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El blanco es una clasificación racial de personas y un especificador de color de piel , generalmente utilizado para personas de origen europeo ; aunque la definición puede variar según el contexto, la nacionalidad y el punto de vista. Este término a veces se ha ampliado para abarcar a personas de ascendencia del sur de Asia , [1] [2] de Asia occidental y del norte de África , personas que a menudo se consideran "no blancas" en otros contextos de los Estados Unidos. También se ha alegado que, en los Estados Unidos, las personas de ascendencia del sur de Europa e incluso irlandeses han sido excluidas de esta categoría, aunque esta idea ha sido cuestionada. [3] [4]El uso de "gente blanca" o una "raza blanca" para un gran grupo de poblaciones principalmente o exclusivamente europeas, definidas por su piel clara , entre otras características físicas, y que contrastan con " negro ", " rojo ", " marrón ", " amarillo ", y otras personas "de color " o " personas de color ", se originaron en el siglo XVII. Antes de esto, los europeos también describían a las personas del este de Asia como "blancas".[5] Fue sólo durante el siglo 19 que esta categoría vaga se transformó en un sistema de pseudo-científica de la raza relaciones y color de la piel.

El concepto de raza blanca unificada no logró una aceptación universal en Europa cuando entró en uso por primera vez en el siglo XVII, ni en los siglos posteriores. La Alemania nazi consideraba que algunos pueblos europeos, como los eslavos , eran racialmente distintos de ellos. Antes de la edad moderna, ningún pueblo europeo se consideraba "blanco", sino que definía su raza, ascendencia o etnia en términos de su nacionalidad. Además, no existe un estándar aceptado para determinar la barrera geográfica entre personas blancas y no blancas. Los antropólogos contemporáneos y otros científicos, aunque reconocen la realidad de la variación biológica entre diferentes poblaciones humanas, consideran el concepto de una "raza blanca" unificada y distinguible comoconstruido socialmente . Como grupo con varios límites potenciales diferentes, es un ejemplo de un concepto difuso .

El concepto de blancura tiene una resonancia particular en la anglosfera : por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos ( estadounidenses blancos ), Canadá ( canadienses blancos ), Australia ( australianos blancos ), Nueva Zelanda ( neozelandeses blancos ), el Reino Unido ( británicos blancos ), y Sudáfrica ( sudafricanos blancos). En gran parte del resto de Europa, la distinción entre raza y nacionalidad es más borrosa; cuando se les pide a las personas que describan su raza o ascendencia, a menudo lo describen en términos de su nacionalidad. Varias construcciones sociales de la blancura han sido importantes para la identidad nacional, las políticas públicas , la religión , las estadísticas de población , la segregación racial , la acción afirmativa , el privilegio blanco , la eugenesia , la marginación racial y las cuotas raciales .

El término "raza blanca" o "gente blanca" entró en las principales lenguas europeas a finales del siglo XVII, en el contexto de la esclavitud racializada y el estatus social desigual en las colonias europeas. La descripción de poblaciones como "blancas" en referencia a su color de piel es anterior a esta noción y se encuentra ocasionalmente en la etnografía grecorromana y otras fuentes antiguas o medievales, pero estas sociedades no tenían ninguna noción de raza blanca paneuropea. Los estudios sobre la raza distinguen el concepto moderno de las descripciones premodernas, que se centraban en la complexión física más que en la raza. [6]

Descripciones físicas en la antigüedad.

1820 dibujo de un fresco del Libro de las Puertas de la tumba de Seti I , que representa (de izquierda a derecha) cuatro grupos de personas: cuatro libios , un nubio , un asiático y un egipcio .

