La violencia contra las mujeres ( VCM ), también conocida como violencia de género [1] y violencia sexual y de género ( VSG ), [2] son actos violentos principalmente o exclusivamente cometidos contra mujeres o niñas. Esta violencia a menudo se considera una forma de crimen de odio , [3] cometido contra mujeres o niñas específicamente porque son mujeres , y puede tomar muchas formas.
La violencia contra las mujeres tiene una historia muy larga, aunque los incidentes y la intensidad de dicha violencia han variado a lo largo del tiempo e incluso hoy varían entre las sociedades. A menudo, esta violencia se considera un mecanismo de subyugación de la mujer, ya sea en la sociedad en general o en una relación interpersonal . Tal violencia puede surgir de un sentido de derecho , superioridad , misoginia o actitudes similares en el perpetrador o su naturaleza violenta, especialmente contra las mujeres.
La Declaración de la ONU sobre la Eliminación de la Violencia contra la Mujer establece que "la violencia contra la mujer es una manifestación de relaciones de poder históricamente desiguales entre hombres y mujeres" y "la violencia contra la mujer es uno de los mecanismos sociales fundamentales por los que las mujeres se ven obligadas a ocupar una posición subordinada en comparación con los hombres ". [4]
Kofi Annan , Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas , declaró en un informe de 2006 publicado en el sitio web del Fondo de Desarrollo de las Naciones Unidas para la Mujer (UNIFEM):
La violencia contra las mujeres y las niñas es un problema de proporciones pandémicas . Al menos una de cada tres mujeres en todo el mundo ha sido golpeada, obligada a tener relaciones sexuales o abusada de otra manera en su vida con el abusador, generalmente alguien conocido por ella. [5]
Tipos de violencia
La violencia contra la mujer puede encajar en varias categorías amplias. Estos incluyen la violencia llevada a cabo tanto por individuos como por estados. Algunas de las formas de violencia perpetrados por individuos son: violación , la violencia doméstica , el acoso sexual , los ataques con ácido , la coerción reproductiva , el infanticidio femenino , la selección prenatal del sexo , violencia obstétrica , la violencia de género en línea y la violencia de la multitud ; así como prácticas consuetudinarias o tradicionales nocivas como los asesinatos por honor , la violencia de la dote , la mutilación genital femenina , el matrimonio por secuestro y el matrimonio forzado . Hay formas de violencia que pueden ser perpetradas o toleradas por el gobierno, como la violación en la guerra ; violencia sexual y esclavitud sexual durante conflictos; esterilización forzada ; aborto forzado ; violencia por parte de la policía y personal autorizado; lapidación y azotes . Muchas formas de VCM, como la trata de mujeres y la prostitución forzada , a menudo son perpetradas por redes delictivas organizadas. [6] Históricamente, ha habido formas de WAV organizadas, como los juicios de brujas en el período moderno temprano o la esclavitud sexual de las mujeres Comfort .
La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), en su investigación sobre la VCM, ha analizado y categorizado las diferentes formas de VCM que ocurren en todas las etapas de la vida desde antes del nacimiento hasta la vejez. [7]
En los últimos años, ha habido una tendencia a abordar la VCM a nivel internacional a través de medios como convenciones o, en la Unión Europea , a través de directivas (como la directiva contra el acoso sexual y la directiva contra la trata de personas ). [8] [9]
Definición
Varios organismos internacionales han promulgado varios instrumentos internacionales que tienen como objetivo eliminar la violencia contra la mujer y la violencia doméstica. Por lo general, comienzan con una definición de lo que es tal violencia, con miras a combatir tales prácticas. El Convenio de Estambul (Convenio del Consejo de Europa para prevenir y combatir la violencia contra las mujeres y la violencia doméstica ) del Consejo de Europa describe la VCM "como una violación de los derechos humanos y una forma de discriminación contra la mujer" y define la VCM como "todos los actos de género. -violencia que resulte o pueda resultar en daño o sufrimiento físico, sexual, psicológico o económico a las mujeres, incluidas amenazas de tales actos, coacción o privación arbitraria de la libertad, ya sea en la vida pública o privada. [ 10]
La Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer (CEDAW) de 1979 de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas hace recomendaciones relacionadas con la VCM, [11] y la Declaración y Programa de Acción de Viena menciona la VCM. [12] Sin embargo, la resolución de 1993 de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas sobre la Declaración sobre la Eliminación de la Violencia contra la Mujer fue el primer instrumento internacional en definir explícitamente la VCM y desarrollar el tema. [13] Otras definiciones de VCM se establecen en la Convención Interamericana para Prevenir, Sancionar y Erradicar la Violencia contra la Mujer de 1994 [14] y en el Protocolo de Maputo de 2003 . [15]
Además, el término violencia de género se refiere a "todo acto o amenaza de actos destinados a herir o hacer sufrir a las mujeres física, sexual o psicológicamente y que afecten a las mujeres por ser mujeres o afecten desproporcionadamente a las mujeres". [16] La definición de violencia de género se utiliza con mayor frecuencia "indistintamente con violencia contra la mujer", [17] y algunos artículos sobre la VCM reiteran estas concepciones al afirmar que los hombres son los principales perpetradores de esta violencia. [18] Además, la definición de la Declaración sobre la Eliminación de la Violencia contra la Mujer de 1993 también apoyó la noción de que la violencia tiene sus raíces en la desigualdad entre hombres y mujeres cuando el término violencia se usa junto con el término "basada en el género". [17]
En la Recomendación Rec (2002) 5 del Comité de Ministros a los estados miembros sobre la protección de las mujeres contra la violencia , el Consejo de Europa estipuló que la VCM "incluye, pero no se limita a, lo siguiente": [19]
- una. violencia que se produce en la familia o unidad doméstica, que incluye, entre otras cosas , agresión física y mental, abuso emocional y psicológico, violación y abuso sexual, incesto, violación entre cónyuges, parejas y convivientes habituales u ocasionales, delitos cometidos en nombre del honor, la mutilación sexual y genital femenina y otras prácticas tradicionales nocivas para la mujer, como los matrimonios forzados;
- B. violencia que se produce dentro de la comunidad en general, incluidos, entre otros , la violación, el abuso sexual, el acoso sexual y la intimidación en el trabajo, en instituciones o en otros lugares, la trata de mujeres con fines de explotación sexual y explotación económica y turismo sexual;
- C. violencia perpetrada o tolerada por el estado o sus funcionarios;
- D. violación de los derechos humanos de las mujeres en situaciones de conflicto armado, en particular la toma de rehenes, el desplazamiento forzado, la violación sistemática, la esclavitud sexual, el embarazo forzado y la trata con fines de explotación sexual y explotación económica.
Algunas personas consideran que estas definiciones de VCM basadas en el género son insatisfactorias y problemáticas. Estas definiciones se conceptualizan en una comprensión de la sociedad como patriarcal, lo que significa relaciones desiguales entre hombres y mujeres. [20] Quienes se oponen a tales definiciones argumentan que las definiciones ignoran la violencia contra los hombres y que el término género , tal como se usa en la violencia de género , solo se refiere a las mujeres. Otros críticos argumentan que emplear el término género de esta manera particular puede introducir nociones de inferioridad y subordinación para la feminidad y superioridad para la masculinidad. [21] [22] No existe una definición actual ampliamente aceptada que cubra todas las dimensiones de la violencia de género más que la de mujeres que tiende a reproducir el concepto de oposiciones binarias: masculinidad versus feminidad. [6]
Documento | Adoptado por | Fecha | Definición |
---|---|---|---|
Recomendación general 19 | Comité CEDAW | 1992 | "La definición de discriminación incluye la violencia de género, es decir, la violencia que se dirige contra una mujer por ser mujer o que afecta a las mujeres de manera desproporcionada". [23] |
DEVAW | Naciones Unidas | 20 de diciembre de 1993 | '... el término' violencia contra la mujer 'significa cualquier acto de violencia de género que resulte o pueda resultar en daño o sufrimiento físico, sexual o psicológico para la mujer'. [24] |
Convención de Belém do Pará | Organizacion de estados americanos | 9 de junio de 1994 | '... se entenderá por violencia contra la mujer todo acto o conducta, por razón de género, que cause la muerte o daño o sufrimiento físico, sexual o psicológico a la mujer, ya sea en el ámbito público o privado'. [25] |
Protocolo de Maputo | Unión Africana | 11 de julio de 2003 | '"Violencia contra la mujer" significa todos los actos perpetrados contra la mujer que le causen o puedan causarles daños físicos, sexuales, psicológicos y económicos, incluida la amenaza de cometer tales actos; o emprender la imposición de restricciones arbitrarias o la privación de las libertades fundamentales en la vida privada o pública en tiempos de paz y durante situaciones de conflictos armados o de guerra ... ' [26] |
Convención de Estambul | Consejo Europeo | 11 de mayo de 2011 | '... la “violencia contra la mujer” se entiende como una violación de los derechos humanos y una forma de discriminación contra la mujer y se referirá a todos los actos de violencia de género que tengan como resultado, o puedan tener como resultado, actos de violencia física, sexual o psicológica o daño o sufrimiento económico a las mujeres, incluidas amenazas de tales actos, coacción o privación arbitraria de la libertad, ya sea en la vida pública o privada; (...) “género” significa los roles, comportamientos, actividades y atributos socialmente construidos que una sociedad determinada considera apropiados para mujeres y hombres; “Violencia de género contra la mujer” significará la violencia dirigida contra una mujer por ser mujer o que afecte a las mujeres de manera desproporcionada ... '. El preámbulo señala: '... Reconociendo que las mujeres y las niñas están expuestas a un mayor riesgo de violencia de género que los hombres; Reconociendo que la violencia doméstica afecta a las mujeres de manera desproporcionada y que los hombres también pueden ser víctimas de violencia doméstica ... ' [27] |
Historia
Descripción general
La historia de la violencia contra la mujer sigue siendo vaga en la literatura científica. Esto se debe en parte a que muchos tipos de violencia contra la mujer (específicamente violación, agresión sexual y violencia doméstica) no se denuncian, a menudo debido a normas sociales, tabúes, estigma y la naturaleza sensible del tema. [28] [29] Es ampliamente reconocido que incluso hoy en día, la falta de datos confiables y continuos es un obstáculo para formarse una imagen clara de la violencia contra la mujer. [30]
Aunque la historia de la violencia contra la mujer es difícil de rastrear, está claro que gran parte de la violencia fue aceptada, tolerada e incluso sancionada legalmente. [31] Los ejemplos incluyen que la ley romana otorgó a los hombres el derecho de castigar a sus esposas, incluso hasta el punto de la muerte, [32] y la quema de brujas, que fue aprobada tanto por la iglesia como por el estado (aunque esto no era una práctica exclusivamente contra las mujeres). [31]
La historia de la violencia contra la mujer está estrechamente relacionada con la visión histórica de la mujer como propiedad y un rol de subordinación de género. [33] Para explicar el alcance y la historia de la violencia contra la mujer se citan explicaciones sobre el patriarcado y un sistema mundial general o statu quo en el que existen y se perpetúan las desigualdades de género. [29] [30] La Declaración de la ONU sobre la Eliminación de la Violencia contra la Mujer (1993) establece que "la violencia contra la mujer es una manifestación de relaciones de poder históricamente desiguales entre hombres y mujeres, que han llevado a la dominación y discriminación de las mujeres por parte de los hombres ya la prevención del pleno adelanto de la mujer, ya que la violencia contra la mujer es uno de los mecanismos sociales cruciales por los que las mujeres se ven obligadas a ocupar una posición subordinada en comparación con los hombres ". [34] [35]
Según la ONU, "no hay región del mundo, ningún país ni cultura en la que las mujeres estén libres de violencia". [30] Varias formas de violencia son más frecuentes en ciertas partes del mundo, a menudo en países en desarrollo . Por ejemplo, la violencia de la dote y la quema de novias están asociadas con India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka y Nepal . El lanzamiento de ácido también está asociado con estos países, así como en el sudeste asiático , incluida Camboya . El asesinato por honor está asociado con el Medio Oriente y el sur de Asia . La mutilación genital femenina se encuentra principalmente en África y, en menor medida, en Oriente Medio y algunas otras partes de Asia. El matrimonio por secuestro se encuentra en Etiopía , Asia Central y el Cáucaso . El abuso relacionado con el pago del precio de la novia (como la violencia, la trata y el matrimonio forzado) está relacionado con partes de África subsahariana y Oceanía. (Ver también lobolo .) [36] [37]
Algunas regiones ya no están asociadas con una forma específica de violencia, pero esa violencia era común hasta hace muy poco en esos lugares; esto es cierto en el caso de los delitos por honor en la Europa meridional y mediterránea. [38] Por ejemplo, en Italia , antes de 1981, el Código Penal preveía circunstancias atenuantes en caso de asesinato de una mujer o de su pareja sexual por motivos relacionados con el honor, y preveía una pena reducida. [39]
Invocar la cultura para explicar formas particulares de violencia contra la mujer corre el riesgo de legitimarlas. También hay debate y controversia sobre las formas en que las tradiciones culturales, las costumbres locales y las expectativas sociales, así como las diversas interpretaciones de la religión, interactúan con las prácticas abusivas. [30] [40] Específicamente, algunos estados y grupos sociales dentro de muchos países afirman que existen justificaciones culturales para ciertos actos violentos contra las mujeres que afirman defender sus tradiciones. Estas justificaciones son cuestionables precisamente porque las defensas generalmente son expresadas por líderes políticos o autoridades tradicionales, no por los realmente afectados. [30] La necesidad de sensibilidad y respeto por la cultura es un elemento que tampoco se puede ignorar; por lo tanto, se ha producido un debate delicado y está en curso.
