Historia de Japón |
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Shogun (将軍, shōgun , japonesa: [ɕoːɡɯɴ] ( escuchar ) ; Inglés: / ʃ oʊ del ɡ del ʌ n / SHOH gun [1] ) era el título de los dictadores militares de Japón durante la mayor parte del período que va desde 1185 a 1868. Nominalmente nombrados por el Emperador , los shoguns eran generalmente los gobernantes de facto del país, [2] aunque durante parte del período Kamakuralos shoguns eran ellos mismos testaferros. El oficio de shogun era en la práctica hereditario, aunque a lo largo de la historia de Japón varios clanes diferentes ocuparon el cargo. Shogun es la forma corta de Sei-i Taishōgun (征 夷 大 将軍, "Comandante en Jefe de la Fuerza Expedicionaria Contra los Bárbaros") , [3] un alto título militar del período Heian temprano en los siglos VIII y IX; cuando Minamoto no Yoritomo ganó el dominio político sobre Japón en 1185, el título fue revivido para regularizar su posición, convirtiéndolo en el primer shogun en el sentido generalmente entendido.
Los funcionarios del shogun fueron denominados colectivamente bakufu (幕府, "gobierno de la tienda") ; ellos eran los que llevaban a cabo los deberes reales de la administración, mientras que la corte imperial conservaba sólo la autoridad nominal. [4] La tienda simbolizaba el papel del shogun como comandante de campo del ejército, pero también denotaba que tal oficina debía ser temporal. Sin embargo, la institución, conocido en Inglés como el shogunato ( Inglés: / ʃ oʊ ɡ ə n eɪ t / SHOH -gə-nayt [1] ), persistieron durante casi 700 años, y termina cuandoTokugawa Yoshinobu cedió el cargo al emperador Meiji en 1867 como parte de la Restauración Meiji . [5]
Etimología [ editar ]
El término shogun (将軍, literalmente "comandante del ejército") es la abreviatura del título histórico "Seii Taishōgun".征 ( sei , せ い) significa "conquistar" o "subyugar", y 夷 ( i , い) significa "bárbaro". o "salvaje".大 ( dai , だ い) significa "genial", 将 ( shō , し ょ う) significa "comandante" [6] y 軍 ( pistola , ぐ ん) significa "ejército". [7] Por lo tanto, una traducción literal de Seii Taishōgun sería "Comandante en Jefe de la Fuerza Expedicionaria Contra los Bárbaros". [3]
El término se usó originalmente para referirse al general que comandaba el ejército enviado para luchar contra las tribus del norte de Japón, pero después del siglo XII, el término se usó para designar al líder de los samuráis . [8]
Bakufu [ editar ]
La administración de un shogun se llama bakufu (幕府) en japonés y literalmente significa "gobierno del maku ". Durante las batallas, el jefe del ejército samurái solía estar sentado en una silla de tijera dentro de una tienda semiabierta llamada maku que exhibía su respectivo mon o blasón . La aplicación del término bakufu al gobierno del shogun muestra un simbolismo extremadamente fuerte y representativo. [9]
Títulos [ editar ]
Historically, similar terms to Seii Taishōgun were used with varying degrees of responsibility, although none of them had equal or more importance than Seii Taishōgun.[citation needed] Some of them were:
- Seitō Taishōgun (征東大将軍, lit. "Commander-in-chief for the pacification of the East")[10]
- Seisei Taishōgun (征西大将軍, lit. "Commander-in-chief for the pacification of the West")[11]
- Chinjufu Shōgun (鎮守府将軍, lit. "Commander-in-chief of the central peacekeeping headquarters")[12]
- Seiteki Taishōgun (征狄大将軍, lit. "Commander-in-chief Subjugator of the barbarians")[citation needed]
