Ocurrencia natural | primordial | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Estructura cristalina | hexagonal compacto (hcp) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Expansión térmica | α, poli: 10,2 µm / (m⋅K) (a rt ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Conductividad térmica | 15,8 W / (m⋅K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Resistividad electrica | α, poli: 562 nΩ⋅m (a rt, calculado) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Orden magnético | paramagnético | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Susceptibilidad magnética molar | +315,0 × 10 −6 cm 3 / mol (292 K) [5] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
El módulo de Young | 74,4 GPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Módulo de corte | 29,1 GPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Módulo de volumen | 56,6 GPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Relación de Poisson | 0,279 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dureza Brinell | 736-1200 MPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Número CAS | 7440-20-2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Historia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Nombrar | después de Escandinavia | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Predicción | Dmitri Mendeleev (1871) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Descubrimiento y primer aislamiento | Lars Fredrik Nilson (1879) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isótopos principales del escandio | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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El escandio está presente en la mayoría de los depósitos de compuestos de tierras raras y de uranio , pero se extrae de estos minerales solo en unas pocas minas en todo el mundo. Debido a la baja disponibilidad y las dificultades en la preparación del escandio metálico, que se realizó por primera vez en 1937, las aplicaciones del escandio no se desarrollaron hasta la década de 1970, cuando se descubrieron los efectos positivos del escandio en las aleaciones de aluminio y su uso en dichas aleaciones. sigue siendo su única aplicación importante. El comercio mundial de óxido de escandio es de 15 a 20 toneladas por año. [7]
Las propiedades de los compuestos de escandio son intermedias entre las del aluminio y el itrio . Existe una relación diagonal entre el comportamiento del magnesio y el escandio, al igual que existe entre el berilio y el aluminio. En los compuestos químicos de los elementos del grupo 3, el estado de oxidación predominante es +3.
Propiedades
Caracteristicas quimicas
El escandio es un metal blando con un aspecto plateado. Desarrolla un tono ligeramente amarillento o rosado cuando se oxida con el aire. Es susceptible a la intemperie y se disuelve lentamente en la mayoría de los ácidos diluidos . No reacciona con una mezcla 1: 1 de ácido nítrico (HNO 3 ) y ácido fluorhídrico (HF) al 48% , posiblemente debido a la formación de una capa pasiva impermeable . Las virutas de escandio se encienden en el aire con una llama amarilla brillante para formar óxido de escandio . [8]
Isótopos
En la naturaleza, el escandio se encuentra exclusivamente como el isótopo 45 Sc, que tiene un giro nuclear de 7/2; este es su único isótopo estable. Se han caracterizado trece radioisótopos, siendo el más estable el 46 Sc, que tiene una vida media de 83,8 días; 47 Sc, 3,35 días; el emisor de positrones 44 Sc , 4 h; y 48 Sc, 43,7 horas. Todos los isótopos radiactivos restantes tienen vidas medias de menos de 4 horas y la mayoría de ellos tienen vidas medias de menos de 2 minutos. Este elemento también tiene cinco isómeros nucleares , siendo el más estable 44m Sc ( t 1/2 = 58,6 h). [9]
Los isótopos del escandio varían de 36 Sc a 60 Sc. El modo de desintegración primario en masas más bajas que el único isótopo estable, 45 Sc, es la captura de electrones , y el modo primario en masas por encima de él es la emisión beta . Los productos de desintegración primarios a pesos atómicos inferiores a 45 Sc son isótopos de calcio y los productos primarios de pesos atómicos más altos son isótopos de titanio . [9]
Occurrence
In Earth's crust, scandium is not rare. Estimates vary from 18 to 25 ppm, which is comparable to the abundance of cobalt (20–30 ppm). Scandium is only the 50th most common element on Earth (35th most abundant in the crust), but it is the 23rd most common element in the Sun.[10] However, scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals.[11] Rare minerals from Scandinavia[12] and Madagascar[13] such as thortveitite, euxenite, and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element. Thortveitite can contain up to 45% of scandium in the form of scandium oxide.[12]
The stable form of scandium is created in supernovas via the r-process.[14] Also, scandium is created by cosmic ray spallation of the more abundant iron nuclei.