También ha habido un historial de reconocimiento de los efectos dañinos de esta violencia. En la década de 1870, los tribunales de los Estados Unidos dejaron de reconocer el principio de derecho consuetudinario de que un marido tenía derecho a "castigar físicamente a una esposa descarriada". [41] El primer estado en rescindir este derecho fue Alabama en 1871. [42] En el Reino Unido, el derecho de un marido a infligir un castigo corporal moderado a su esposa para mantenerla "dentro de los límites del deber" fue eliminado en 1891. [ 43] [44]
En los siglos XX y XXI, y en particular desde la década de 1990, se ha incrementado la actividad tanto a nivel nacional como internacional para investigar, sensibilizar y defender la prevención de todo tipo de violencia contra la mujer. [30] Con mucha frecuencia, la violencia contra la mujer se ha enmarcado como un problema de salud y también como una violación de los derechos humanos. Un estudio realizado en 2002 calculó que al menos una de cada cinco mujeres en el mundo había sido abusada física o sexualmente por un hombre en algún momento de su vida, y "la violencia de género es la causa de la muerte y la mala salud de las mujeres de 15 a 44 años. años como cáncer, y es una causa mayor de mala salud que la malaria y los accidentes de tráfico combinados ". [45]
De la investigación han surgido algunas características de la violencia contra la mujer. Por ejemplo, los actos de violencia contra la mujer a menudo no son episodios únicos, sino que continúan a lo largo del tiempo. La mayoría de las veces, la violencia es perpetrada por alguien que la mujer conoce, no por un extraño. [29] La investigación parece proporcionar pruebas convincentes de que la violencia contra la mujer es un problema grave y generalizado en todo el mundo, con efectos devastadores sobre la salud y el bienestar de las mujeres y los niños. [30]
Hitos
Algunos de los hitos más importantes a nivel internacional para la prevención de la violencia contra la mujer incluyen:
- La Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer (CEDAW) de 1979 , que reconoce la violencia como parte de la discriminación contra la mujer en las recomendaciones 12 y 19. [46]
- La Conferencia Mundial de Derechos Humanos de 1993 , que reconoció la violencia contra la mujer como una violación de los derechos humanos y que contribuyó a la siguiente declaración de la ONU. [46]
- La Declaración de las Naciones Unidas sobre la eliminación de la violencia contra la mujer de 1993 fue el primer instrumento internacional que definió y abordó explícitamente la violencia contra la mujer. Este documento se refiere específicamente a la naturaleza históricamente presente para siempre de las desigualdades de género en la comprensión de la violencia contra las mujeres. [46] (Incluya aquí el segundo párrafo actual). Esta Declaración, así como la Conferencia Mundial del mismo año, a menudo se considera un "punto de inflexión" en el que la consideración de la violencia contra la mujer por parte de la comunidad internacional comenzó a tomarse mucho más en serio, y después del cual más países se movilizaron en torno a este problema. [45] [47]
- La Conferencia Internacional sobre Población y Desarrollo de 1994 , que vincula la violencia contra las mujeres con la salud y los derechos reproductivos, y también brinda recomendaciones a los gobiernos sobre cómo prevenir y responder a la violencia contra las mujeres y las niñas. [46]
- En 1996, la Asamblea Mundial de la Salud (AMS) declaró que la violencia era un problema importante de salud pública, y se incluyeron en los subtipos reconocidos la violencia de pareja y la violencia sexual, dos tipos de violencia que a menudo se perpetran como violencia contra las mujeres. A esto le siguió un informe de la OMS en 2002 (ver más abajo). [28] La ONU también creó el Fondo Fiduciario para apoyar acciones para eliminar la violencia contra la mujer. [48]
- En 1999, la ONU adoptó el Protocolo Facultativo de la Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer y designó el 25 de noviembre como el Día Internacional para la Eliminación de la Violencia contra la Mujer . [45]
- En 2002, como seguimiento de la declaración de la AMS en 1996 sobre la violencia como un problema importante de salud pública, la Organización Mundial de la Salud publicó el primer Informe mundial sobre violencia y salud, que abordó muchos tipos de violencia y sus efectos en la salud pública. incluidas las formas de violencia que afectan a las mujeres con especial fuerza. El informe señaló específicamente el fuerte aumento de las organizaciones de la sociedad civil y las actividades dirigidas a responder a la violencia de género contra las mujeres desde los años setenta hasta los noventa. [28]
- En 2004, la Organización Mundial de la Salud publicó su "Estudio multinacional sobre la salud de la mujer y la violencia doméstica contra la mujer", un estudio sobre la salud de la mujer y la violencia doméstica mediante una encuesta a más de 24.000 mujeres en 10 países de todas las regiones del mundo, que evaluó la prevalencia y alcance de la violencia contra la mujer, particularmente la violencia por parte de la pareja íntima, y vinculó esto con los resultados de salud de las mujeres, así como con la documentación de estrategias y servicios que las mujeres utilizan para hacer frente a la violencia de la pareja íntima. [47]
- El "Estudio en profundidad sobre todas las formas de violencia contra la mujer" del Secretario General de la ONU de 2006, el primer documento internacional completo sobre el tema. [30]
- El Convenio del Consejo de Europa de 2011 sobre prevención y lucha contra la violencia contra las mujeres y la violencia doméstica , que es el segundo instrumento regional jurídicamente vinculante sobre la violencia contra las mujeres y las niñas. [46]
- En 2013, la Comisión de la Condición Jurídica y Social de la Mujer (CSW) de las Naciones Unidas adoptó, por consenso, las Conclusiones convenidas sobre la eliminación y prevención de todas las formas de violencia contra las mujeres y las niñas (anteriormente, no había conclusiones convenidas). [46]
- También en 2013, la Asamblea General de la ONU aprobó su primera resolución en la que pedía la protección de las defensoras de los derechos humanos de las mujeres. [49] La resolución insta a los estados a implementar leyes y políticas específicas de género para la protección de las defensoras de los derechos humanos de las mujeres y a asegurar que las mismas defensoras estén involucradas en el diseño e implementación de estas medidas, y exhorta a los estados a proteger los derechos humanos de las mujeres. defensores de los derechos humanos de las represalias por cooperar con la ONU y garantizar su acceso y comunicación sin obstáculos con los órganos y mecanismos internacionales de derechos humanos. [50]
Además, a nivel nacional, los países individuales también han organizado esfuerzos (legal, política y socialmente) para prevenir, reducir y sancionar la violencia contra las mujeres. Como estudio de caso particular, aquí hay algunos avances desde la década de 1960 en los Estados Unidos para oponerse y tratar la violencia contra la mujer: [42]
- 1967: Se abre uno de los primeros refugios de violencia doméstica del país en Maine.
- 1972: Se abre la primera línea directa de ayuda para casos de violación del país en Washington, DC
- 1978: Se formaron dos coaliciones nacionales, la Coalición Nacional contra la Agresión Sexual y la Coalición Nacional contra la Violencia Doméstica , para crear conciencia sobre estas dos formas de violencia contra la mujer.
- 1984: El Fiscal General de los Estados Unidos creó el Grupo de Trabajo sobre Violencia Familiar del Departamento de Justicia, para abordar las formas en que se debe mejorar el sistema de justicia penal y la respuesta comunitaria a la violencia doméstica.
- 1994: Aprobación de la Ley de Violencia contra la Mujer o VAWA, legislación incluida en la Ley de Control y Aplicación de la Ley de Delitos Violentos de 1994, patrocinada por el entonces senador Joseph Biden, que requería una respuesta comunitaria reforzada a los delitos de violencia doméstica y agresión sexual, reforzada sanciones federales para los delincuentes sexuales reincidentes y protección legislativa reforzada de las víctimas, entre muchas otras disposiciones.
- 2000: El presidente Clinton promulgó la ley VAWA de 2000, fortaleciendo aún más las leyes federales y enfatizando la asistencia a víctimas inmigrantes, víctimas de edad avanzada, víctimas con discapacidades y víctimas de violencia en el noviazgo.
- 2006: El presidente Bush promulgó la ley VAWA de 2006, con énfasis en programas para abordar la violencia contra las víctimas jóvenes y el establecimiento de programas para la participación de hombres y jóvenes, y servicios cultural y lingüísticamente específicos.
- 2007: Se abre la línea directa nacional contra el abuso en las citas entre adolescentes.
- 2009: El presidente Obama declaró abril como el Mes de la Concientización sobre la Agresión Sexual.
- 2013: El presidente Obama promulgó la ley VAWA de 2015, que otorgó a las tribus nativas americanas la capacidad de enjuiciar a los delincuentes no nativos y reguló los informes de agresión sexual en los campus universitarios. [51] [52]
Otros países también han promulgado instrumentos legislativos, políticos y sociales comparables para abordar la violencia contra la mujer. Sin embargo, los expertos de la comunidad internacional creen en general que la mera promulgación de leyes punitivas para la prevención y el castigo de la violencia contra la mujer no es suficiente para abordar el problema. Por ejemplo, aunque se han aprobado leyes mucho más estrictas sobre la violencia contra la mujer en Bangladesh, la violencia contra la mujer sigue aumentando. [45] Y la violencia contra la mujer ha aumentado drásticamente en todo el mundo desde finales de la década de 2010 a pesar de que se han adoptado medidas similares en muchas regiones, así como una mayor conciencia y discusión sobre el tema. [53] [54] [55] En cambio, se cree que amplios cambios sociales para abordar las desigualdades de género y el empoderamiento de las mujeres serán la forma de reducir la violencia contra las mujeres. [30] [45] [56] [57]
Efecto en la sociedad
De acuerdo con un artículo de la Salud y los Derechos Humanos Diario , [48] a pesar de muchos años de promoción y participación de muchas organizaciones de activistas feministas, la cuestión de la violencia contra las mujeres todavía "sigue siendo una de las formas más generalizadas de violaciónes de derechos humanos en todo el mundo" . [48] : 91 La violencia contra la mujer puede ocurrir tanto en el ámbito público como privado de la vida y en cualquier momento de su vida. La violencia contra las mujeres a menudo impide que las mujeres contribuyan por completo al desarrollo social, económico y político de sus comunidades. [48] Muchas mujeres están aterrorizadas por estas amenazas de violencia y esto esencialmente influye en sus vidas de tal manera que se ven impedidas para el ejercicio de sus derechos humanos; por ejemplo, temen contribuir al desarrollo social, económico y político de sus comunidades. Aparte de eso, las causas que desencadenan la VCM o la violencia de género pueden ir más allá de la cuestión de género y entrar en cuestiones de edad, clase, cultura, etnia, religión, orientación sexual y área geográfica específica de sus orígenes.
Es importante destacar que, además de la cuestión de las divisiones sociales, la violencia también puede extenderse al ámbito de los problemas de salud y convertirse en una preocupación directa del sector de la salud pública. [58] Un problema de salud como el VIH / SIDA es otra causa que también conduce a la violencia. Las mujeres infectadas por el VIH / SIDA también se encuentran entre los objetivos de la violencia. [48] : 91 La Organización Mundial de la Salud informa que la violencia contra la mujer supone una carga excesiva para los servicios de salud, ya que las mujeres que han sufrido violencia tienen más probabilidades de necesitar servicios de salud y a un costo más alto, en comparación con las mujeres que no han sufrido violencia. [57] Otra afirmación que confirma la comprensión de la VCM como un problema de salud importante es evidente en la recomendación adoptada por el Consejo de Europa, la violencia contra la mujer en la esfera privada, en el hogar o la violencia doméstica , es la principal causa de "muerte y discapacidad "entre las mujeres que se enfrentaron a la violencia. [48] : 91
Además, varios estudios han demostrado un vínculo entre el mal trato a las mujeres y la violencia internacional. Estos estudios muestran que uno de los mejores predictores de la violencia internacional e intranacional es el maltrato de las mujeres en la sociedad. [59] [60]
Tipología
La violencia contra la mujer puede clasificarse según diferentes enfoques.
Tipología del ciclo de vida de la OMS
La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha desarrollado una tipología de violencia contra la mujer basada en sus ciclos de vida culturales.