Según la antropóloga Nina Jablonski :

En el antiguo Egipto en su conjunto, las personas no eran designadas por términos de color […] Las inscripciones y la literatura egipcias solo rara vez, por ejemplo, mencionan el color oscuro de la piel de los kushitas de la Alta Nubia. Sabemos que los egipcios no eran ajenos al color de la piel, sin embargo, porque los artistas le prestaban atención en sus obras de arte, en la medida en que los pigmentos de la época lo permitían. [7]

El mosaico de Alejandro , de la Pompeya romana , alrededor del año 100 a. C., que representa a la caballería griega y macedonia de Alejandro Magno luchando contra los persas aqueménidas bajo el mando de Darío III en la batalla de Issus

El texto funerario del Antiguo Egipto ( Imperio Nuevo ) conocido como el Libro de las Puertas distingue "cuatro grupos" en una procesión. Estos son los egipcios , los pueblos levantino y cananeo o "asiáticos", los " nubios " y los " libios de piel clara ". [8] Se describe a los egipcios como de piel considerablemente más oscura que los levantinos (personas de lo que ahora es el Líbano , Israel , Palestina y Jordania ) y los libios, pero considerablemente más claros que los nubios (el actual Sudán).

La asignación de connotaciones positivas y negativas de blanco y negro a ciertas personas se remonta a la vejez en varias lenguas indoeuropeas , pero estas diferencias no se utilizaron necesariamente con respecto a los colores de piel. La conversión religiosa a veces se describía en sentido figurado como un cambio en el color de la piel. [9] De manera similar, el Rigveda usa krsna tvac "piel negra" como una metáfora de la irreligiosidad. [10]

El clasicista James H. Dee afirma que "los griegos no se describen a sí mismos como 'gente blanca', o como cualquier otra cosa, porque no tenían una palabra regular en su vocabulario de colores para sí mismos". [9] El color de la piel de las personas no tenía un significado útil; lo que importaba es dónde vivían. [11] Heródoto describió al escita Budini como de ojos azules profundos y cabello rojo brillante [12] ya los egipcios, como los colquianos  , como melánchroes (μελάγχροες, "de piel oscura") y cabello rizado. [13] También da la posible primera referencia al nombre griego común de las tribus que viven al sur de Egipto, también conocido comoNubios , que era Aithíopes (Αἰθίοπες, "cara quemada"). [14] Posteriormente, Jenófanes de Colofón describió a los etíopes como negros y las tropas persas como blancas en comparación con la piel bronceada por el sol de las tropas griegas . [15]

Jerarquías raciales modernas

El término "raza blanca" o "gente blanca" entró en las principales lenguas europeas a finales del siglo XVII, originándose con la racialización de la esclavitud en ese momento, en el contexto de la trata de esclavos en el Atlántico [16] y la esclavitud de los pueblos indígenas en el Imperio español . [17] Se ha atribuido repetidamente a cepas de sangre, ascendencia y rasgos físicos, y finalmente se convirtió en un tema de investigación científica, que culminó en el racismo científico., que luego fue ampliamente repudiado por la comunidad científica. Según la historiadora Irene Silverblatt, "el pensamiento racial […] convirtió las categorías sociales en verdades raciales". [17] Bruce David Baum, citando el trabajo de Ruth Frankenberg , afirma que "la historia de la dominación racista moderna ha estado ligada a la historia de cómo los pueblos europeos se definieron a sí mismos (ya veces algunos otros pueblos) como miembros de un superior 'blanco raza'." [18] Alastair Bonnett sostiene que la "identidad blanca", tal como se la concibe actualmente, es un proyecto estadounidense que refleja las interpretaciones estadounidenses de la raza y la historia. [19]

Según Gregory Jay, profesor de inglés en la Universidad de Wisconsin-Milwaukee ,

Antes de la era de la exploración, las diferencias de grupo se basaban en gran medida en el idioma, la religión y la geografía. […] Los europeos siempre habían reaccionado un poco histéricamente a las diferencias de color de piel y estructura facial entre ellos y las poblaciones encontradas en África, Asia y las Américas (ver, por ejemplo, la dramatización de Shakespeare del conflicto racial en Otelo y La tempestad ). A partir de la década de 1500, los europeos comenzaron a desarrollar lo que se conoció como "racismo científico", el intento de construir una definición biológica en lugar de cultural de la raza […] La blancura, entonces, surgió como lo que ahora llamamos una categoría "panétnica". , como una forma de fusionar una variedad de poblaciones étnicas europeas en una sola "raza" […]