- Mochisetsu Taishōgun (持節大将軍, lit. "Commander-in-chief of the Temporary Office")[citation needed]
- Sekke shōgun (摂家将軍, lit. "Great General Counselor")[13]
- Miya shōgun (宮将軍, lit. "Great General of the Palace")[14]
- Mutsu Chintō Tykat (陸奥鎮東将軍, lit. "Great General of Subduing Mutsu")[citation needed]
History[edit]
Shoguns in the history of Japan | |||
---|---|---|---|
S# | Name | Birth/ Death | Government |
First shoguns[15] | |||
Tajihi no Agatamori | 668-737[16] | 720[17] | |
Ōtomo Yakamochi | 718?–785[18] | 784–785[19] Ki no Kosami in the year 789[20] | |
Ki no Kosami | 733–797[21] | 789[20] | |
Ōtomo no Otomaro | 731–809[22] | 794[23] | |
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro | 758–811[24] | 797–811?[25] | |
Fun'ya no Watamaro | 765–823[26] | 813[25] | |
Fujiwara no Tadabumi | 873–947[27] | 940[25] | |
Minamoto no Yoshinaka | 1154–1184[28] | 1184[25] | |
Kamakura Shogunate[29] | |||
1 | Minamoto no Yoritomo | 1147–1199 | 1192–1199 |
2 | Minamoto no Yoriie | 1182–1204 | 1202–1203 |
3 | Minamoto no Sanetomo | 1192–1219 | 1203–1219 |
4 | Kujō Yoritsune | 1218–1256 | 1226–1244 |
5 | Kujō Yoritsugu | 1239–1256 | 1244–1252 |
6 | Prince Munetaka | 1242–1274 | 1252–1266 |
7 | Prince Koreyasu | 1264–1326 | 1266–1289 |
8 | Prince Hisaaki | 1276–1328 | 1289–1308 |
9 | Prince Morikuni | 1301–1333 | 1308–1333 |
Kenmu Restoration | |||
Prince Moriyoshi | 1308–1335[30] He was named shogun by his father Emperor Go-Daigo in 1333[31] | 1333-1335[31] | |
Prince Nariyoshi | 1326–1344?[32] | 1334-1338[32] | |
Ashikaga Shogunate[29] | |||
1 | Ashikaga Takauji | 1305–1358 | 1338–1358 |
2 | Ashikaga Yoshiakira | 1330–1367 | 1358–1367 |
3 | Ashikaga Yoshimitsu | 1358–1408 | 1368–1394 |
4 | Ashikaga Yoshimochi | 1386–1428 | 1394–1423 |
5 | Ashikaga Yoshikazu | 1407–1425 | 1423–1425 |
6 | Ashikaga Yoshinori | 1394–1441 | 1429–1441 |
7 | Ashikaga Yoshikatsu | 1434–1443 | 1442–1443 |
8 | Ashikaga Yoshimasa | 1436–1490 | 1449–1473 |
9 | Ashikaga Yoshihisa | 1465–1489 | 1473–1489 |
10 | Ashikaga Yoshitane | 1466–1523 | 1490–1493 |
11 | Ashikaga Yoshizumi | 1480–1511 | 1494–1508 |
10 | Ashikaga Yoshitane | 1508–1521 | |
12 | Ashikaga Yoshiharu | 1511–1550 | 1521–1546 |
13 | Ashikaga Yoshiteru | 1536–1565 | 1546–1565 |
14 | Ashikaga Yoshihide | 1538–1568 | 1568 |
15 | Ashikaga Yoshiaki | 1537–1597 | 1568–1573 |
Tokugawa Shogunate[29] | |||
1 | Tokugawa Ieyasu | 1542–1616 | 1603–1605 |
2 | Tokugawa Hidetada | 1579–1632[33] | 1605–1623 |
3 | Tokugawa Iemitsu | 1604–1651 | 1623–1651 |
4 | Tokugawa Ietsuna | 1641–1680 | 1651–1680 |
5 | Tokugawa Tsunayoshi | 1646–1709 | 1680–1709 |
6 | Tokugawa Ienobu | 1662–1712[33] | 1709–1712 |
7 | Tokugawa Ietsugu | 1709–1716 | 1713–1716 |
8 | Tokugawa Yoshimune | 1684–1751 | 1716–1745 |
9 | Tokugawa Ieshige | 1711–1761 | 1745–1760 |
10 | Tokugawa Ieharu | 1737–1786 | 1760–1786 |
11 | Tokugawa Ienari | 1773–1841[33] | 1787–1837 |
12 | Tokugawa Ieyoshi | 1793–1853 | 1837–1853 |
13 | Tokugawa Iesada | 1824–1858 | 1853–1858 |
14 | Tokugawa Iemochi | 1846–1866 | 1858–1866 |
15 | Tokugawa Yoshinobu | 1837–1913 | 1867–1868[34] |
First shogun[edit]
There is no consensus among the various authors since some sources consider Tajihi no Agatamori the first, others say Ōtomo no Otomaro, other sources assure that the first was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, while others avoid the problem by just mentioning from the first Kamakura shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo.