Fase | Tipo de violencia |
Prenatal | Aborto selectivo por sexo; efectos del maltrato durante el embarazo en los resultados del parto |
Infancia | Infanticidio femenino; abuso físico, sexual y psicológico |
Niñez | Matrimonio infantil; mutilación genital femenina; abuso físico, sexual y psicológico; incesto; prostitución infantil y pornografía |
Adolescencia y adultez | Violencia durante el noviazgo y el noviazgo (por ejemplo, lanzamiento de ácido y violación en una cita); sexo bajo coacción económica (por ejemplo, niñas de la escuela que tienen sexo con "papás azucareros" a cambio de cuotas escolares); incesto; abuso sexual en el lugar de trabajo; violación; Acoso sexual; prostitución y pornografía forzadas; trata de mujeres; violencia de pareja; violación conyugal; abuso de la dote y asesinatos; homicidio de pareja; Abuso psicológico; abuso de mujeres con discapacidad; embarazo forzado |
Anciano | "Suicidio" forzoso u homicidio de viudas por motivos económicos; abuso sexual, físico y psicológico [7] |
Se ha logrado un progreso significativo hacia la protección de las mujeres contra la violencia a nivel internacional como producto del esfuerzo colectivo de cabildeo por parte de muchos movimientos de derechos de las mujeres; organizaciones internacionales a grupos de la sociedad civil. Como resultado, los gobiernos de todo el mundo y las organizaciones internacionales y de la sociedad civil trabajan activamente para combatir la violencia contra la mujer a través de una variedad de programas. Entre los principales logros de los movimientos por los derechos de las mujeres contra la violencia contra las niñas y las mujeres, los logros más importantes son la " Declaración sobre la eliminación de la violencia contra la mujer " que implica "voluntad política para abordar la VCM" y el acuerdo legal vinculante, "la Convención sobre la violencia contra la mujer ". Eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer ( CEDAW ) ". [61] Además, la resolución de la Asamblea General de la ONU también designó el 25 de noviembre como Día Internacional para la Eliminación de la Violencia contra la Mujer . [62]
Tipología de The Lancet a lo largo del tiempo
Una tipología similar a la de la OMS de un artículo sobre violencia contra las mujeres publicado en la revista académica The Lancet muestra los diferentes tipos de violencia perpetrados contra las mujeres según el período de tiempo en la vida de las mujeres en el que se produce la violencia. [29] Sin embargo, también clasifica los tipos de violencia según el autor. Un punto importante a tener en cuenta es que la mayoría de los tipos de violencia infligidos a las mujeres son perpetrados por alguien que la mujer conoce, ya sea un miembro de la familia o pareja íntima, en lugar de un extraño.
Las nueve formas de violencia del Consejo de Europa
La Comisión de Igualdad de Género del Consejo de Europa identifica nueve formas de violencia contra la mujer basadas en el tema y el contexto, más que en el ciclo de vida o el período de tiempo: [63] [64]
- 'Violencia intrafamiliar o violencia doméstica'
- 'Violación y violencia sexual'
- 'Acoso sexual'
- 'Violencia en entornos institucionales'
- 'Mutilación genital femenina'
- 'Matrimonios forzosos'
- 'Violencia en situaciones de conflicto y posconflicto'
- 'Asesinatos en nombre del honor'
- 'No respetar la libertad de elección con respecto a la reproducción'
Formas de violencia
La violencia contra la mujer puede adoptar diversas formas y surgir en diversas situaciones:
Violencia contra la mujer en la política
La violencia contra las mujeres en la política (VCMN) es el acto o la amenaza de violencia física, emocional o psicológica contra mujeres políticas por razón de su género , con mayor frecuencia con la intención de disuadir a las víctimas y a otras mujeres políticas de participar en el proceso político.
La VCMN ha ido ganando importancia entre los campos de la ciencia política de género y los estudios de teoría política feminista. La intención principal detrás de la creación de una categoría separada que sea distinta de Violencia contra las mujeres, es resaltar las barreras que enfrentan las mujeres que trabajan en política o desean seguir una carrera en el ámbito político. Si bien la participación de las mujeres en los parlamentos nacionales ha ido en aumento, pasando del 11% en 1995 al 25% en 2021, todavía existe una gran disparidad entre la representación masculina y femenina en la política gubernamental. [65] Ampliar la participación de las mujeres en el gobierno es un objetivo crucial para muchos países, ya que las mujeres políticas han demostrado ser invaluables con respecto a traer ciertos temas a un primer plano, como la eliminación de la violencia de género, la licencia parental y el cuidado de los niños, las pensiones, el género. leyes de igualdad, reformas electorales y la provisión de nuevas perspectivas sobre numerosas áreas de políticas que típicamente han permanecido en un ámbito dominado por los hombres. [65] Para aumentar la participación de las mujeres de manera efectiva, no se puede subestimar la importancia de reconocer los problemas relacionados con la VCMN y hacer todo lo posible para proporcionar los recursos necesarios a las víctimas y condenar cualquier comportamiento hostil en las instituciones políticas.
Los actos de violencia o acoso a menudo no se consideran genéricos cuando se denuncian. Esta ambigüedad da como resultado una falta de información sobre los ataques y hace que el problema parezca relativamente común. Si bien se informa que las mujeres en la política son objeto de violencia con más frecuencia que sus homólogos masculinos, [66] la causa específica a menudo no se informa como un delito de género. Esto hace que sea más difícil precisar dónde están realmente los vínculos entre la violencia de género y la violencia política. El informe de 2011 de Gabrielle Bardell: "Rompiendo moldes: entendiendo la violencia de género y electoral" fue uno de los primeros documentos publicados que mostraba ejemplos y cifras de cómo las mujeres son intimidadas y atacadas en la política [67].
En muchos países, la práctica de la política electoral se considera tradicionalmente un dominio masculino . [68] La historia de la política dominada por los hombres ha permitido que algunos políticos masculinos crean que tienen derecho a participar en la política, mientras que las mujeres no. La violencia contra las mujeres en la política se atribuye típicamente a una ira generalizada hacia las mujeres en su conjunto, con la intención de disuadir a muchas mujeres de participar después de presenciar el tratamiento de otras víctimas. Los hombres políticos a veces se sienten amenazados por la perspectiva de que una mujer política ocupe su puesto, lo que puede hacer que se arrepientan, y los hombres débiles no quieren sentir que las mujeres podrían estar por encima de ellos, lo que los hace acosar y amenazar a las mujeres en el poder. Varios políticos masculinos tienden a ver a las mujeres en la política como un desafío al orden social, lo que puede llevarlas a arremeter contra las mujeres que ocupan puestos de poder en el gobierno.
“Uno de los desafíos más graves que enfrentan las mujeres como resultado de su mayor participación es la violencia política de género contra los candidatos y las mujeres políticas electas. Las mujeres a menudo son sometidas a amenazas, ataques, intimidación, violencia física y psicológica y acoso por parte de los hombres. porque se atreven a hablar públicamente en una sociedad patriarcal. "- Carolina Gottardo y Maria Eugenia Rojas
El 48% de la violencia electoral contra las mujeres es contra los simpatizantes, este es probablemente el porcentaje más grande ya que tiene la mayor cantidad de público participando. El 9% de la violencia electoral contra las mujeres tiene como objetivo a los candidatos, mientras que el 22% tiene como objetivo a las votantes. Esto significa que es probable que las mujeres que actúan directamente en política se enfrenten a algún tipo de violencia, ya sea física o emocional. [67]
Violación
Las mujeres suelen ser víctimas de violaciones, que suelen ser perpetradas por hombres que conocen. [69] La tasa de denuncias, enjuiciamientos y condenas por violación varía considerablemente en las diferentes jurisdicciones y refleja en cierta medida las actitudes de la sociedad hacia tales delitos. Se considera el delito violento menos denunciado. [70] [71] Después de una violación, una víctima puede enfrentar violencia o amenazas de violencia por parte del violador y, en muchas culturas, de la propia familia y parientes de la víctima. La violencia o intimidación de la víctima puede ser perpetrada por el violador o por amigos y familiares del violador, como una forma de evitar que las víctimas denuncien la violación, de castigarlas por denunciarla o de obligarlas a retirar la denuncia; o puede ser perpetrado por los familiares de la víctima como castigo por "avergonzar" a la familia. Este es especialmente el caso en culturas donde la virginidad femenina es muy valorada y considerada obligatoria antes del matrimonio; en casos extremos, las víctimas de violación mueren en asesinatos por honor . Las víctimas también pueden ser obligadas por sus familias a casarse con el violador para restaurar el "honor" de la familia. [72] En el Líbano, la Campaña contra la Ley Libanesa de Violación - Artículo 522 se lanzó en diciembre de 2016 para abolir el artículo que permitía a un violador escapar de la prisión al casarse con su víctima.
A nivel internacional, la incidencia de violaciones registradas por la policía durante 2008 varió entre 0,1 por 100.000 personas en Egipto y 91,6 por 100.000 personas en Lesotho, con 4,9 por 100.000 habitantes en Lituania como media . [73] En algunos países, la policía no denuncia ni registra adecuadamente la violación debido a las consecuencias para la víctima y al estigma que conlleva.
Violación conyugal
La violación conyugal o conyugal alguna vez fue ampliamente tolerada o ignorada por la ley, y ahora es considerada una violencia inaceptable contra la mujer, repudiada por las convenciones internacionales y cada vez más criminalizada. Sin embargo, en muchos países, la violación conyugal sigue siendo legal o es ilegal, pero es ampliamente tolerada y aceptada como prerrogativa del marido. La tipificación como delito de la violación conyugal es reciente y se ha producido durante las últimas décadas. La comprensión y los puntos de vista tradicionales sobre el matrimonio , la violación , la sexualidad , los roles de género y la autodeterminación han comenzado a ser cuestionados en la mayoría de los países occidentales durante las décadas de 1960 y 1970, lo que ha llevado a la posterior criminalización de la violación conyugal durante las décadas siguientes. Con algunas excepciones notables, fue durante los últimos 30 años cuando se promulgaron la mayoría de las leyes contra la violación conyugal. Algunos países de Escandinavia y del antiguo bloque comunista de Europa declararon ilegal la violación conyugal antes de 1970, pero la mayoría de los países occidentales la criminalizaron solo en las décadas de 1980 y 1990. En muchas partes del mundo, las leyes contra la violación conyugal son muy nuevas y se promulgaron en la década de 2000.
En Canadá , la violación conyugal se declaró ilegal en 1983, cuando se realizaron varios cambios legales, incluido el cambio de la ley de violación a agresión sexual y la neutralización del género de las leyes. [74] [75] [76] En Irlanda, la violación conyugal fue prohibida en 1990. [77] En los Estados Unidos, la criminalización de la violación conyugal comenzó a mediados de la década de 1970 y en 1993 Carolina del Norte se convirtió en el último estado en declarar ilegal la violación conyugal. . [78] En Inglaterra y Gales , la violación conyugal se declaró ilegal en 1991. Las opiniones de Sir Matthew Hale, un jurista del siglo XVII, publicadas en The History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736), declararon que un marido no puede ser culpable de la violación de su esposa porque la esposa "se ha entregado de esta manera a su marido, del cual no puede retractarse"; en Inglaterra y Gales, esto seguiría siendo ley durante más de 250 años, hasta que fue abolido por el Comité de Apelación de la Cámara de los Lores , en el caso de R v R en 1991. [79] En los Países Bajos, la violación conyugal también se declaró ilegal en 1991. [80] Uno de los últimos países occidentales en tipificar como delito la violación conyugal fue Alemania , en 1997. [81]
La relación entre algunas religiones ( cristianismo e islam ) y la violación conyugal es controvertida. La Biblia en 1 Corintios 7: 3-5 explica que uno tiene el "deber conyugal" de tener relaciones sexuales con su cónyuge (en clara oposición al sexo fuera del matrimonio , que se considera un pecado ) y declara: "La esposa no tiene autoridad sobre su propio cuerpo, pero el marido la tiene. Y del mismo modo, el marido no tiene autoridad sobre su propio cuerpo, sino la esposa. No se prive el uno al otro ... " [82] Algunas figuras religiosas conservadoras interpretan esto como un rechazo a posibilidad de violación conyugal. [83] El Islam también hace referencia a las relaciones sexuales en el matrimonio, en particular: "El Apóstol de Alá dijo: 'Si un esposo llama a su esposa a su cama (es decir, para tener relaciones sexuales) y ella se niega y lo hace dormir enojado, los ángeles la maldecirá hasta la mañana '; " [84] y se han criticado varios comentarios sobre la cuestión de la violación conyugal hechos por líderes religiosos musulmanes. [85] [86]
Violencia doméstica
Es más probable que las mujeres sean victimizadas por alguien con quien tienen intimidad, comúnmente llamado " violencia de pareja íntima " (IPV). Los casos de violencia de género tienden a no informarse a la policía y, por lo tanto, a muchos expertos les resulta difícil estimar la verdadera magnitud del problema. [87] Aunque esta forma de violencia a menudo se considera un problema dentro del contexto de las relaciones heterosexuales, también ocurre en las relaciones lésbicas, [88] las relaciones entre hija y madre, las relaciones entre compañeros de cuarto y otras relaciones domésticas que involucran a dos mujeres. La violencia contra las mujeres en las relaciones lésbicas es tan común como la violencia contra las mujeres en las relaciones heterosexuales. [89]
Las mujeres tienen muchas más probabilidades que los hombres de ser asesinadas por una pareja íntima. En los Estados Unidos, en 2005, 1181 mujeres fueron asesinadas por sus parejas íntimas, en comparación con 329 hombres. [90] [91] En Inglaterra y Gales, alrededor de 100 mujeres son asesinadas por parejas o ex parejas cada año, mientras que 21 hombres fueron asesinados en 2010. [92] En 2008, en Francia , 156 mujeres fueron asesinadas por su pareja íntima, en comparación con 27 hombres. [93] Según la OMS, a nivel mundial, hasta el 38% de los asesinatos de mujeres son cometidos por una pareja íntima. [57] Un informe de la ONU compilado a partir de varios estudios diferentes realizados en al menos 71 países encontró que la violencia doméstica contra las mujeres es más frecuente en Etiopía . [94] Un estudio de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud realizado en 12 países latinoamericanos encontró que la mayor prevalencia de violencia doméstica contra la mujer se encuentra en Bolivia . [95] En Europa Occidental, un país que ha recibido importantes críticas internacionales por la forma en que ha abordado legalmente el tema de la violencia contra las mujeres es Finlandia ; con los autores señalando que un alto nivel de igualdad para las mujeres en la esfera pública (como en Finlandia) nunca debe equipararse con la igualdad en todos los demás aspectos de la vida de las mujeres. [96] [97] [98]
Planificación de diagnóstico
Los comités de planificación e investigación de la Asociación Estadounidense de Psiquiatría para el próximo DSM-5 (2013) han examinado una serie de nuevos trastornos relacionales , que incluyen el trastorno de conflicto conyugal sin violencia o el trastorno de abuso conyugal (trastorno de conflicto conyugal con violencia) . [99] : 164, 166 Las parejas con trastornos matrimoniales a veces acuden a la atención clínica porque la pareja reconoce una insatisfacción de larga data con su matrimonio y acude al médico por iniciativa propia o es referida por un astuto profesional de la salud. En segundo lugar, existe una violencia grave en el matrimonio, es decir, "generalmente el marido golpea a la mujer". [99] : 163 En estos casos, la sala de emergencias o una autoridad legal suele ser la primera en notificar al médico . Lo más importante es que la violencia conyugal "es un factor de riesgo importante de lesiones graves e incluso de muerte, y las mujeres en matrimonios violentos corren un riesgo mucho mayor de sufrir lesiones graves o morir ( Consejo Nacional Asesor sobre Violencia contra la Mujer 2000)". [99] : 166 Los autores de este estudio añaden: "Actualmente existe una controversia considerable sobre si la violencia conyugal entre hombres y mujeres se considera mejor como un reflejo de la psicopatología y el control masculino o si existe una base empírica y una utilidad clínica para conceptualizar estos patrones como relacionales ". [99] : 166
Recommendations for clinicians making a diagnosis of Marital Relational Disorder should include the assessment of actual or "potential" male violence as regularly as they assess the potential for suicide in depressed patients. Further, "clinicians should not relax their vigilance after a battered wife leaves her husband, because some data suggest that the period immediately following a marital separation is the period of greatest risk for the women. Many men will stalk and batter their wives in an effort to get them to return or punish them for leaving. Initial assessments of the potential for violence in a marriage can be supplemented by standardized interviews and questionnaires, which have been reliable and valid aids in exploring marital violence more systematically."[99]:166