-  Gregory Jay, "¿Quién inventó a los blancos? Una charla con motivo del día de Martin Luther King, Jr., 1998" [20]

En los siglos XVI y XVII, "los pueblos de Asia oriental fueron descritos casi uniformemente como blancos, nunca como amarillos". [5] La historia de Michael Keevak Becoming Yellow , encuentra que los asiáticos orientales fueron redesignados como de piel amarilla porque "el amarillo se había convertido en una designación racial ", y que el reemplazo del blanco por amarillo como descripción se produjo a través del discurso científico. [21]

Una categoría social formada por el colonialismo

"Zonas de asentamiento europeo" (personas que afirman tener ascendencia total o mayoritariamente europea ). Censos, artículos citados en descripción.

Se utilizó un esquema racial de tres partes en términos de color en la América Latina del siglo XVII bajo el dominio español. [22] Irene Silverblatt remonta el "pensamiento racial" en América del Sur a las categorías sociales del colonialismo y la formación del estado : "Blanco, negro y marrón son versiones resumidas y abstractas de colonizador, esclavo y colonizado". [23] A mediados del siglo XVII, el término novedoso español ("español") se equiparaba en documentos escritos con blanco o "blanco". [23] En las colonias americanas de España, africanas ,Nativo americano ( indios ),La ascendencia judía o morisca excluía formalmente a las personas de los requisitos de "pureza de sangre" ( limpieza de sangre ) para ocupar un cargo público según la Real Pragmática de 1501. [24] Restricciones similares aplicadas en el ejército, algunas órdenes religiosas, universidades y universidades, lo que lleva a un sacerdocio y un estrato profesional casi exclusivamente blancos. [24] [25] Los negros y los indios estaban sujetos a obligaciones tributarias y se les prohibía portar armas, y a las mujeres negras e indias se les prohibía usar joyas, seda o metales preciosos en el México y el Perú coloniales tempranos. [24] Esos pardos (personas de piel oscura) yLos mulatos (personas de ascendencia mixta africana y europea) con recursos en gran medida buscaron evadir estas restricciones haciéndose pasar por blancos. [24] [25] Una breve oferta real para comprar los privilegios de la blancura por una importante suma de dinero atrajo a quince solicitantes antes de que la presión de las élites blancas pusiera fin a la práctica. [24]

En las colonias británicas de América del Norte y el Caribe, la designación inglés o cristiano se usó inicialmente en contraste con los nativos americanos o africanos. Las primeras apariciones de raza blanca o personas blancas en el Oxford English Dictionary comienzan en el siglo XVII. [9] El historiador Winthrop Jordan informa que, "en las [trece] colonias los términos cristiano , libre , inglés y blanco se emplearon […] indiscriminadamente" en el siglo XVII como sustitutos entre sí. [26] En 1680, Morgan Godwyn "consideró necesario explicar" a los lectores ingleses que "enBarbados , 'blanco' era 'el nombre general para los europeos' ". [27] Varios historiadores informan de un cambio hacia un mayor uso del blanco como categoría legal junto con un endurecimiento de las restricciones sobre los negros libres o cristianos. [28] El blanco siguió siendo un más término familiar en las colonias americanas que en Gran Bretaña hasta bien entrado el 1700, según el historiador Theodore W. Allen . [27]

Racismo científico

La ilustración de Henry Strickland Constable en el siglo XIX que muestra una supuesta similitud entre los rasgos "ibérico irlandés" y "negro" en contraste con los rasgos "anglo-teutónicos" superiores.