Heian period (794–1185)[edit]
Originally, the title of Sei-i Taishōgun ("Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Force Against the Barbarians")[3] was given to military commanders during the early Heian period for the duration of military campaigns against the Emishi, who resisted the governance of the Kyoto-based imperial court. Ōtomo no Otomaro was the first Sei-i Taishōgun.[35] The most famous of these shoguns was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro.
In the later Heian period, one more shogun was appointed. Minamoto no Yoshinaka was named sei-i taishōgun during the Genpei War, only to be killed shortly thereafter by Minamoto no Yoshitsune.
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro[edit]
Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758–811)[24] was a Japanese general who fought against the tribes of northern Japan (settled in the territory that today integrates the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa). Tamarumaro was the first general to bend these tribes, integrating its territory to that of the Japanese State. For his military feats he was named Seii Taishōgun and probably because he was the first to win the victory against the northern tribes he is generally recognized as the first shogun in history.[24][36][37] (Note: according to historical sources Ōtomo no Otomaro also had the title of Seii Taishōgun).
Kamakura shogunate (1192–1333)[edit]
In the early 11th century, daimyō protected by samurai came to dominate internal Japanese politics.[38] Two of the most powerful families – the Taira and Minamoto – fought for control over the declining imperial court. The Taira family seized control from 1160 to 1185, but was defeated by the Minamoto in the Battle of Dan-no-ura. Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the central government and aristocracy and established a feudal system based in Kamakura in which the private military, the samurai, gained some political powers while the Emperor and the aristocracy remained the de jure rulers. In 1192, Yoritomo was awarded the title of Sei-i Taishōgun by Emperor Go-Toba and the political system he developed with a succession of shoguns as the head became known as a shogunate. Hojo Masako's (Yoritomo's wife) family, the Hōjō, seized power from the Kamakura shoguns.[39] When Yoritomo's sons and heirs were assassinated, the shogun himself became a hereditary figurehead. Real power rested with the Hōjō regents. The Kamakura shogunate lasted for almost 150 years, from 1192 to 1333.
The end of the Kamakura shogunate came when Kamakura fell in 1333, and the Hōjō Regency was destroyed. Determined to restore power to the Imperial Court, in 1331 Emperor Go-Daigo tried to overthrow the shogunate. As a result, Daigo was exiled. Around 1334–1336, Ashikaga Takauji helped Daigo regain his throne in the Kenmu Restoration.[40]
The fight against the shogunate left the Emperor with too many people claiming a limited supply of land. Takauji turned against the Emperor when the discontent about the distribution of land grew great enough. In 1336 Daigo was banished again, in favor of a new Emperor,[40] leading to the creation of the new Ashikaga shogunate.
During the Kenmu Restoration, after the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, another short-lived shogun arose. Prince Moriyoshi (Morinaga), son of Go-Daigo, was awarded the title of Sei-i Taishōgun. However, Prince Moriyoshi was later put under house arrest and, in 1335, killed by Ashikaga Tadayoshi.
Ashikaga (Muromachi) shogunate (1336/1338–1573)[edit]
In 1336[41] or 1338,[42][43] Ashikaga Takauji, like Minamoto no Yoritomo, a descendant of the Minamoto princes,[42] was awarded the title of sei-i taishōgun and established the Ashikaga shogunate, which nominally lasted until 1573. The Ashikaga had their headquarters in the Muromachi district of Kyoto, and the time during which they ruled is also known as the Muromachi period.