- 28Si + 17n → 45Sc (r-process)
- 56Fe + p → 45Sc + 11C + n (cosmic ray spallation)
Producción
The world production of scandium is in the order of 15-20 tonnes per year, in the form of scandium oxide. The demand is about 50% higher, and both the production and demand keep increasing. In 2003, only three mines produced scandium: the uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody in Ukraine, the rare-earth mines in Bayan Obo, China, and the apatite mines in the Kola peninsula, Russia; since then many other countries have built scandium-producing facilities, including 5 tonnes/year (7.5 tonnes/year Sc2O3) by Nickel Asia Corporation and Sumitomo Metal Mining in the Philippines.[15][16] In the United States, NioCorp Development hopes[when?] to raise $1 billion[17] toward opening a niobium mine at its Elk Creek site in southeast Nebraska[18] which may be able to produce as much as 95 tonnes of scandium oxide annually.[19] In each case, scandium is a byproduct of the extraction of other elements and is sold as scandium oxide.[20][21][22]
To produce metallic scandium, the oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and then reduced with metallic calcium.
Madagascar and the Iveland-Evje region in Norway have the only deposits of minerals with high scandium content, thortveitite (Sc,Y)2(Si2O7) but these are not being exploited.[21] The mineral kolbeckite ScPO4·2H2O has a very high scandium content but is not available in any larger deposits.[21]
The absence of reliable, secure, stable, long-term production has limited the commercial applications of scandium. Despite this low level of use, scandium offers significant benefits. Particularly promising is the strengthening of aluminium alloys with as little as 0.5% scandium. Scandium-stabilized zirconia enjoys a growing market demand for use as a high-efficiency electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells.
Precio
The USGS reports that, from 2015 to 2019 in the US, the price of small quantities of scandium ingot has been $107 to $134 per gram, and that of scandium oxide $4 to $5 per gram.[23]
Compuestos
Scandium chemistry is almost completely dominated by the trivalent ion, Sc3+. The radii of M3+ ions in the table below indicate that the chemical properties of scandium ions have more in common with yttrium ions than with aluminium ions. In part because of this similarity, scandium is often classified as a lanthanide-like element.
Ionic radii (pm) Al Sc Y La Lu 53.5 74.5 90.0 103.2 86.1
Oxides and hydroxides
The oxide Sc2O3 and the hydroxide Sc(OH)
3 are amphoteric:[24]
- Sc(OH)
3 + 3 OH−
→ [Sc(OH)
6]3−
(scandate ion) - Sc(OH)
3 + 3 H+
+ 3 H
2O → [Sc(H
2O)
6]3+
α- and γ-ScOOH are isostructural with their aluminium hydroxide oxide counterparts.[25] Solutions of Sc3+
in water are acidic due to hydrolysis.
Halides and pseudohalides
The halides ScX3, where X= Cl, Br, or I, are very soluble in water, but ScF3 is insoluble. In all four halides, the scandium is 6-coordinated. The halides are Lewis acids; for example, ScF3 dissolves in a solution containing excess fluoride ion to form [ScF6]3−. The coordination number 6 is typical for Sc(III). In the larger Y3+ and La3+ ions, coordination numbers of 8 and 9 are common. Scandium triflate is sometimes used as a Lewis acid catalyst in organic chemistry.