The authors conclude with what they call "very recent information"[99]:167, 168 on the course of violent marriages, which suggests that "over time a husband's battering may abate somewhat, but perhaps because he has successfully intimidated his wife. The risk of violence remains strong in a marriage in which it has been a feature in the past. Thus, treatment is essential here; the clinician cannot just wait and watch."[99]:167, 168 The most urgent clinical priority is the protection of the wife because she is the one most frequently at risk, and clinicians must be aware that supporting assertiveness by a battered wife may lead to more beatings or even death.[99]:167, 168
Honor killings
Honor killings are a common form of violence against women in certain parts of the world. Honor killings are perpetrated by family members (usually husbands, fathers, uncles or brothers) against women in the family who are believed to have placed dishonor to the family. The death of the dishonorable woman is believed to restore honor.[100] These killings are a traditional practice,[where?] believed to have originated from tribal customs where an allegation against a woman can be enough to defile a family's reputation.[101][102] Women are killed for reasons such as refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, attempting to leave a marriage, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing in ways that are deemed inappropriate.[101][103]
Honor killings are common in countries such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Yemen.[103][104][105][106][107] Honor killings also occur in immigrant communities in Europe, the United States and Canada. Although honor killings are most often associated with the Middle East and South Asia, they occur in other parts of the world too.[101][108] In India, honor killings occur in the northern regions of the country, especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.[109][110] In Turkey, honor killings are a serious problem in Southeastern Anatolia.[111][112]
Dowry violence
The custom of dowry, which is common in South Asia, especially in India, is the trigger of many forms of violence against women. Bride burning is a form of violence against women in which a bride is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to his dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. Dowry death refers to the phenomenon of women and girls being killed or committing suicide due to disputes regarding dowry. Dowry violence is common in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. In India, in 2011 alone, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths, while unofficial figures suggest the numbers to be at least three times higher.[113]
Forced marriage
A forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both of the parties is married against their will. Forced marriages are common in South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. The customs of bride price and dowry, that exist in many parts of the world, contribute to this practice. A forced marriage is also often the result of a dispute between families, where the dispute is 'resolved' by giving a female from one family to the other.[114]
The custom of bride kidnapping continues to exist in some Central Asian countries such as Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and the Caucasus, or parts of Africa, especially Ethiopia. A girl or a woman is abducted by the would be groom, who is often helped by his friends. The victim is often raped by the would be groom, after which he may try to negotiate a bride price with the village elders to legitimize the marriage.[115]
Forced and child marriages are practiced by some inhabitants in Tanzania. Girls are sold by their families to older men for financial benefits and often girls are married off as soon as they hit puberty, which can be as young as seven years old.[116] To the older men, these young brides act as symbols of masculinity and accomplishment. Child brides endure forced sex, causing health risks and growth impediments.[117] Primary education is usually not completed for young girls in forced marriages. Married and pregnant students are often discriminated against, and expelled and excluded from school.[116] The Law of Marriage Act currently does not address issues with guardianship and child marriage. The issue of child marriage is not addressed enough in this law, and only establishes a minimum age of 18 for the boys of Tanzania. A minimum age needs to be enforced for girls to stop these practices and provide them with equal rights and a less harmful life.[118]
Force-feeding
In some countries, notably Mauritania, young girls are forcibly fattened to prepare them for marriage, because obesity is seen as desirable. This practice of force-feeding is known as leblouh or gavage.[119]
The practice goes back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback after a military junta took over the country in 2008.[120]
Son preference is a custom rooted in gender inequality that is prevalent in many countries and found across religions and classes.[121] Although preference for a specific sex of the child may be common in an abstract way in many cultures, when such preference is so strong as to lead to the rejection of the child or to violence against the mother, this crosses the line into domestic violence, child abuse and violence against women. Such forms of son preference are common especially in parts of South Asia, East Asia and the Caucasus. Manifestations of such practices include sex selective abortion, female infanticide, female child abandonment, as well as favoring sons with regard to allocating of family resources.[121]
China and India have a very strong son preference. In China, the one child policy was largely responsible for an unbalanced sex ratio. Sex-selective abortion, as well as rejection of girl children is common. The Dying Rooms is a 1995 television documentary film about Chinese state orphanages, which documented how parents abandoned their newborn girls into orphanages, where the staff would leave the children in rooms to die of thirst, or starvation. Another manifestation of son preference is the violence inflicted against mothers who give birth to girls.[122]
Acid throwing
Acid throwing, also called acid attack, or vitriolage, is defined as the act of throwing acid onto the body of a person "with the intention of injuring or disfiguring [them] out of jealousy or revenge".[123] The most common types of acid used in these attacks are sulfuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid.[124] Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones.[125] The long term consequences of these attacks include blindness and permanent scarring of the face and body.[126][127] Women and girls are the victims in 75-80% of cases.[128] Acid attacks are often connected to domestic disputes, including dowry disputes, and refusal of a proposal of marriage, or of sexual advances. Such attacks are common in South Asia, in countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, India; and in Southeast Asia, especially in Cambodia.[129]
Reproductive coercion
Reproductive coercion is a form of domestic or intimate partner violence, that involves violent, manipulative or deceptive behavior against reproductive health or reproductive rights within an intimate relation and includes a collection of behaviors intended to lead to forced pregnancy.[130] Reproductive coercion is used to maintain power, control, and domination within a relationship and over a partner through an unwanted pregnancy. It is considered a serious public health issue.[130][131] This reproductive control is highly correlated to unintended pregnancy.[132]
Forced pregnancy is the practice of forcing a woman or girl to become pregnant, often as part of a forced marriage, including by means of bride kidnapping, through rape (including marital rape, war rape and genocidal rape) or as part of a program of breeding slaves (see Slave breeding in the United States). In the 20th century, state mandated forced marriage with the aim of increasing the population was practiced by some authoritarian governments, notably during the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, which systematically forced people into marriages ordering them to have children, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution.[133] Forced pregnancy is strongly connected to the custom of bride price.[134]
Within the discourse on reproductive rights, the issue of abortion is often debated. Abortion law falls within the jurisdiction of each country, although forced abortion is prohibited by international law. The Istanbul Convention prohibits forced abortion and forced sterilization (Article 39).[135] The issue of forced continuation of pregnancy (i.e. denying a woman safe and legal abortion) is also seen by some organizations as a violation of women's rights, although there are no binding international obligations on this issue. However, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women considers the criminalization of abortion a "violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights" and a form of "gender based violence"; paragraph 18 of its General recommendation No. 35 on gender based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19 states, "Violations of women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights, such as forced sterilizations, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, criminalisation of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and post abortion care, forced continuation of pregnancy, abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, are forms of gender based violence that, depending on the circumstances, may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment."[136]
Mob violence
There have been mob attacks against single women in Hassi Messaoud, Algeria in 2001.[137] 95 women had been attacked by mobs of men, with at least six fatalities, although the authorities denied this.[138] As of 2011, similar mob attacks against women were continuing in Hassi Messaoud and elsewhere in Algeria, notably M'sila.[139][140] However, mob violence against women in the country dates back decades, and increased specifically after gaining independence from France in 1962, which was followed by return to stricter religious norms.[138]
According to Amnesty International, "some women have been sexually abused" and were targeted "not just because they are women, but because they are living alone and are economically independent".[137]
Dating abuse
Dating abuse or dating violence is the perpetration of coercion, intimidation or assault in the context of dating or courtship. It is also when one partner tries to maintain abusive power and control. Dating violence is defined by the CDC as "the physical, sexual, psychological, or emotional violence within a dating relationship, including stalking".[141] In some countries it is common for older men to engage in "compensated dating" with underage girls. Such relationships are called enjo kōsai in Japan, and are also common in Asian countries such as Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong. The WHO condemned "economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with "sugar daddies" (Sugar baby in return for school fees)" as a form of violence against women.[7]
Sexual violence on college campuses
Sexual violence on college campuses is considered a major problem in the United States. According to the conclusion of a major Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study: "The CSA Study data suggest women at universities are at considerable risk for experiencing sexual assault."[142] Sexual violence on campus has been researched in other countries too, such as Canada,[143] the UK,[144] and New Zealand.[145]
Restrictions on freedom of movement
Women are, in many parts of the world, severely restricted in their freedom of movement. Freedom of movement is an essential right, recognized by international instruments, including Article 15 (4) of CEDAW.[146] Nevertheless, in some countries, women are not legally allowed to leave home without a male guardian (male relative or husband).[147] Even in countries where there are no laws against women traveling alone, there are strong social norms, such as purdah - a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent especially among some Muslim and Hindu communities in South Asia. Many countries have laws on what type of clothing women may or may not wear in public (see Hijab by country). Women in some cultures are forced into social isolation during their menstrual periods. In parts of Nepal for instance, they are forced to live in sheds, are forbidden to touch men or even to enter the courtyard of their own homes, and are barred from consuming milk, yogurt, butter, meat, and various other foods, for fear they will contaminate those goods. (see Chhaupadi). Women have died during this period because of starvation, bad weather, or bites by snakes.[148] In cultures where women are restricted from being in public places, by law or custom, women who break such restrictions often face violence.[149]
Denial of medical care
Women in many parts of the world are often denied medical care. Denial of access to health assistance, along with denial of access to other services, is a form of socioeconomic violence against women.[151] According to the WHO, "Discrimination in health care settings takes many forms and is often manifested when an individual or group is denied access to health care services that are otherwise available to others. It can also occur through denial of services that are only needed by certain groups, such as women."[152]
Women may be denied medical care for numerous reasons, including lack of necessary freedom of movement allowing women to leave home so they can go to a medical facility, lack of financial resources, the need (in law or in practice) for a male relative or husband to consent to the medical care of the woman. A common consequence of denial of women's medical care is maternal mortality. Globally, there are more than 300.000 cases of maternal mortality yearly, with 99% of all maternal deaths occurring in developing countries.[153]
Denial of medical care often occurs with regard to reproductive and sexual health. Sometimes women themselves avoid the medical system for fear of being reported to the police or facing family violence due to having premarital sex or being the victims of sexual violence. In some parts of Latin America, with very strict anti-abortion laws, pregnant women avoid the medical system due to fear of being investigated by the authorities if they have a miscarriage, or a stillbirth, or other problems with the pregnancy. Prosecuting such women is quite common in places such as El Salvador.[154][155][156][157]
In developed societies, women face medial discrimination in that female health concerns are often dismissed or downplayed, especially when reproductive health is concerned. Research since 2001 has consistently shown that medical practitioners have been "dismissing, misdiagnosing, or cluelessly shrugging" at women seeking medical assistance.[158][159]
Denial of medical care for women has led to the exclusion of female needs in medical research and diagnosis, leading to a male bias in medical trials at the expense of women's health.[160]
Stalking
Stalking is unwanted or obsessive attention by an individual or group toward another person, often manifested through persistent harassment, intimidation, or following/monitoring of the victim. Stalking is often understood as "course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear".[161] Although stalkers are frequently portrayed as being strangers, they are most often known people, such as former or current partners, friends, colleagues or acquaintances. In the U.S., a survey by NVAW found that only 23% of female victims were stalked by strangers.[162] Stalking by partners can be very dangerous, as sometimes it can escalate into severe violence, including murder.[162] Police statistics from the 1990s in Australia indicated that 87.7% of stalking offenders were male and 82.4% of stalking victims were female.[163]
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment is abusive, uninvited and unwelcome behavior of a sexual nature, typically in the work/studying place, which may include intimidation, bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or the inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors. It can be verbal or physical, and it is often perpetrated by a person in a position of authority against a subordinate.[164] In the United States, sexual harassment is a form of discrimination that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence defines sexual harassment as: "any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature with the purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a person, in particular when creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment".[10]
Human trafficking and forced prostitution
Human trafficking refers to the acquisition of persons by improper means such as force, fraud or deception, with the aim of exploiting them.[165] The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children states,[166]
- "Trafficking in persons" shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.