Los estudios occidentales de raza y etnia en los siglos XVIII y XIX se convirtieron en lo que más tarde se denominaría racismo científico . Los científicos europeos prominentes que escribieron sobre las diferencias humanas y naturales incluyeron una raza blanca o de Eurasia occidental entre un pequeño grupo de razas humanas y atribuyeron superioridad física, mental o estética a esta categoría blanca. Estas ideas fueron desacreditadas por los científicos del siglo XX. [29]

Inicios del siglo xviii

En 1758, Carl Linnaeus propuso lo que él consideraba categorías taxonómicas naturales de la especie humana. Distinguió entre Homo sapiens y Homo sapiens europaeus , y más tarde añadió cuatro subdivisiones geográficas de humanos: europeos blancos , americanos rojos , asiáticos amarillos y africanos negros . Aunque Linneo los concibió como clasificaciones objetivas, sus descripciones de estos grupos incluían patrones culturales y estereotipos despectivos. [30]

El cráneo femenino georgiano que Johann Friedrich Blumenbach descubrió en 1795, que utilizó para formular hipótesis sobre el origen de los europeos en el Cáucaso .

En 1775, el naturalista Johann Friedrich Blumenbach afirmó que "El color blanco ocupa el primer lugar, como ocurre en la mayoría de los pueblos europeos. El enrojecimiento de las mejillas en esta variedad es casi peculiar: ser visto en el resto ". [31]

En las diversas ediciones de su Sobre la variedad natural de la humanidad , clasificó a los humanos en cuatro o cinco razas, en gran parte basadas en las clasificaciones de Linneo. Pero mientras, en 1775, había agrupado en su "primera y más importante" raza "Europa, Asia este lado del Ganges y todo el país situado al norte del Amoor, junto con la parte de América del Norte, que es más cercano tanto en la posición como en el carácter de los habitantes ", acota un poco su" variedad caucásica "en la tercera edición de su texto, de 1795:" A esta primera variedad pertenecen los habitantes de Europa (excepto los lapones y los descendientes restantes de los Finlandeses) y los de Asia oriental, hasta el río Obi, el mar Caspio y el Ganges; y por último, los del norte de África ".[32] [30] [33][34] Blumenbach cita varios otros sistemas de sus contemporáneos, que van de dos a siete razas, escritos por las autoridades de esa época, incluyendo, además de Linnæus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , Christoph Meiners e Immanuel Kant .

En la cuestión del color, realiza una investigación bastante profunda, considerando también factores de dieta y salud , pero en última instancia cree que "el clima y la influencia del suelo y la temperatura, junto con el modo de vida, tienen la mayor influencia". . [35] La conclusión de Blumenbach fue, sin embargo, proclamar la atribución de todas las razas a una sola especie humana. Blumenbach argumentó que las características físicas como el color de la piel, el perfil craneal, etc., dependían de factores ambientales, como la solarización y la dieta. Como otros monogenistas , Blumenbach mantuvo la " hipótesis degenerativa " de los orígenes raciales. Afirmó que Adán y Eva estabanHabitantes caucásicos de Asia, [36] y que otras razas surgieron por degeneración de factores ambientales como el sol y la mala alimentación. Creía constantemente que la degeneración podría revertirse con un control ambiental adecuado y que todas las formas contemporáneas del hombre podrían volver a la raza caucásica original . [37]

Siglos XIX y XX: la "raza caucásica"

Durante el período de mediados del siglo XIX a mediados del siglo XX, [38] los científicos de la raza, incluida la mayoría de los antropólogos físicos, clasificaron las poblaciones del mundo en tres, cuatro o cinco razas , que, según la autoridad consultada, se dividieron en varios subrazas. Durante este período, la raza caucásica , que lleva el nombre de las personas de las montañas del Cáucaso pero que se extiende a todos los europeos, figuraba como una de estas razas y se incorporó como una categoría formal de la investigación científica y, en países como los Estados Unidos, de clasificación social. [39]