For the first fifty years of the Shogunate the Ashikaga were unable to assert power over the entire country, as the descendants of Go-Daigo formed a rival court challenging their authority in the Nanboku-chō period. Finally in 1392 the Southern Court surrendered to the Northern Court and the authority of the bakufu.
Following the Onin War the power of the Ashikaga Shoguns slowly dwindled and with the start of the Sengoku period were reduced to puppets of various warlords, until ultimately the last Muromachi Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki was deposed in 1573.
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1600)[edit]
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With the end of the Ashikaga bakufu Oda Nobunaga and his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, rose to power, governing using the court titles of Imperial Regent and gaining far greater power than any of their predecessors in those offices had. Hideyoshi is considered by many historians to be among Japan's greatest rulers, yet neither man was ever formally granted the title of Shogun.
Tokugawa shogunate (1600–1868)[edit]
After Hideyoshi's death following the failed invasion of Korea, Tokugawa Ieyasu seized power with the victory at the Battle of Sekigahara and established a shogunate government at Edo (now known as Tokyo) in 1600. He received the title sei-i taishōgun in 1603, after he forged a family tree to show he was of Minamoto descent.[44] The Tokugawa shogunate lasted until 1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned as shogun and abdicated his authority to Emperor Meiji.[45] Ieyasu set a precedent in 1605 when he retired as shogun in favour of his son Tokugawa Hidetada, though he maintained power from behind the scenes as Ōgosho大御所, cloistered shogun).[46]
(During the Edo period, effective power rested with the Tokugawa shogun, not the Emperor in Kyoto, even though the former ostensibly owed his position to the latter. The shogun controlled foreign policy, the military, and feudal patronage. The role of the Emperor was ceremonial, similar to the position of the Japanese monarchy after the Second World War.[47]
The Honjō Masamune was inherited by successive shoguns and it represented the Tokugawa shogunate.[48] It was crafted by swordsmith Masamune (1264–1343) and recognized as one of the finest Japanese swords in history. After World War 2, in December 1945, Tokugawa Iemasa gave the sword to a police station at Mejiro and it went missing.[49]
Timelines[edit]
Timeline of the Kamakura shogunate[edit]
Timeline of the Ashikaga shogunate[edit]
Timeline of the Tokugawa shogunate[edit]
Shogunate[edit]
The term bakufu (幕府, "tent government") originally meant the dwelling and household of a shogun, but in time, became a metonym for the system of government dominated by a feudal military dictatorship, exercised in the name of the shogun or by the shogun himself. Therefore, various bakufu held absolute power over the country (territory ruled at that time) without pause from 1192 to 1867, glossing over actual power, clan and title transfers.
The shogunate system was originally established under the Kamakura shogunate by Minamoto no Yoritomo after the Genpei War, although theoretically the state (and therefore the Emperor) still held de jure ownership of all land in Japan. The system had some feudal elements, with lesser territorial lords pledging their allegiance to greater ones. Samurai were rewarded for their loyalty with agricultural surplus, usually rice, or labor services from peasants. In contrast to European feudal knights, samurai were not landowners.[50] The hierarchy that held this system of government together was reinforced by close ties of loyalty between the daimyōs, samurai and their subordinates.
Each shogunate was dynamic, not static. Power was constantly shifting and authority was often ambiguous. The study of the ebbs and flows in this complex history continues to occupy the attention of scholars. Each shogunate encountered competition. Sources of competition included the Emperor and the court aristocracy, the remnants of the imperial governmental systems, the daimyōs, the shōen system, the great temples and shrines, the sōhei, the shugo and jitō, the jizamurai and early modern daimyō. Each shogunate reflected the necessity of new ways of balancing the changing requirements of central and regional authorities.[51]
Relationship with the emperor[edit]
Since Minamoto no Yoritomo turned the figure of the shogun into a permanent and hereditary position and until the Meiji Restoration there were two ruling classes in Japan: 1. the emperor or tennō (天皇, lit. "Heavenly Sovereign"),[52] who acted as "chief priest" of the official religion of the country, Shinto, and 2. the shogun, head of the army who also enjoyed civil, military, diplomatic and judicial authority.[53] Although in theory the shogun was an emperor's servant, it became the true power behind the throne.[54]
No shogun tried to usurp the throne, even when they had at their disposal the military power of the territory. There were two reasons primarily:[55]
- Theoretically the shogun received the power of the emperor, so this was his symbol of authority.