Because of the illegal nature of trafficking, reliable data on its extent is very limited.[167] The WHO states "Current evidence strongly suggests that those who are trafficked into the sex industry and as domestic servants are more likely to be women and children."[167] A 2006 study in Europe on trafficked women found that the women were subjected to serious forms of abuse, such as physical or sexual violence, that affected their physical and mental health.[167]
Forced prostitution is prostitution that takes place as a result of coercion by a third party. In forced prostitution, the party/parties who force the victim to be subjected to unwanted sexual acts exercise control over the victim.[168]
Mistreatment of widows
A widow is a woman whose spouse has died. In some parts of the world, widows are subjected to serious forms of abuse, often fueled by traditional practices such as widow inheritance.[169] The sacrifice of widows (such as sati) has been prevalent historically in various cultures (especially in India). Although sati in India is today an almost defunct practice, isolated incidents have occurred in recent years, such as the 1987 sati of Roop Kanwar, as well as several incidents in rural areas in 2002,[170] and 2006.[171] Those likely to be accused and killed as witches are often widows.[172] In parts of Africa, such as in Kenya, widows are viewed as impure and need to be 'cleansed'. This often requires having sex with someone. Those refusing to be cleansed risk getting beaten by superstitious villagers, who may also harm the woman's children. It is argued that this notion arose from the idea that if a husband dies, the woman may have performed witchcraft against him.[173] Widow inheritance (also known as bride inheritance) is a cultural and social practice whereby a widow is required to marry a male relative of her late husband, often his brother.
Accusations of witchcraft
Witch trials in the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries) were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.[174] In addition, there are also countries that have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In Saudi Arabia, witchcraft remains a crime punishable by death.[175]
State violence
War rape and sexual slavery during military conflict
Militarism produces special environments that allow for increased violence against women. War rapes have accompanied warfare in virtually every known historical era.[176] Rape in the course of war is mentioned multiple times in the Bible: "For I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to battle, and the city shall be taken and the houses plundered and the women raped..." Zechariah 14:2 "Their little children will be dashed to death before their eyes. Their homes will be sacked, and their wives will be raped."Isaiah 13:16
War rapes are rapes committed by soldiers, other combatants or civilians during armed conflict or war, or during military occupation, distinguished from sexual assaults and rape committed amongst troops in military service. It also covers the situation where women are forced into prostitution or sexual slavery by an occupying power. During World War II the Japanese military established brothels filled with "comfort women", girls and women who were forced into sexual slavery for soldiers, exploiting women for the purpose of creating access and entitlement for men.[177][178]
Another example of violence against women incited by militarism during war took place in the Kovno Ghetto. Jewish male prisoners had access to (and used) Jewish women forced into camp brothels by the Nazis, who also used them.[179]
Rape was committed during the Bangladesh Liberation War by members of the Pakistani military and the militias that supported them. Over a period of nine months, hundreds of thousands of women were raped. Susan Brownmiller, in her report on the atrocities, said that girls from the age of eight to grandmothers of seventy-five suffered attacks.
Rape used as a weapon of war was practiced during the Bosnian War where rape was used as a highly systematized instrument of war by Serb armed forces predominantly targeting women and girls of the Bosniak ethnic group for physical and moral destruction. Estimates of the number of women raped during the war range from 50,000 to 60,000; as of 2010 only 12 cases have been prosecuted.[180]
The 1998 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda recognized rape as a war crime. Presiding judge Navanethem Pillay said in a statement after the verdict: "From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war."[181]
In 2006, five U.S. troops from a six-man unit gang raped and killed a 14-year-old girl in a village near the town of Al-Mahmudiyah, Iraq. After the rape the girl was shot in her head and the lower part of her body, from her stomach down to her feet, was set on fire.[182][183]
A 1995 study of female war veterans found that 90 percent had been sexually harassed. A 2003 survey found that 30 percent of female vets said they were raped in the military and a 2004 study of veterans who were seeking help for post-traumatic stress disorder found that 71 percent of the women said they were sexually assaulted or raped while serving.[184]
According to one report, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant's capture of Iraqi cities in June 2014 was accompanied by an upsurge in crimes against women, including kidnap and rape.[185] The Guardian reported that ISIL's extremist agenda extended to women's bodies and that women living under their control were being captured and raped.[186] Fighters are told that they are free to have sex and rape non-Muslim captive women.[187] Yazidi girls in Iraq allegedly raped by ISIL fighters committed suicide by jumping to their death from Mount Sinjar, as described in a witness statement.[188] Haleh Esfandiari from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars has highlighted the abuse of local women by ISIL militants after they have captured an area. "They usually take the older women to a makeshift slave market and try to sell them. The younger girls ... are raped or married off to fighters", she said, adding, "It's based on temporary marriages, and once these fighters have had sex with these young girls, they just pass them on to other fighters."[189] Describing the Yazidi women captured by ISIS, Nazand Begikhani said "[t]hese women have been treated like cattle... They have been subjected to physical and sexual violence, including systematic rape and sex slavery. They've been exposed in markets in Mosul and in Raqqa, Syria, carrying price tags."[190] In December 2014 the Iraqi Ministry of Human Rights announced that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant had killed over 150 women and girls in Fallujah who refused to participate in sexual jihad.[191]
During the Rohingya genocide (2016–present) the Armed Forces of Myanmar, along with the Myanmar Border Guard Police and Buddhist militias of Rakhine, committed widespread gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against the Rohingya Muslim women and girls. A January 2018 study estimated that the military and local Rakhine Buddhists perpetrated gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against 18,000 Rohingya Muslim women and girls.[192] The Human Rights Watch stated that the gang rapes and sexual violence were committed as part of the military's ethnic cleansing campaign while the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary General on Sexual Violence in Conflict Pramila Patten said that the Rohingya women and girls were made the "systematic" target of rapes and sexual violence because of their ethnic identity and religion. Other forms of sexual violence included sexual slavery in military captivity, forced public nudity, and humiliation.[193] Some women and girls were raped to death while others were found traumatised with raw wounds after they had arrived in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Human Rights Watch reported of a 15-year-old girl who was ruthlessly dragged on the ground for over 50 feet and then was raped by 10 Burmese soldiers.[194][195]
Forced sterilization and forced abortion
Forced sterilization and forced abortion are forms of gender-based violence.[196] Forced sterilization has occurred throughout much of the world, both at the hands of the state and from intimate partners. Studies show forced sterilizations often target socially and politically disadvantaged groups such as racial and ethnic minorities, the poor, and indigenous populations.[197] According to the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women, all "women are guaranteed the right to decide freely and responsibly on the number of and spacing of their children, and to have access to information, education, and means to enable them to exercise these rights."[198]
In the United States, much of the history of forced sterilization is connected to the legacy of eugenics and racism in the United States.[197] Many doctors thought that they were doing the country a service by sterilizing poor, disabled, and/or minority women, whom they considered a drain on the system.[197][199] Native American, Mexican American, African American and Puerto Rican-American women were coerced into sterilization programs, with Native Americans and African Americans especially being targeted.[197] Records have shown that Native American girls as young as eleven years-old had hysterectomy operations performed.[200]
In Europe, there have been a number of lawsuits and accusations towards the Czech Republic and Slovakia of sterilizing Roma women without adequate information and waiting period.[201] In response, both nations have instituted a mandatory seven-day waiting period and written consent. Slovakia has been condemned on the issue of forced sterilization of Roma women several times by the European Court for Human Rights (see V. C. vs. Slovakia, N. B. vs. Slovakia and I.G. and Others vs. Slovakia).
In Peru, in 1995, Alberto Fujimori launched a family planning initiative that especially targeted poor and indigenous women. In total, over 215,000 women were sterilized, with over 200,000 believed to have been coerced.[202] In 2002, Health Minister Fernando Carbone admitted that the government gave misleading information, offered food incentives, and threatened to fine parents if they had additional children. The procedures have also been found to have been negligent, with less than half using proper anesthetic.[203]
In China, the one child policy included forced abortions and forced sterilization.[204] Forced sterilization is also practiced in Uzbekistan.[205][206]
Violence by the police and other authority figures
When police officers misuse their power as agents of the state to physically and sexually harass and assault victims, the survivors, including women, feel much less able to report the violence.[207] It is standard procedure for police to force entry into the victim's home even after the victim's numerous requests for them to go away.[208] Government agencies often disregard the victim's right to freedom of association with their perpetrator.[209] Shelter workers are often reduced themselves to contributing to violence against women by exploiting their vulnerability in exchange for a paying job.[210]
Human rights violations perpetrated by police and military personnel in many countries are correlated with decreased access to public health services and increased practices of risky behavior among members of vulnerable groups, such as women and female sex workers.[211] These practices are especially widespread in settings with a weak rule of law and low levels of police and military management and professionalism. Police abuse in this context has been linked to a wide range of risky behaviors and health outcomes, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance abuse.[211][212] Extortion of sexual services and police sexual abuse have been linked to a decrease in condom use and an elevated risk of STI and HIV infections among vulnerable groups.[211][213]
Stoning and flogging
Stoning, or lapidation, refers to a form of capital punishment whereby an organized group throws stones at an individual until the person dies. Stoning is a punishment that is included in the laws of several countries, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and some states in Nigeria, as punishment for adultery.[214] Flogging or flagellation is the act of methodically beating or whipping the human body. It is a judicial punishment in various countries for specific crimes, including sex outside marriage. These punishments employed for sexual relations outside marriage, apart from constituting a form of violence in themselves, can also deter victims of sexual violence from reporting the crime, because the victims may themselves be punished (if they cannot prove their case, if they are deemed to have been in the company of an unrelated male, or if they were unmarried and not virgins at the time of the rape).[215][216]
Female genital mutilation
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons".[217] According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 125 million women and girls in Africa and the Middle East have experienced FGM.[218] The WHO states: "The procedure has no health benefits for girls and women" and "Procedures can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, infertility as well as complications in childbirth increased risk of newborn deaths" and "FGM is recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women. It reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women."[217] According to a UNICEF report, the top rates for FGM are in Somalia (with 98 percent of women affected), Guinea (96 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), Eritrea (89 percent), Mali (89 percent), Sierra Leone (88 percent), Sudan (88 percent), Gambia (76 percent), Burkina Faso (76 percent), Ethiopia (74 percent), Mauritania (69 percent), Liberia (66 percent), and Guinea-Bissau (50 percent).[218]
FGM is linked to cultural rites and customs, including traditional practices. It continues to take place in different communities of Africa and the Middle East, including in places where it is banned by national legislation. FGM is defined as a "harmful traditional practice"[219] in accordance to the Inter-African Committee.
Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa and Middle East, to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.[220]
Although FGM is today associated with developing countries, this practice was common until the 1970s in parts of the Western world, too. FGM was considered a standard medical procedure in the United States for most of the 19th and 20th centuries.[221] Physicians performed surgeries of varying invasiveness to treat a number of diagnoses, including hysteria, depression, nymphomania, and frigidity. The medicalization of FGM in the United States allowed these practices to continue until the second part of the 20th century, with some procedures covered by Blue Cross Blue Shield Insurance until 1977.[222][221]
The Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38).[223]
As of 2016, in Africa, FGM has been legally banned in Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, and Zambia.[224]
There exist several approaches that were set up by international health organizations and civil societies (for example, Tostan) aimed at eliminating the practice of FGM in implemented countries:
- FGM as a Health issue (also known as health risks approach)
- FGM as a Human Rights issue (also known as Human Rights-based approach)
Some scholars suggests that, when dealing with FGM, it is necessary to take lessons from history, particularly 19th-century campaign against foot-binding in China,[225] which was successful.
Breast ironing
Breast ironing (also known as "breast flattening") is the practice of pounding and massaging the breasts of a pubescent girl, using hard or heated objects, in an attempt to try to make them stop developing or disappear.[226][227][228] It is typically carried out by the girl's mother, with the aim of making the girl less sexually attractive to men and boys, so that her virginity is preserved and she can continue her education.[227][229] It is practiced primarily in Cameroon, but has also been reported across other areas in West and Central Africa.[226][227][230] Breast ironing is very painful and can have negative emotional and physical consequences.[226][227]
Obstetric violence
"Obstetric violence" refers to acts categorized as physically or psychologically violent in the context of labor and birth. In most developed and many developing countries, birth takes place in an increasingly medicalized environment; with numerous surgical interventions that the pregnant woman can sometimes be coerced into accepting, or which are done without her consent, or which are unnecessary.[231][232]
Many such practices originate in patriarchal ideologies. The WHO stated: "in normal birth, there should be a valid reason to interfere with the natural process. The aim of care is to achieve a healthy mother and child with the least possible level of intervention compatible with safety."[233][232]
The term "obstetric violence" is particularly used in Latin American countries, where the law prohibits such behavior. Such laws exist in several countries, including Argentina, Puerto Rico and Venezuela.[234]
Violence against indigenous women
Indigenous women around the world are often targets of sexual assault or physical violence. Many indigenous communities are rural, with few resources and little help from the government or non-state actors. These groups also often have strained relationships with law enforcement, making prosecution difficult. Many indigenous societies also find themselves at the center of land disputes between nations and ethnic groups, often resulting in these communities bearing the brunt of national and ethnic conflicts.[235]
Violence against indigenous women is often perpetrated by the state, such as in Peru, in the 1990s. President Alberto Fujimori (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of genocide and crimes against humanity as a result of a forced sterilization program put in place by his administration.[236] During his presidency, Fujimori put in place a program of forced sterilizations against indigenous people (mainly the Quechuas and the Aymaras), in the name of a "public health plan", presented 28 July 1995.