Nunca hubo un consenso académico sobre la delimitación entre la raza caucásica, incluidas las poblaciones de Europa, y la mongoloide, incluidas las poblaciones de Asia oriental. Así, Carleton S. Coon (1939) incluyó las poblaciones nativas de toda Asia Central y del Norte bajo la etiqueta caucásica, mientras que Thomas Henry Huxley (1870) clasificó las mismas poblaciones como mongoloides y Lothrop Stoddard (1920) clasificó como " pardas ". la mayoría de las poblaciones de Oriente Medio , África del Norte y Asia Central, y sólo se contabilizan como "blancos" los pueblos europeos y sus descendientes, así como algunas poblaciones en partes deAnatolia y las zonas del norte de Marruecos, Argelia y Túnez. [40] Algunas autoridades, [ ¿quién? ] siguiendo a Huxley (1870), distinguió a los Xanthochroi o "blancos claros" del norte de Europa con los Melanochroi o "blancos oscuros" del Mediterráneo. [41]

Aunque los neonazis modernos a menudo invocan la iconografía nacionalsocialista en nombre del nacionalismo blanco, la Alemania nacionalsocialista repudió la idea de una raza blanca unificada y, en cambio, promovió el nordicismo . En la propaganda nacionalsocialista, a los eslavos de Europa del Este a menudo se les llamaba Untermensch , y el estado relativamente subdesarrollado de países de Europa del Este como Polonia y la URSS se atribuía a la inferioridad racial de sus habitantes. [42] La Italia fascista adoptó el mismo punto de vista, y ambas naciones justificaron sus ambiciones coloniales en Europa del Este sobre bases racistas y antieslavas. [43]Estas naciones no estaban solas en su opinión; Hay numerosos casos en el siglo XX en los que algunos grupos étnicos europeos etiquetaron o trataron a otros europeos como miembros de otra raza inferior.

Censo y definiciones sociales en diferentes regiones

Las definiciones de blanco han cambiado a lo largo de los años, incluidas las definiciones oficiales utilizadas en muchos países, como Estados Unidos y Brasil . [44] Desde mediados hasta finales del siglo XX, numerosos países tenían estándares o procedimientos legales formales que definían categorías raciales (ver limpieza de sangre , casta , apartheid en Sudáfrica , hipodescente ). A continuación se muestran algunas definiciones de blanco del censo, que pueden diferir de la definición social de blanco dentro del mismo país. También se ha añadido la definición social siempre que ha sido posible.

Argentina

El argentino José de San Martín liberó a varios países sudamericanos.
Carlos Gardel , cantante y compositor franco-argentino, considerado el cantante de tango más importante

Argentina , junto con otras áreas de nuevos asentamientos como Canadá, Australia, Brasil, Nueva Zelanda, Estados Unidos o Uruguay, es considerada un país de inmigrantes donde la gran mayoría son originarios de Europa. [82] Los blancos se pueden encontrar en todas las áreas del país, pero especialmente en la región centro-este ( Pampas ), la región centro-occidental ( Cuyo ), la región sur ( Patagonia ) y la región noreste ( Litoral). ).