- There was a sentimentalist tradition created by priests and religious who traced the imperial line from the "age of the gods" into an "eternal line unbroken by the times." According to Japanese mythology, the emperor was a direct descendant of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun.
Unable to usurp the throne, the shoguns sought throughout history to keep the emperor away from the country's political activity, relegating them from the sphere of influence. One of the few powers that the imperial house could retain was that of being able to "control time" through the designation of the Japanese Nengō or Eras and the issuance of calendars.[56]
This is a highlight of two historical attempts of the emperor to recover the power they enjoyed before the establishment of the shogunate. In 1219 the Emperor Go-Toba accused the Hōjō as outlaws. Imperial troops mobilized, leading to the Jōkyū War (1219–1221), which would culminate in the third Battle of Uji (1221). During this, the imperial troops were defeated and the emperor Go-Toba was exiled.[57] With the defeat of Go-Toba, the samurai government over the country was confirmed.[57] At the beginning of the fourteenth century the Emperor Go-Daigo decided to rebel, but the Hōjō, who were then regents, sent an army from Kamakura. The emperor fled before the troops arrived and took the imperial insignia.[58] The shogun named his own emperor, giving rise to the era Nanboku-chō period (南北朝, lit. "Southern and Northern Courts").
During the 1850s and 1860s, the shogunate was severely pressured both abroad and by foreign powers. It was then that various groups angry with the shogunate for the concessions made to the various European countries found in the figure of the emperor an ally through which they could expel the Tokugawa shogunate from power. The motto of this movement was Sonnō jōi (尊王攘夷, "Revere the Emperor, Eject the Barbarians") and they finally succeeded in 1868, when imperial power was restored after centuries of being in the shadow of the country's political life.[59]
Legacy[edit]
Upon Japan's surrender after World War II, American Army General Douglas MacArthur became Japan's de facto ruler during the years of occupation. So great was his influence in Japan that he has been dubbed the Gaijin Shōgun (外人将軍).[60]
Today, the head of the Japanese government is the Prime Minister; the usage of the term "shogun" has nevertheless continued in colloquialisms. A retired Prime Minister who still wields considerable power and influence behind the scenes is called a "shadow shogun" (闇将軍, yami shōgun),[61] a sort of modern incarnation of the cloistered rule. Examples of "shadow shoguns" are former Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka and the politician Ichirō Ozawa.[62]
See also[edit]
- Commander-in-chief
- Feudalism
- Kantō kubō
- History of Japan
- List of shoguns
References[edit]
- ^ a b Wells, John (3 April 2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
- ^ "Shogun". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
- ^ a b c The Modern Reader's Japanese-English Character Dictionary, ISBN 0-8048-0408-7
- ^ Beasley, William G. (1955). Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868, p. 321.
- ^ Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 26: 102–124. doi:10.2307/2718461. JSTOR 2718461.
- ^ "Yamasa Online Kanji Dictionary". Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ "Yamasa Online Kanji Dictionary". Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Turnbull, 2006a:21 & 22.
- ^ Turnbull, 2006a:207.
- ^ Friday, 2007:108.
- ^ Hall, 1991:241.
- ^ Adolphson, 2007:341.
- ^ Ishii, 2002:2396.
- ^ Ishii, 2002:2467.
- ^ There is no consensus among the various authors on this list since some sources consider Tajihi no Agatamori the first, some others take Ōtomo no Otomaro, other sources assure that the first was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, while others avoid the problem by just mentioning from the first Kamakura shogun.
- ^ Cranston, 1998:361.
- ^ Samurai Archives. "Early Japan". Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Cranston, 1998:427.
- ^ Sansom, 1931:201.
- ^ a b Takekoshi, 2004:96.