Organic derivatives
Scandium forms a series of organometallic compounds with cyclopentadienyl ligands (Cp), similar to the behavior of the lanthanides. One example is the chlorine-bridged dimer, [ScCp2Cl]2 and related derivatives of pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligands.[26]
Uncommon oxidation states
Compounds that feature scandium in oxidation states other than +3 are rare but well characterized. The blue-black compound CsScCl3 is one of the simplest. This material adopts a sheet-like structure that exhibits extensive bonding between the scandium(II) centers.[27] Scandium hydride is not well understood, although it appears not to be a saline hydride of Sc(II).[4] As is observed for most elements, a diatomic scandium hydride has been observed spectroscopically at high temperatures in the gas phase.[3] Scandium borides and carbides are non-stoichiometric, as is typical for neighboring elements.[28]
Lower oxidation states (+2, +1, 0) have also been observed in organoscandium compounds.[29][30][31][32]
Historia
Dmitri Mendeleev, who is referred to as the father of the periodic table, predicted the existence of an element ekaboron, with an atomic mass between 40 and 48 in 1869. Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team detected this element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite in 1879. Nilson prepared 2 grams of scandium oxide of high purity.[33][34] He named the element scandium, from the Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia". Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev.[35][36]
Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides, at 700–800 °C.[37] The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was produced in 1960. Production of aluminium alloys began in 1971, following a US patent.[38] Aluminium-scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR.[39]
Laser crystals of gadolinium-scandium-gallium garnet (GSGG) were used in strategic defense applications developed for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) in the 1980s and 1990s.[40][41]
Red giant stars near the Galactic Center
In early 2018, evidence was gathered from spectrometer data of significant scandium, vanadium, and yttrium abundances in red giant stars in the Nuclear Star Cluster (NSC) in the Galactic Center. Further research showed that this was an illusion caused by the relatively low temperature (below 3,500 K) of these stars masking the abundance signals, and that this phenomenon was observable in other red giants.[42]
Aplicaciones
The addition of scandium to aluminium limits the grain growth in the heat zone of welded aluminium components. This has two beneficial effects: the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than in other aluminium alloys,[43] and the volume of precipitate-free zones at the grain boundaries of age-hardening aluminium alloys is reduced.[43] The Al3Sc precipitate is a coherent precipitate that strengthens the aluminum matrix by applying elastic strain fields that inhibit dislocation movement (i.e., plastic deformation). Al3Sc has an equilibrium L12 superlattice structure exclusive to this system.[44] A fine dispersion of nano scale precipitate can be achieved via heat treatment that can also strengthen the alloys through order hardening.[45] Recent developments include the additions of transition metals such as Zr and rare earth metals like Er produce shells surrounding the spherical Al3Sc precipitate that reduce coarsening.[46] These shells are dictated by the diffusivity of the alloying element and lower the cost of the alloy due to less Sc being substituted in part by Zr while maintaining stability and less Sc being needed to form the precipitate.[47] These have made Al3Sc somewhat competitive with titanium alloys along with a wide array of applications. However, titanium alloys, which are similar in lightness and strength, are cheaper and much more widely used.[48]
The alloy Al20Li20Mg10Sc20Ti30 is as strong as titanium, light as aluminium, and hard as some ceramics.[49]
The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% of scandium. They were used in Russian military aircraft, specifically the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 and MiG-29.[43]
Some items of sports equipment, which rely on lightweight high-performance materials, have been made with scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats,[50] tent poles and bicycle frames and components.[51] Lacrosse sticks are also made with scandium. The American firearm manufacturing company Smith & Wesson produces semi-automatic pistols and revolvers with frames of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium or carbon steel.[52][53]
Dentists use erbium-chromium-doped yttrium-scandium-gallium garnet (Er,Cr:YSGG) lasers for cavity preparation and in endodontics.[54]
The first scandium-based metal-halide lamps were patented by General Electric and initially made in North America, although they are now produced in all major industrialized countries. Approximately 20 kg of scandium (as Sc2O3) is used annually in the United States for high-intensity discharge lamps.[55] One type of metal-halide lamp, similar to the mercury-vapor lamp, is made from scandium triiodide and sodium iodide. This lamp is a white-light source with high color rendering index that sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good color-reproduction with TV cameras.[56] About 80 kg of scandium is used in metal-halide lamps/light bulbs globally per year.[citation needed]
The radioactive isotope 46Sc is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent.[55] Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry.[57]
Salud y seguridad
Elemental scandium is considered non-toxic, though extensive animal testing of scandium compounds has not been done.[58] The median lethal dose (LD50) levels for scandium chloride for rats have been determined as 755 mg/kg for intraperitoneal and 4 g/kg for oral administration.[59] In the light of these results, compounds of scandium should be handled as compounds of moderate toxicity.
Ver también
- Rare-earth element
Portals Access related topics |
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Referencias
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Otras lecturas
- Scerri, Eric R. (2007). The Periodic System: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305739. OCLC 62766695.
enlaces externos
- Scandium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
- WebElements.com – Scandium
- . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.