Los argentinos blancos son principalmente descendientes de inmigrantes que llegaron de Europa y Medio Oriente a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX. [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] Después de los colonizadores españoles regimentados, oleadas de colonos europeos llegaron a Argentina desde finales del siglo XIX hasta mediados del siglo XX. Los principales contribuyentes fueron Italia (inicialmente de Piamonte , Véneto y Lombardía , más tarde de Campania , Calabria y Sicilia ), [88] y España (la mayoría son gallegos y vascos , pero hay asturianos, Cántabros , catalanes y andaluces ). Un número menor pero significativo de inmigrantes incluye alemanes, principalmente alemanes del Volga de Rusia , pero también alemanes de Alemania, Suiza y Austria ; Francés que procedía principalmente de la región de Occitania de Francia; Portuguesa , que ya conformaba una importante comunidad desde la época colonial; Grupos eslavos, la mayoría de los cuales eran croatas , bosnios , polacos , pero también ucranianos , bielorrusos , rusos , búlgaros., Serbios y montenegrinos ; Británicos, principalmente de Inglaterra y Gales ; Irlandeses que emigraron debido a la Gran Hambruna Irlandesa o hambrunas anteriores y escandinavos de Suecia , Dinamarca, Finlandia y Noruega . En los registros de inmigración argentinos se pueden rastrear oleadas más pequeñas de colonos de Australia, Sudáfrica y Estados Unidos.

En la década de 1910, después de que las tasas de inmigración alcanzaron su punto máximo, más del 30 por ciento de la población del país era de fuera de Argentina, y más de la mitad de la población de Buenos Aires nació en el extranjero. [89] [90] Sin embargo, el censo nacional de 1914 reveló que alrededor del 80% de la población nacional eran inmigrantes europeos, sus hijos o nietos. [91] Entre el 20 por ciento restante (los descendientes de la población que residía localmente antes de que esta ola de inmigrantes tomara forma en la década de 1870), alrededor de un tercio eran blancos. [92] La inmigración europea continuó representando más de la mitad del crecimiento de la población de la nación durante la década de 1920, y nuevamente fue significativa (aunque en una ola más pequeña) después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial .[91] Se estima que Argentina recibió más de 6 millones de inmigrantes europeos durante el período 1857-1940. [93]

Por lo tanto, los argentinos blancos probablemente alcanzaron su punto máximo como porcentaje de la población nacional en más del 90% en o poco después del censo de 1947. Desde la década de 1960, el aumento de la inmigración de países limítrofes al norte (especialmente de Bolivia y Paraguay , que tienen mayorías amerindias y mestizas ) ha disminuido un poco esa mayoría. [91]

Las críticas al censo nacional afirman que, históricamente, los datos se han recopilado utilizando la categoría de origen nacional en lugar de la raza en Argentina, lo que lleva a un conteo insuficiente de afroargentinos y mestizos. [94] África Viva es un grupo de derechos negros en Buenos Aires con el apoyo de la Organización de Estados Americanos , la ayuda financiera del Banco Mundial y la oficina de censo de Argentina está trabajando para agregar una categoría de "afrodescendientes" a la Censo de 2010. El censo nacional de 1887 fue el último año en el que se incluyó a los negros como una categoría separada antes de que fuera eliminada por el gobierno. [95]

Australia

Chris Hemsworth , actor australiano.

Desde 1788, cuando se fundó la primera colonia británica en Australia , hasta principios del siglo XIX, la mayoría de los inmigrantes en Australia eran convictos ingleses, escoceses, galeses e irlandeses . Estos fueron aumentados por un pequeño número de colonos libres de las Islas Británicas y otros países europeos. Sin embargo, hasta mediados del siglo XIX, hubo pocas restricciones a la inmigración, aunque los miembros de minorías étnicas tendían a ser asimilados a las poblaciones anglo-celtas .

Personas de muchas nacionalidades, incluidas muchas personas no blancas, emigraron a Australia durante la fiebre del oro de la década de 1850. Sin embargo, la gran mayoría todavía era blanca y las ráfagas de oro inspiraron el primer activismo y política racista , dirigida principalmente a los inmigrantes chinos .

Desde finales del siglo XIX, el gobierno colonial / estatal y más tarde los gobiernos federales de Australia restringieron toda la inmigración permanente al país por parte de no europeos. Estas políticas se conocieron como la " política de Australia Blanca ", que fue consolidada y habilitada por la Ley de Restricción de Inmigración de 1901 , [96] pero que nunca se aplicó universalmente. Los inspectores de inmigración estaban autorizados a pedir a los inmigrantes que tomaran dictados de cualquier idioma europeo como prueba de admisión, una prueba que se utiliza en la práctica para excluir a personas de Asia, África y algunos países europeos y sudamericanos, según el clima político.