Bolivia has the highest rate of domestic violence in Latin America.[237][238] Indigenous women self-report physical or sexual violence from a current or former partner at rates of twenty-nine percent, in comparison to the national average of twenty four percent.[239] Bolivia is largely indigenous in its ethnic demographics, and Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani women have been monumental in the nation's fight against violence against women.[240][241]
Guatemalan indigenous women have also faced extensive violence. Throughout over three decades of conflict, Maya women and girls have continued to be targeted. The Commission for Historical Clarification found that 88% of women affected by state-sponsored rape and sexual violence against women were indigenous.
The concept of white dominion over indigenous women's bodies has been rooted in American history since the beginning of colonization. The theory of manifest destiny went beyond simple land extension and into the belief that European settlers had the right to exploit Native women's bodies as a method of taming and "humanizing" them.[242][243]
Canada has an extensive problem with violence against indigenous women, by both indigenous men and non-aboriginals. "[I]t has been consistently found that Aboriginal women have a higher likelihood of being victimized compared to the rest of the female population."[244] While Canadian national averages of violence against women are falling, they have remained the same for aboriginal communities throughout the years. The history of residential schools and economic inequality of indigenous Canadians has resulted in communities facing violence, unemployment, drug use, alcoholism, political corruption, and high rates of suicide.[242] In addition, there has been clear and admitted racism towards indigenous people by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, making victims less likely to report cases of domestic violence.[245]
Many of the issues facing indigenous women in Canada have been addressed via the Murdered and Missing Indigenous Women (MMIW) initiatives. Thousands of Native Canadian women have gone missing or been killed in the past 30 years, with little representation or attention from the government. Efforts to make the Canadian public aware of these women's disappearances have mostly been led by Aboriginal communities, who often reached across provinces to support one another. In 2015, prime minister Stephen Harper commented that the issue of murdered and missing indigenous women was "not high on our radar",[246] prompting outrage in already frustrated indigenous communities. A few months later, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau launched an official inquiry into the Murdered and Missing Indigenous Women.
In the United States, Native American women are more than twice as likely to experience violence than any other demographic.[242] One in three Native women is sexually assaulted during her life, and 67% of these assaults are perpetrated by non-Natives,[247][242][248] with Native Americans constituting 0.7% of U.S. population in 2015.[249] The disproportionate rate of assault to indigenous women is due to a variety of causes, including but not limited to the historical legal inability of tribes to prosecute on their own on the reservation. The federal Violence Against Women Act was reauthorized in 2013, which for the first time gave tribes jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute felony domestic violence offenses involving Native American and non-Native offenders on the reservation,[250] as 26% of Natives live on reservations.[251][252] In 2019 the Democrat House passed H.R. 1585 (Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2019) by a vote of 263–158, which increases tribes' prosecution rights much further. However, in the Republican Senate its progress has stalled.[253]
Violence against immigrant and refugee women
Immigrant and refugee women often face violence, both in the private sphere (by partners and other family members) and in the public sphere (by the police and other authorities). These women are often in a vulnerable position: they do not speak the language of the country they are in, they do not know its laws, and sometimes they are in a legal position where they may be deported if they make contact with the authorities. Women who seek protection from armed conflict in their countries of origin often face more violence while travelling to the destination country or when they arrive there.[254][255]
Violence against trans women
Trans women, especially women of color, are at higher risk of experiencing violence than cisgender women.[256] Trans women commonly experience intimate partner violence, with one study finding that 31.1% of trans people experience it, and another finding that half of all trans women experience it.[257][258][259] Trans women also often face abuse by police, and transgender sex workers often face violence from clients.[260] Trans women who are survivors of violence can have a harder time finding domestic violence shelters, as some shelters do not accept them.[257][261] In 2018, more than two dozen transgender people were violently killed in the United States, most of them women of color.[262][263]
Sport-related violence against women refers to any physical, sexual, mental acts that are "perpetrated by both male athletes and by male fans or consumers of sport and sporting events, as well as by coaches of female athletes".[264]
The documenting reports and literature suggest that there are obvious connections between contemporary sport and violence against women. Such events as the 2010 World Cup, the Olympic and Commonwealth Games "have highlighted the connections between sports spectatorship and intimate partner violence, and the need for police, authorities and services to be aware of this when planning sporting events".[264]
Sport-related violence can occur in various contexts and places, including homes, pubs, clubs, hotel rooms, the streets.[264]
Violence against women is a topic of concern in the United States' collegiate athletic community. From the 2010 UVA lacrosse murder, in which a male athlete was charged guilty with second degree murder of his girlfriend, to the 2004 University of Colorado Football Scandal when players were charged with nine alleged sexual assaults,[265] studies suggest that athletes are at higher risk for committing sexual assault against women than the average student.[266][267] It is reported that one in three college assaults are committed by athletes.[268] Surveys suggest that male student athletes who represent 3.3% of the college population, commit 19% of reported sexual assaults and 35% of domestic violence.[269] The theories that surround these statistics range from misrepresentation of the student-athlete to an unhealthy mentality towards women within the team itself.[268]
Controversy over contributing factors
Sociologist Timothy Curry, after conducting an observational analysis of two big time sports' locker room conversations, deduced that the high risk of male student athletes for gender abuse is a result of the team's subculture.[270] He states, "Their locker room talk generally treated women as objects, encouraged sexist attitudes toward women and, in its extreme, promoted rape culture."[270] He proposes that this objectification is a way for the male to reaffirm his heterosexual status and hyper-masculinity. Claims have been made that the atmosphere changes when an outsider (especially women) intrude in the locker room. In the wake of the reporter Lisa Olson being harassed by a Patriots player in the locker room in 1990, she reflected, "We are taught to think we must have done something wrong and it took me a while to realize I hadn't done anything wrong."[271] Other female sports reporters (college and professional) have claimed that they often brush off the players' comments, which leads to further objectification.[271] Other sociologists challenge this claim. Steve Chandler notes that because of their celebrity status on campus, "athletes are more likely to be scrutinized or falsely accused than non-athletes."[267] Another contender, Stephanie Mak, notes that, "if one considers the 1998 estimates that about three million women were battered and almost one million raped, the proportion of incidences that involve athletes in comparison to the regular population is relatively small."[268]
Response to violence by male college athletes
In response to the proposed link between college athletes and gender-based violence, and media coverage holding Universities as responsible for these scandals more universities are requiring athletes to attend workshops that promote awareness. For example, St. John's University holds sexual assault awareness classes in the fall for its incoming student athletes.[272] Other groups, such as the National Coalition Against Violent Athletes, have formed to provide support for the victims as their mission statement reads, "The NCAVA works to eliminate off the field violence by athletes through the implementation of prevention methods that recognize and promote the positive leadership potential of athletes within their communities. In order to eliminate violence, the NCAVA is dedicated to empowering individuals affected by athlete violence through comprehensive services including advocacy, education and counseling."[273]
Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is a form of intimidation using electronic forms of contact. In the 21st century, cyberbullying has become increasingly common, especially among teenagers in Western countries.[274] On 24 September 2015, the United Nations Broadband Commission released a report that claimed that almost 75% percent of women online have encountered harassment and threats of violence, otherwise known as cyber violence.[275] Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online, and the public debate over gender-based attacks has increased significantly, leading to calls for policy interventions and better responses by social networks like Facebook and Twitter.[276][277] Some specialists have argued that gendered online attacks should be given particular attention within the wider category of hate speech.[278]
Abusers quickly identified opportunities online to humiliate their victims, destroy their careers, reputations and relationships, and even drive them to suicide or "trigger so-called 'honor' violence in societies where sex outside of marriage is seen as bringing shame on a family".[279] According to a poll conducted by Amnesty International in 2018 across 8 countries, 23% of women have experienced online abuse of harassment. These are often sexist or misogynistic in nature and include direct of indirect threats of physical or sexual violence, abuse targeting aspects of their personality and privacy violations.[280] According to Human Rights Watch, 90% of those who experienced sexual violence online in 2019 were women and girls.[279]
Second order sexual harassment (SOSH)
Second-order sexual harassment (SOSH) is the harassment suffered by those who stand with and support victims of violence against women (VAW).[281] Addressing this type of sexual harassment is basic to protect victims of gender violence. According to scientific evidence, the most successful actions for overcoming gender violence are those that promote bystander intervention,[282][283] thus it is necessary to protect the people who support the victims. If society wants to empower victims to denounce and help them not to feel alone, it is necessary to ensure to protect persons who are actively protecting the victims for breaking the silence.[284] There is pioneer legislation in the world regarding legal issues, In 2020 the Catalan Parliament passed the first legislation in the world against this form of violence under the name of Second-Order Violence.[285]
Activismo
Background and history
Activism refers to "a doctrine or practice that emphasizes direct vigorous action especially in support of or opposition to one side of a controversial issue".[286] In the activism for violence against women, the objectives are to address and draw public attention on the issues of VAW as well as seek and recommend measures to prevent and eliminate this violence.[287] Many scholarly articles suggest that the VAW is considered as a violation of human rights[288][289][290] as well as "public health issue".[291]
In order to better comprehend the anti-violence movements against VAW, there is a need to also understand the generic historical background of feminist movements in a holistic manner. Talking about the international women's movement, many feminist scholars have categorized these movements into three waves[292] according to their different beliefs, strategies and goals.[293]
The emergence of the first women's movements, or so called the first wave of feminism, dated back in the years the late 19th Century and early 20th Century in the United States and Europe. During this period, feminist movements developed from the context of industrialization and liberal politics that triggered the rise of feminist groups concerned with gaining equal access and opportunity for women.[292]:1 This wave marks a period of "suffrage, independence, rights to nationality, work and equal pay" for women.[294]
The second wave of feminist movements was the series of movements from the period of the late 1960s to early 1970s. It was noted by feminist scholars that this wave could be characterized as a period of women's liberation and the rise of a branch of feminism known as radical feminism.[292]:7–8 This wave of feminism emerged in the context of the postwar period[292]:8 in society where other mainstream movements also played a large role; for instance, the civil rights movements,[294] which meant to condemn capitalism, imperialism and the oppression of people based on the notions of race, ethnicity, gender identity and sexual orientation.[292]:9 This wave marks a period of equal rights at home and workplace as well as rights to development[294] for the purposes of people of different races, ethnicities, economic statuses and gender identities.
The third wave of feminism is the newest wave of feminism led by young feminists whose understanding and context are of the globalized world order and the technological advances that have come with it. Also, this wave is a transition of the fall communism[292]:17 to more complex issues of new kinds of 'warfare'[clarification needed], threats and violence. This new wave also "embraces ambiguity"[292]:16 and introduced a feminist approach of 'intersectionality' that includes the issues of race, gender, age, and class.[292]:17 Other than that, the third wave marks a period of feminism dealing with identity politics, body politics as well as the issues of violence.[295]
Nonetheless, the VAW movement was initiated in the 1970s where some feminist movements started to bring the discussion on the issue of violence into the feminist discourse[296] and that many other groups, on the national as well as international levels, had attempted to push for the betterment of women through lobbying of the state officials and delegates, demanding the conferences on 'gender issues'[294] and thus made the VAW known to a wider range of population. Therefore, to put this into the theoretical context, VAW can be categorized along with the second and third waves of feminism which share a focus on violence.