- ^ Cambridge University Press. "Cambridge Histories Online". Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Caiger, 1997:339.
- ^ Shively, 1999:xviii.
- ^ a b c De Bary et al., 2001:266.
- ^ a b c d The history files. "Shoguns of Japan". Retrieved 20 January 2009.
- ^ Shively et al., 1999:30.
- ^ Adolphson et al, 2007:334.
- ^ Turnbull, 2005:16.
- ^ a b c Deal, 2007:100–101.
- ^ Perkins, 1998b:292.
- ^ a b Varley, 1994:243.
- ^ a b Perkins, 1998b:295.
- ^ a b c Murdoch, 1996:791.
- ^ Deal, 2007:48.
- ^ 征夷大将軍―もう一つの国家主権 (in Japanese). Books Kinokuniya. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Andressen & Osborne, 2002:48.
- ^ Ramirez-faria, 283.
- ^ "Shogun". The World Book Encyclopedia. 17. World Book. 1992. pp. 432–433. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- ^ "shogun | Japanese title". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
- ^ a b Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan, 1134–1615. United States: Stanford University Press.
- ^ Grossberg, Kenneth A. (1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 31 (1): 34. doi:10.2307/2384184. ISSN 0027-0741. JSTOR 2384184.
- ^ a b Hall, John Whitney (1 January 1977). Japan in the Muromachi Age. University of California Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-520-02888-3.
- ^ conflicting start dates of 1336 and 1338 are listed across different sources.
- ^ Titsingh, I. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, p. 409.
- ^ "Japan". The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book. 1992. pp. 34–59. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- ^ Nussbaum, "Ogosho" at p. 738.
- ^ Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (Winter 1991). "In Name Only: Imperial Sovereignty in Early Modern Japan". Journal of Japanese Studies. 17 (1): 25–57. doi:10.2307/132906. JSTOR 132906.
- ^ http://internal.tbi.net/~max/ff9ref2.htm History of Masamune by Jim Kurrasch Archived April 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Searching for the Honjo Masamune, Lost Samurai Sword of Power". Ancient Origins. 30 July 2020. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
The man alleged to have received this sword was a sergeant by the name of ‘Coldy Bimore’, though there are no records that attest to his existence.
- ^ Bentley, Jerry. Traditions and Encounters. pp. 301–302. ISBN 978-0-07-325230-8.
- ^ Mass, J. et al., eds. (1985). The Bakufu in Japanese History, p. 189.
- ^ Mitchelhill & Green, 2003:59.
- ^ Kuno, 2007:245.
- ^ Davis, 2001:205.
- ^ Roth, 2007:103.
- ^ Fiévé & Waley, 2003:235.
- ^ a b Turnbull, 2006a:41.
- ^ Turnbull, 2006a:43.
- ^ Fiévé & Waley, 2003:236.
- ^ Valley, David J. (15 April 2000). Gaijin Shogun : Gen. Douglas MacArthur Stepfather of Postwar Japan. Title: Sektor Company. ISBN 978-0967817521. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
- ^ "闇将軍". Kotobank.
- ^ Ichiro Ozawa: the shadow shogun. In: The Economist, 10 September 2009.
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- Adolphson, Mikael; Edward Kamens, Stacie Matsumoto (2007). Heian Japan: Centers and Peripheries. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-3013-X.
- Friday, Karl (2007). The First Samurai: The Life and Legend of the Warrior Rebel, Taira Masakado. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-76082-X.
- Hall, John Whitney; James L. McClain, Marius B. Jansen (1991). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22355-5.
- Iwao, Seiichi; Teizō Iyanaga, Maison franco-japonaise Tōkyō, Susumu Ishii, Shōichirō Yoshida (2002). Maisonneuve & Larose. ISBN 2-7068-1575-2.
- Cranston, Edwin (1998). A Waka Anthology: Volume One: The Gem-Glistening Cup. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3157-8.
- Sansom, George Bailey (1931). Japan: A Short Cultural History. Stanford University Pres. ISBN 0-8047-0954-8.
- Takekoshi, Yosaburō (2004). The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-32379-7.