Aunque no fueron los principales objetivos de la política, no fue hasta después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial que se admitió por primera vez a un gran número de inmigrantes de Europa del Sur y del Este. [97] Después de esto, la Política de Australia Blanca se relajó en etapas: se admitieron ciudadanos no europeos que pudieran demostrar ascendencia europea (por ejemplo, descendientes de colonizadores europeos y colonos de América Latina o África ), al igual que habitantes autóctonos (como los maronitas , Asirios y mandeos ) de varias naciones del Medio Oriente, más significativamente del Líbano y en menor gradoIrak , Siria e Irán . En 1973, se terminaron oficialmente todas las restricciones de inmigración basadas en la raza y el origen geográfico.

Australia enumeró su población por raza entre 1911 y 1966, por origen racial en 1971 y 1976, y solo por ascendencia autodeclarada desde 1981, lo que significa que ahora no se intenta clasificar a las personas según el color de la piel. [98] Al igual que en el censo de 2016, se estimó que alrededor del 58% de la población australiana eran australianos anglo-celtas con un 18% de otros orígenes europeos, un total del 76% para los ancestros europeos en su conjunto. [ cita requerida ]

Belice

En 1958, unos 3500 menonitas blancos de habla alemana , que se establecieron antes en Canadá y Rusia, llegaron a Belice . [99] Establecieron comunidades en la parte alta del río Belice: Blue Creek en la frontera con México; Astillero , Indian Creek en el distrito de Orange Walk ; Spanish Lookout y Barton Creek en el distrito de Cayo ; Pequeño Belice , distrito de Corozal . Constan del 3.6 por ciento de la población de Belice. have their own schools, churches and financial institutions in their various communities.[99]

Botswana

Brazil

Gisele Bündchen, Brazilian fashion model and actress.

Recent censuses in Brazil are conducted on the basis of self-identification. According to the 2010 Census, they totaled 91,051,646 people, and made up 47.73% of the Brazilian population.[100] This significant percentage change is considered to be caused by people who used to identify themselves as white and now reappreciated their African, Amerindian or East Asian ancestry, and so they changed their self-identification to "Pardo" and "Asian".

White in Brazil is applied as a term to people of European descent, and Middle Easterners of all ethnicities. The census shows a trend of fewer Brazilians of a different descent (most likely mixed) identifying as white people as their social status increases.[101][102] Nevertheless, light-skinned mulattoes and mestizos with Caucasian features were also historically deemed as more closely related to the branco Middle Easterner and European descendants' group than the pardo "grayish-skinned"[101] multiracial one by a sort of unique social constructs, especially among those multiracials with non-Portuguese European ancestry, and such change of identities actually can mean more of a westernization of the concept of race in Brazil (mixed ancestry, as explained below, is not a factor against in historical definitions of whiteness in Brazil) than a change in the self-esteem of "marginalized and unconscious multiracial populations trying to paint themselves as white in a hopeful attempt to deny their unprivileged person of color status", as common sense among some Brazilians and foreigners is used to state.

Aside from Portuguese colonization, there were large waves of immigration from the rest of Europe (especially Germany), as well as the Balkans and the Middle East. In Brazil, most members of these communities of European and Middle Eastern descent also have some Subsaharan African or Amerindian ancestry. Non-Portuguese ancestry generally is associated with an image of foreigner, European, and as such contributed to a social perception of being whiter in the color range of Brazilian society.[citation needed]

Canada

Stephen Amell, Canadian actor.