VAW activist movements come in many forms, operating at international, national, and local levels[287] and utilizing different approaches based on health and human rights frameworks.[297] The movements stemmed mostly from social movements and groups of women who see the need to create organizations to 'lobby' their governments to establish "sanctuaries, shelters" and provision of services that help protecting these victims, also called "battered women", from acts of violence. The term "battered women" was used in a number of VAW movements and had its root in the early stage of organizing efforts to tackle the problem of violence against women in many regions of the world such as Africa, Asia Pacific, Latin American and the Caribbean.[48]:94 The activist organizations against VAW, some with and the others without the support of their governments, attempted to develop "innovative efforts" to assist battered women by providing them services such as shelters and centers; drafting and lobbying governments to include the recognition and language of VAW into national legislations and international human rights instruments; advocating to raise the awareness of people via education and training sessions; forming national, regional as well as international networks to empower the movements; organizing demonstrations and gathering more efforts to end violent acts against women.[48]:88–89 In addition, many women's rights activist groups see the issue of violence against women as a central focus of their movements. Many of these groups take a human rights approach as the integral framework of their activism. These VAW movements also employ the idea that "women's rights are human rights", transform the concepts and ideas of human rights, which are mostly reckoned to be "Western concepts" and 'vernacularize them into the concepts that can be understood in their local institutions.[298]:39
Levels of activist movements
On the local or national level, the VAW movements are diverse and differ in their strategic program of intervention. The strategies used in a number of the movements focus on the individual level with the emphases on individuals, relationships and family. Also, many of them take the 'preventive' as an approach to tackle the issues on the ground by encouraging people to "reexamine their attitudes and beliefs" in order to trigger and create fundamental changes in these "deep-rooted beliefs and behaviors".[291] Despite the fact that these strategies can be life changing, helpful to those who participate and feasible over a long time frame, the effects on societal level seem to be restricted and of minimal effects. In order to achieve the objectives of the movement, many activists and scholars argue that they have to initiate changes in cultural attitudes and norms on a communal level.[299] An example of activism on the local level can be seen in South Africa. The movements of VAW in this context employ a strategy that is based on the 'prevention' approach, which is applicable on individual and societal levels: in families and communities. This movement encourages the individuals and small populations to rethink their attitudes and beliefs in order to create a possibility to alter these deep-rooted beliefs and behaviors, which lead to the acts of violence against women.[22] Another example is the local level movement in East Africa that employs the prevention approach, which is applicable on a communal level. They call this a "raising voices" approach. This approach employs an 'ad hoc' framework that can be used alongside the individual approach where the strategy is to aggravate the status quo issues onto the individuals' and communities' perception and establish a common ground of interests for them to push for the movement, all in a short time period.[22] In addition, on the domestic level, there seems to be many 'autonomous movements.'[288] feminist movements (for VAW) can be understood as "a form of women's mobilization that is devoted to promoting women's status and well-being independently of political parties and other associations that do not have the status of women as their main concern".[288]
A number of regions of the world have come together to address violence against women. In South America, the Southern Cone Network Against Domestic Violence has worked extensively to address sexual and domestic violence since 1989. The Latin American and Caribbean Network Against Domestic and Sexual Violence, formed in 1990, includes representation from twenty-one different countries and has been instrumental in increasing the visibility of VAW.[48]:88 In September 1999, the Heads of States of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) met and drafted the "Prevention and Eradication of Violence Against Women and Children", a document condemning violence against women and children, and resolved a set of 13 methods of addressing it, reaching into the legal; social, economic, cultural, and political; social service; and education, training, and awareness building sectors.[300]
On the transnational or regional level, the anti-violence movements also deploy different strategies based on the specificities of their cultures and beliefs in their particular regions. On this level, the activist movements are known as "transnational feminist networks" or TFNs.[288]:556 The TFNs have a significant effect, like the autonomous movements on the national level, in shaping sets of policies as well pushing for the recognition and inclusion of language of VAW in the United Nations human rights mechanisms: the international human rights agreements.[288] Their activities are ranging from lobbying the policy makers; organizing demonstrations on the local and regional levels; to creating institutional pressure that could push for changes in the international institutional measures.[288]
On an international level, the movements that advocate for women's rights and against VAW are the mixture of (civil society) actors from domestic and regional levels. The objectives of these VAW movements focus on "creating shared expectations" within the domestic and regional levels as well as "mobilizing numbers of domestic civil society" to create "standards in global civil society".[288]:556 The global women's movement works to transform numbers of international conventions and conferences to "a conference on women's rights" by pushing for a "stronger language and clearer recognition" of the VAW issues. In addition, the United Nations also plays a vital role in promoting and campaigning for the VAW movements on the international level. For instance, in 2008 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon initiated and launched a campaign called "UNiTE to End Violence against Women". This campaign "calls on governments, civil society, women's organizations, young people, the private sector, the media and the entire UN system to join forces in addressing the global pandemic of violence against women and girls".[301] Moreover, this campaign also announces every 25th of the month to be "Orange Day" or "a day to take action to raise awareness and prevent violence against women and girls".[301]
In conclusion, each level of activism is intertwined and has the common purpose to end violence against women. Activism on local levels can significantly affect national, transnational, and international levels as well. In a scholarly article on Combating Violence Against Women, the authors illustrated from their research analysis on how the norms of international society can shape and influence policy making on the domestic or national level and vice versa. They argue that there are three mechanisms which have effects on the making of national policies as well as global agreements and conventions: "1) the influence of global treaties and documents such as CEDAW on women's rights" - on the national policies "2) the influence of regional agreements on VAW (particularly after certain tipping points are reached)" - on both domestic policies and international conventions and "3) regional demonstration effects or pressure for conformity captured as diffusion within regions" - on the international norms and agreements.[288]
Achievements of the VAW movements
On the global level:
- The first major document that highlights the recognition of violence against women as a human rights violation: the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women in Vienna, 1993.[302][303][304] It was a result of collective effort of global feminist movement to transform the Vienna conference from a general and mainstream human rights conference into the conference on women's rights. As before the other human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch did not focus on the issue of VAW and did not consider rape and domestic violence as violations of human rights despite of the fact that they also have agenda on women's rights.[288]
- The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing[305] During the 4th Women Conference, VAW was emphasized and named as a critical concern. Also, the spillover effect was that this push highlighted the need for the development of "new international norms" that have often been used by activists and governments the proposition of legislation that provide other action to redress the acts of violence.[302][304][306]
- Subsequently, the push from the global feminist movement also push for the fully incorporation of the VAW issues into the "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women" or CEDAW[307] whereas the "original text of CEDAW in 1979 did not explicitly mention violence against women".[288]:556
On the regional level:
- Americas: the Inter-American Convention on Violence Against Women, which was formally announced and adopted by the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1994, immediately after the Vienna Conference[288]:557
- Europe: The European Union (EU)'s initiatives to combat violence against women after the 1990s: the 1997 resolution calling for a zero tolerance: specifically on UN human rights instruments of CEDAW and the Vienna Declaration.
- The Council of Europe also developed "a series of initiatives" related to the issue of VAW: "the 2000 resolution on trafficking, the 2003 resolution on domestic violence, and the 2004 resolution on honor crimes" as well as promoted "the 2002 recommendation on the protection of women against violence and established its monitoring framework".[288]:557
- Africa:
- There emerged a series of regional meetings and agreements, which was triggered by the UN processes on the international level such as Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, 1985; the 1993 Kampala Prep Com; the 1994 Africa-wide UN women's conference[308] that led to the identification of VAW as a critical issue in the Southern African Women's Charter.[288]:557
Acceso a la justicia para mujeres víctimas de violencia
International and regional instruments
Efforts to fight violence against women can take many forms and access to justice, or lack thereof, for such violence varies greatly depending on the justice system. International and regional instruments are increasingly used as the basis for national legislation and policies to eradicate violence against women.
The Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Eradicate and Punish Violence Against Women – also known as the Belém do Parà Convention, for instance, has been applied by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) in its first case of domestic violence to condemn Brazil in the Maria da Penha case. This led the Brazilian government to enact in 2006 the Maria da Penha Law, the country's first law against domestic violence against women.[309] There is also, for instance, the South Asian Agreement on Regional Cooperation's (SAARC) Protocol to End Trafficking in Women and Children.[48]
Examples of measures put in place
As violence is often committed by a family member, women first started by lobbying their governments to set up shelters for domestic violence survivors. The Julia Burgos Protected House established in Puerto Rico in 1979 was the first shelter in Latin America and the Caribbean for "battered women". In 2003, 18 out of the 20 countries in the region had legislation on domestic or family violence, and 11 countries addressed sexual violence in their laws. Legislative measures to protect victims can include restraining orders, which can be found in Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Paraguay, Venezuela, Turkey, the United States and many western European countries for instance.
Courts can also be allowed by law (Germany, 2001) to order the perpetrator to leave the home so that victims do not have to seek shelter. Countries were urged to repeal discriminatory legislation by 2005 following the review of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action in 2000. Egypt, for instance, abolished a law that exempted men from rape charges when marrying their victims. However, the goal of antiviolence legislation is often to keep the families together, regardless of the best interests of women, which perpetuate domestic violence.[48]
Innovative measures have been pioneered in a number of countries to end violence against women. In Brazil and Jordan, women's police stations have been introduced, and one-stop women's shelters were created in Malaysia and Nicaragua.
Marital rape has been illegal in every American state and the District of Columbia since 1993, but is rarely prosecuted in America.[310]
In 2013 the UN General Assembly passed its first resolution calling for the protection of defenders of women's human rights.[49] The resolution urges states to put in place gender-specific laws and policies for the protection of women's human rights defenders and to ensure that defenders themselves are involved in the design and implementation of these measures, and calls on states to protect women's human rights defenders from reprisals for cooperating with the UN and to ensure their unhindered access to and communication with international human rights bodies and mechanisms.[50] The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also a global initiative with a target to eliminate all forms of violence against women.[311]
Challenges faced by women in accessing justice and limitations of measures
There can be a de jure or de facto acceptance of violent behaviors and lack of remedies for victims.[48]
- Lack of criminalization: in many places, acts of abuse, especially acts such as female genital mutilation, marital rape, forced marriage and child marriage, are not criminalized, or are illegal but widely tolerated, with the laws against them being rarely enforced. There are instances where crimes against women are also categorized as minor offenses.
- Lack of awareness of the existing laws: in many places, although there are laws against violence on the books, many women do not know of their existence. This is especially the case with marital rape - its criminalization being very recent in most countries.[312]
- Challenges in making a case in court: the burden of proof can be placed on the victim. For instance in the Philippines, before a change in law in 1997, rape used to be described as a crime against chastity; and virginity played an important role in court. In various countries, such as Bangladesh, a woman's past sexual experience continues to be very important in a case of rape. Bangladesh has received criticism for its employment of the "two-finger test" in rape investigations. This test consists in a physical examination of women who report rape during which a doctor inserts two fingers in the woman's vagina to determine whether the woman is "habituated to sex". This examination has its origin in the country's colonial-era laws dating back to 1872. The test deters many women from reporting incidents of rape. More than 100 experts, including doctors, lawyers, police, and women's rights activists had signed a joint statement in 2013 asking for the test, which they called "demeaning", to be abolished, as it "does not provide any evidence that is relevant to proving the offence". This test is also performed in several other countries in the region, including India.[313] It can also be difficult to make a case of sexual assault in court, when members of the judiciary expect evidence of severe struggle and injury as determinative evidence of non-consent. On the other hand, there are measures, such as the 2012 law in Brazil, that allow for cases to be filed even without the representation of the victim.
- Existing laws are insufficient, conflicting, and have no effect in practice: some laws on domestic violence, for instance, conflict with other provisions and ultimately contradict their goals. Legal frameworks can also be flawed when laws that integrate protection do so in isolation, notably in relation to immigration laws. Undocumented women in countries where they would have, in theory, access to justice, don't in practice for fear of being denounced and deported. The CEDAW Committee recommends that a State authority's obligation to report undocumented persons be repealed in national legislation.
- The attitude of the police: women who report acts of violence most often come into contact first with police workers. Therefore, police attitudes are crucial in facilitating a sense of safety and comfort for women who have been victimized.[314] When police officers have hostile attitudes towards victimized women, these women are prevented from obtaining justice.[315] Recognizing these problems, some countries have enacted women's police station, which are police stations that specialize in certain crimes, such as sexual violence, harassment, domestic violence committed against women.
Measures to address violence against women range from access to legal-aid to the provision of shelters and hotlines for victims. Despite advances in legislation and policies, the lack of implementation of the measures put in place prevents significant progress in eradicating violence against women globally. This failure to apply existing laws and procedures is often due to the persisting issue of gender stereotyping.[316]
Relación con las leyes del matrimonio
The relation between violence against women and marriage laws, regulations and traditions has also been discussed.[317][318] The US and English law subscribed until the 20th century to the system of coverture, that is, a legal doctrine under which, upon marriage, a woman's legal rights were subsumed by those of her husband.[319] Today, outside the West, many countries severely restrict the rights of married women: for example, in Yemen, marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[320] In Iraq husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives. The criminal code states at Paragraph 41 that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right; examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".[321] In the West, married women faced discrimination until just a few decades ago: for instance, in France, married women received the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965.[322] In Spain, during the Franco era, a married woman required her husband's consent (permiso marital) for nearly all economic activities, including employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975.[323] Concerns exist about violence related to marriage - both inside marriage (physical abuse, sexual violence, restriction of liberty) and in relation to marriage customs (dowry, bride price, forced marriage, child marriage, marriage by abduction, violence related to female premarital virginity). Claudia Card, professor of Philosophy at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, writes:[324]
- "The legal rights of access that married partners have to each other's persons, property, and lives makes it all but impossible for a spouse to defend herself (or himself), or to be protected against torture, rape, battery, stalking, mayhem, or murder by the other spouse... Legal marriage thus enlists state support for conditions conducive to murder and mayhem."
Convención de Estambul
The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, is the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of domestic violence and violence against women,[325] and came into force in 2014.[326] Countries which ratify it must ensure that the forms of violence defined in its text are outlawed. In its Preamble, the Convention states that "the realisation of de jure and de facto equality between women and men is a key element in the prevention of violence against women". The Convention also provides a definition of domestic violence as "all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occur within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim".[327] Although it is a Convention of the Council of Europe, it is open to accession by any country.[328]
Ver también
- Bodily integrity
- Children's rights
- Eve teasing
- List of incidents of violence against women, list of notable incidents of violence against women sorted by country and year
- Men's rights movement
- Military sexual trauma
- Misogyny in horror films
- Rhinotomy
- School-related gender-based violence (SRGBV)
- Sexism
- Sexual assault in the U.S. military
- United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325
- Violence against LGBT people
- Violence against men
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Before 1981, Art. 587 read: He who causes the death of a spouse, daughter, or sister upon discovering her in illegitimate carnal relations and in the heat of passion caused by the offence to his honour or that of his family will be sentenced to three to seven years. The same sentence shall apply to whom, in the above circumstances, causes the death of the person involved in illegitimate carnal relations with his spouse, daughter, or sister.