- Shively, Donald; John Whitney Hall, William H. McCullough (1999). The Cambridge History of Japan: Heian Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22353-9.
- De Bary, William Theodore; Yoshiko Kurata Dykstra; George Tanabe; Paul Varley (2001). Sources of Japanese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12139-3.
- Turnbull, Stephen (2005). Samurai Commanders (1) 940–1576. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-743-3.
- Deal, William (2007). Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-533126-5.
- Perkins, Dorothy (1998). The Samurai of Japan: A Chronology from Their Origin in the Heian Era (794–1185) to the Modern Era. Diane Publishing. ISBN 0-7881-4525-8.
- Perkins, George. (1998). The Clear Mirror: A Chronicle of the Japanese Court During the Kamakura Period (1185–1333). Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2953-0.
- Murdoch, James (1996). A History of Japan: 1652–1868. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15417-0.
- Hall, John Whitney (1 January 1977). Japan in the Muromachi Age. University of California Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-520-02888-3.
- Grossberg, Kenneth A. (1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 31 (1): 34. doi:10.2307/2384184. ISSN 0027-0741.
Further reading[edit]
- Beasley, William G. (1955). Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868. London: Oxford University Press. [reprinted by RoutledgeCurzon, London, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-713508-2 (cloth)]
- Columbia University (2000). "Japan: History: Early History to the Ashikaga Shoguns". Factmonster. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
- Brazell, Karen (November 1972). "The Changing of the Shogun 1289: An Excerpt from Towazugatari". The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese. 8 (1): 58–65. doi:10.2307/489093. JSTOR 489093.
- Brock, Karen L. (Winter 1995). "The Shogun's 'Painting Match'". Monumenta Nipponica. 50 (4): 433–484. doi:10.2307/2385589. JSTOR 2385589.
- Department of Asian Art. "Shoguns and Art". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
- Grossberg, Kenneth A. (August 1976). "Bakufu Bugyonin: The Size of the lower bureaucracy in Muromachi Japan". The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (4): 651–654. doi:10.2307/2053677. JSTOR 2053677.
- Grossberg, Kenneth A. (Spring 1976). "From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan". Monumenta Nipponica. 31 (1): 29–49. doi:10.2307/2384184. JSTOR 2384184.
- "Japan". The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book. 1992. pp. 34–59. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- Mass, Jeffrey P. and William B. Hauser, eds. (1985). The Bakufu in Japanese History. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- McCune, George M. (May 1946). "The Exchange of Envoys between Korea and Japan During the Tokugawa Period". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 5 (3): 308–325. doi:10.2307/2049052. JSTOR 2049052.
- Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301
- Ravina, Mark (November 1995). "State-Building and Political Economy in Early-modern Japan". The Journal of Asian Studies. 54 (4): 997–1022. doi:10.2307/2059957. JSTOR 2059957.
- Seigle, Cecilia Segawa (December 1999). "The Shogun's Consort: Konoe Hiroko and Tokugawa Ienobu". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 59 (2): 485–522. doi:10.2307/2652720. JSTOR 2652720.
- Hurst, C. Cameron, III; Smith, Henry (November 1981). "Review of Learning from Shogun: Japanese History and Western Fantasy, by Henry Smith". The Journal of Asian Studies. 41 (1): 158–159. doi:10.2307/2055644. JSTOR 2055644.
- Sansom, George. 1961. A History of Japan, 1134–1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7
- "Shogun". The World Book Encyclopedia. 17. World Book. 1992. pp. 432–433. ISBN 0-7166-0092-7.
- Sinsengumi, Bakumatuisin (2003). 仙台藩主. Bakusin (in Japanese). Retrieved 17 April 2007.
- Smith, Henry (ed.) (1980). Learning from Shogun: Japanese History and Western Fantasy (PDF). Santa Barbara: University of California Program in Asian Studies.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- Totman, Conrad (1966). "Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 26: 102–124. doi:10.2307/2718461. JSTOR 2718461.
- Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (Winter 1991). "In Name Only: Imperial Sovereignty in Early Modern Japan". Journal of Japanese Studies. 17 (1): 25–57. doi:10.2307/132906. JSTOR 132906.