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- ^ Kohlman, Cindy (9 June 2015). Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) New Reporting Requirements Effective July 1, 2015 – Are You Ready?. Inceptia Institute.
- See also:
- ACE (1 April 2014). New requirements imposed by the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act (PDF). American Council on Education.
- See also:
- ^ Fee, Stephen; et al. (5 September 2015). Tribal Justice: Prosecuting Non-Natives for Sexual Assault on Reservations (transcript). PBS documentary.
- ^ https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mind-games/201909/the-number-women-murdered-partner-is-rising
- ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/04/us/domestic-violence-international.html
- ^ https://www.npr.org/2020/03/09/813699719/mexican-women-stay-home-to-protest-femicides-in-a-day-without-us
- ^ Fawole, Olufunmilayo I.; Ajuwon, Ademola J.; Osungbade, Kayode O.; Faweya, Olufemi C. (April 2003). "Interventions for violence prevention among young female hawkers in motor parks in South-Western Nigeria: a review of effectiveness". African Journal of Reproductive Health [La Revue Africaine de la Santé Reproductive]. Women's Health and Action Research Centre (WHARC). 7 (1): 71–82. doi:10.2307/3583347. hdl:1807/2587. JSTOR 3583347.
- ^ a b c WHO (1 September 2011). Violence against women. World Health Organization. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
- ^ Colarossi, Lisa (Winter 2005). "A response to Danis & Lockhart: What guides social work knowledge about violence against women?". Journal of Social Work Education. Taylor and Francis on behalf of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). 41 (1): 147–159. doi:10.5175/JSWE.2005.200400418. JSTOR 23044038. S2CID 143655449.
- See also:
- Danis, Fran S.; Lockhart, Lettie (Spring–Summer 2003). "Guest Editorial – Domestic violence and social work education: what do we know, what do we need to know?". Journal of Social Work Education, Special Section: Domestic Violence and Social Work Education. Taylor and Francis on behalf of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). 39 (2): 215–224. doi:10.1080/10437797.2003.10779132. JSTOR 23044061. S2CID 141110449.
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- ^ Maffly, Brian (21 March 2009). "BYU study links women's safety, nation's peace". The Salt Lake Tribune. Archived from the original on 2 February 2010.
- ^ Strearmer, Matthew; Emmett, Chad F. (2007). The great divide: Revealing differences in the Islamic world regarding the status of women and its impact on international peace (PDF). WomanStats Project. Retrieved 6 August 2014. Paper prepared for presentation at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, Illinois, 29 August – 1 September 2007.
- ^ Rosche, Daniela; Dawe, Alexandra (2013). Oxfam Briefing Note: Ending violence against women the case for a comprehensive international action plan (PDF). Oxford: Oxfam GB. p. 2. ISBN 9781780772639. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
- ^ UN (17 December 1999). International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women. un.org. United Nations. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
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- ^ a b "Facts and figures: Women's leadership and political participation | What we do". UN Women. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
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- ^ a b Bardall, Gabrielle (2011). Breaking the Mold: Understanding Gender and Electoral Violence. United States: International Foundation for Electoral Systems. pp. 1–6.
- ^ Garnett, Holly Ann; James, Toby S. (29 September 2020). "Measuring electoral integrity: using practitioner knowledge to assess elections". Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties: 1–20. doi:10.1080/17457289.2020.1824186. ISSN 1745-7289.
- ^ Relevant citations:
- Abbey, Antonia; BeShears, Renee; Clinton-Sherrod, A. Monique; McAuslan, Pam (December 2004). "Similarities and differences in women's sexual assault experiences based on tactics used by the perpetrator" (PDF). Psychology of Women Quarterly. Sage. 28 (4): 323–332. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00149.x. PMC 4527559. PMID 26257466. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2013.
- "Statistics". rainn.org. Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN). Retrieved 1 January 2008.
- Tjaden, Patricia; Thoennes, Nancy (January 2006). Extent, nature, and consequences of rape victimization: findings From the national violence against women survey. National Criminal Justice Reference Service, U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. Pdf.
- ABS (7 September 2004). "Sexual assault in Australia: a statistical overview, 2004". abs.gov.au. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
- Myhill, Andy; Allen, Jonathan (2002). Rape and sexual assault of women: findings from the British Crime Survey (PDF). Home Office Findings No. 159. London: Home Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
- ^ AMA (1995). Strategies for the treatment and prevention of sexual assault. Chicago, Illinois: American Medical Association. OCLC 33901581.
- ^ Kelly, Liz; Regan, Linda; Lovett, Jo (2005). A gap or a chasm?: Attrition in reported rape cases (PDF). London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. ISBN 9781844735556. 293. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
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- Staff writer (31 January 2002). "Stigmatization of rape & honor killings". WISE Muslim Women. Women's Islamic Initiative in Spirituality and Equality. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
- Harter, Pascale (14 June 2011). "Libya rape victims 'face honour killings'". BBC News. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
- Staff writer (15 March 2012). "Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself". BBC News. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- ^ UNODC. Rape at the National Level, number of police recorded offenses (spreadsheet). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
- ^ Grady, William (2011). Crime in Canadian context: debates and controversies. Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195433784.
- ^ Brennan, Shannon; Taylor-Butts, Andrea (2008). Sexual assault in Canada, 2004 (PDF). Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. ISBN 9781100111636. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
- ^ SIECCAN (October 2011). Sexual assault in Canada: what do we know? (PDF). The Sex Information and Education Council of Canada (SIECCAN). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
- ^ Temkin, Jennifer (2002). "Defining and redefining rape". In Temkin, Jennifer (ed.). Rape and the legal process (2nd ed.). Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN 9780198763543.
- Citing:
- "Criminal Law (Rape) (Amendment) Act, 1990, section 5". irishstatutebook.ie. Irish Statute Book. Archived from the original on 29 April 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
- Citing:
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- ^ "R v R [1991] UKHL 12 (23 October 1991)". British and Irish Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
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- ^ Kieler, Marita (2003). Tatbestandsprobleme der sexuellen Nötigung, Vergewaltigung sowie des sexuellen Mißbrauchs widerstandsunfähiger Personen (Thesis). University of Osnabrück via Tenea. OCLC 758907108. Pdf. Archived 20 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "1 corinthians 7:3-7:5 NKJV". biblegateway.com. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
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- ^ Staff writer (22 January 2009). "Cleric 'must deny' views on rape". BBC News. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ "Intimate partner violence: fact sheet". cdc.gov/ncipc. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2006. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
- ^ Girshick, Lori B. (December 2002). "No sugar, no spice: reflections on research on woman-to-woman sexual violence". Violence Against Women. Sage. 8 (12): 1500–1520. doi:10.1177/107780102237967. S2CID 73280087.
- ^ Rose, Suzana. "Lesbian partner violence fact sheet". Medical University of South Carolina.
- ^ "Intimate partner violence: consequences". cdc.gov/ncipc. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 29 January 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "Wheel gallery". The Duluth Model. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
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- ^ "Ethiopian women are most abused". BBC News. 11 October 2006.
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- ^ Clarke, Kris (August 2011). "The paradoxical approach to intimate partner violence in Finland". International Perspectives in Victimology. Tokiwa University via The Press at California State University. 6 (1): 9–19. doi:10.5364/ipiv.6.1.19 (inactive 19 January 2021).CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link) Available through academia.edu.
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- ^ Case Closed: Rape and Human Rights in the Nordic Countries (PDF) (Report). Amnesty International. September 2008. pp. 89–91.
Finland is repeatedly reminded of its widespread problem of violence against women and recommended to take more efficient measures to deal with the situation. International criticism concentrates on the lack of measures to combat violence against women in general and in particular on the lack of a national action plan to combat such violence and on the lack of legislation on domestic violence. (...) Compared to Sweden, Finland has been slower to reform legislation on violence against women. In Sweden, domestic violence was already illegal in 1864, while in Finland such violence was not outlawed until 1970, over a hundred years later. In Sweden the punishment of victims of incest was abolished in 1937, but not until 1971 in Finland. Rape within marriage was criminalised in Sweden in 1962, but the equivalent Finnish legislation only came into force in 1994 – making Finland one of the last European countries to criminalise marital rape. In addition, assaults taking place on private property did not become impeachable offences in Finland until 1995. Only in 1997 did victims of sexual offences and domestic violence in Finland become entitled to government-funded counselling and support services for the duration of their court cases.
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Girls as young as 5 and as old as 19 had to drink up to five gallons of fat-rich camel's or cow's milk daily, aiming for silvery stretch marks on their upper arms. If a girl refused or vomited, the village weight-gain specialist might squeeze her foot between sticks, pull her ear, pinch her inner thigh, bend her finger backward or force her to drink her own vomit. In extreme cases, girls die, due to a burst stomach. The practice was known as gavage, a French term for force-feeding geese to obtain foie gras.
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A previously reported statistic that, "Among [American Indian and Alaska Native] victims of rape or sexual assault, 86 percent described the offender as non‐Indian" is accurate according to Perry’s analysis (2004) in American Indians and Crime: A BJS Statistical Profile, 1992-2002. However, Perry’s analysis includes reports by both Native men and women victims of rape or sexual assault. Given this brief’s focus on violence against Native women, we include the updated rate of 67 percent reported by Native women victims of rape or sexual assault indicated in Bachman, et al., (2008).
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Transgender women are at a notably higher risk of violence than their cisgender counterparts...especially transgender women of color
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- See also:
- Benedict, Jeff; Keteyian, Armen (2013). The system: the glory and scandal of big-time college football. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 9780345803030.
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Otras lecturas
- Almosaed, Nora (2004). "Violence against women: a cross‐cultural perspective". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. Taylor and Francis. 24 (1): 67–88. doi:10.1080/1360200042000212124. S2CID 144455844.
- Appiah, Kwame Anthony (21 September 2010). "Convincing other cultures to change". Big Think. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
- Bellemare, Marc F.; Steinmetz, Tara L. (17 June 2013). "All in the family: explaining the persistence of female genital cutting in the Gambia". Social Science Research Network. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2280086. SSRN 2280086. Pdf.
- Dobash, Russell P.; Dobash, R. Emerson (2016). Women, violence and social change. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9781138174023.
- Durham, Meenakshi G. (February 2013). ""Vicious Assault Shakes Texas Town": the politics of gender violence in The New York Times' coverage of a schoolgirl's gang rape". Journalism Studies. Taylor & Francis. 14 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2012.657907. S2CID 141709189.
- Heise, Lori L.; Pitanguy, Jacqueline; Germain, Adrienne (1994). Violence against women: the hidden health burden. World Health Statistics Quarterly. Rapport Trimestriel de Statistiques Sanitaires Mondiales. 46. Washington, D.C: World Bank. pp. 78–85. ISBN 9780821329801. PMID 8237054. Discussion Paper No. 255
- James, Stanlie M. (Summer 1998). "Shades of othering: reflections on female circumcision/genital mutilation". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. University of Chicago Press. 23 (4): 1031–1048. doi:10.1086/495300. JSTOR 3175202. S2CID 144380933.
- Jones, Helen; Diop, Nafissatou; Askew, Ian; Kaboré, Inoussa (September 1999). "Female genital cutting practices in Burkina Faso and Mali and their negative health outcomes". Studies in Family Planning. Wiley. 30 (3): 219–230. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.1999.00219.x. PMID 10546313.
- Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, Jack; Kieke Jr., Burney; Wilcox, Lynne (September 1997). "Female genital mutilation/female circumcision: who is at risk in the US?". Public Health Reports. 112 (5): 368–377. PMC 1381943. PMID 9323387. Pdf.
- Kelly, Liz (December 2005). "Inside outsiders: Mainstreaming violence against women into human rights discourse and practice". International Feminist Journal of Politics. Taylor and Francis. 7 (4): 471–495. doi:10.1080/14616740500284391. S2CID 143985481.
- Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female genital cutting: a harmless practice?". Medical Anthropology Quarterly. Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Pdf.
- Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Herniund, Yiva (August 2006). "Are there "Stages of Change" in the practice of female genital cutting?: Qualitative research findings from Senegal and The Gambia". African Journal of Reproductive Health [La Revue Africaine de la Santé Reproductive]. Women's Health and Action Research Centre (WHARC). 10 (2): 57–71. doi:10.2307/30032459. JSTOR 30032459.
- Skaine, Rosemarie (2005). Female genital mutilation: legal, cultural, and medical issues. Jefferson, North Caroline: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 9780786421671.
- Wagner, Natascha (March 2013). Why female genital cutting persist? (PDF). Working Paper. University of Rotterdam.
- True, Jacqui (2012). The political economy of violence against women. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199755912.
- Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". The Lancet. Elsevier. 369 (9567): 1069–1070. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X. PMID 17405200. S2CID 29006442.
- Williams, Lindy; Sobieszczyk, Teresa (November 1997). "Attitudes surrounding the continuation of female circumcision in the Sudan: passing the tradition to the next generation". Journal of Marriage and Family. Wiley. 59 (4): 966–981. doi:10.2307/353796. JSTOR 353796.
enlaces externos
- Violence against women at Curlie
- Violence against women, a factsheet on ECtHR case law
- Virtual Knowledge Centre to End Violence against Women and Girls (in English, French, and Spanish)
- UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences
- World Health Organization's reports on FGM, Health complications of female genital mutilation