In the results of Statistics Canada's 2001 Canadian Census, white is one category in the population groups data variable, derived from data collected in question 19 (the results of this question are also used to derive the visible minority groups variable).[103]

In the 1995 Employment Equity Act, '"members of visible minorities" means persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour'. In the 2001 Census, persons who selected Chinese, South Asian, African, Filipino, Latin American, Southeast Asian, Arab, West Asian, Middle Eastern, Japanese or Korean were included in the visible minority population.[104] A separate census question on "cultural or ethnic origin" (question 17) does not refer to skin color.[105]

Chile

Scholarly estimates of the white population in Chile vary dramatically, ranging from 20%[106] to 52%.[47] According to a study by the University of Chile about 30% of the Chilean population is Caucasian,[107] while the 2011 Latinobarómetro survey shows that some 60% of Chileans consider themselves white.[108]

Bernardo O'Higgins, the Republic of Chile's main founding father, was of Basque and Irish ancestry.

During colonial times in the 18th century, an important flux of emigrants from Spain populated Chile, mostly Basques, who vitalized the Chilean economy and rose rapidly in the social hierarchy and became the political elite that still dominates the country.[109] An estimated 1.6 million (10%) to 3.2 million (20%) Chileans have a surname (one or both) of Basque origin.[110] The Basques liked Chile because of its great similarity to their native land: similar geography, cool climate, and the presence of fruits, seafood, and wine.[111]

Chile was never an attractive place for European migrants in the 19th and 20th century simply because it was far from Europe and difficult to reach. Chile experienced a tiny but steady arrival of Spanish, Italians, Irish, French, Greeks, Germans, English, Scots, Croats, Jewish, and Palestinian migrants (in addition to immigration from other Latin American countries).

The original arrival of Spaniards was the most radical change in demographics due to the arrival of Europeans in Chile,[111] since there was never a period of massive immigration, in contrast to neighboring nations such as Argentina and Uruguay.[112] Facts about the amount of immigration do not coincide with certain national chauvinistic discourse, which claims that Chile, like Argentina or Uruguay, would be considered one of the "white" Latin American countries, in contrast to the racial mixture that prevails in the rest of the continent. However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a major role in Chilean society.[112] Between 1851 and 1924 Chile only received the 0.5% of the European immigration flow to Latin America, compared to the 46% received by Argentina, 33% by Brazil, 14% by Cuba, and 4% by Uruguay. This was because most of the migration occurred across the Atlantic before the construction of the Panama Canal. Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long trip through the Straits of Magellan or across the Andes.[111] In 1907, European-born immigrants composed 2.4% of the Chilean population,[113] which fell to 1.8% in 1920,[114] and 1.5% in 1930.[115]

After the failed liberal revolution of 1848 in the German states,[112][116] a significant German immigration took place, laying the foundation for the German-Chilean community. Sponsored by the Chilean government to "civilize" and colonize the southern region,[112] these Germans (including German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians and Austrians) settled mainly in Valdivia, Llanquihue and Los Ángeles.[117] The Chilean Embassy in Germany estimated 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans are of German origin.[118][119]

Another historically significant immigrant group were Croatian immigrants. The number of their descendants today is estimated to be 380,000 persons, the equivalent of 2.4% of the population.[120][121] Other authors claim, on the other hand, that close to 4.6% of the Chilean population have some Croatian ancestry.[122] Over 700,000 Chileans may have British (English, Scottish or Welsh) origin, 4.5% of Chile's population.[123] Chileans of Greek descent are estimated 90,000 to 120,000.[124] Most of them live either in the Santiago area or in the Antofagasta area, and Chile is one of the 5 countries with the most descendants of Greeks in the world.[124] The descendants of the Swiss reach 90,000[125] and it is estimated that about 5% of the Chilean population has some French ancestry.[126] 184,000-800,000 (estimates) are descendants of Italians.[127] Other groups of European descendants are found in smaller numbers.

Colombia

Juanes at the Zelt Musik Festival 2015 in Germany

The census figures do not show how Colombians see themselves in terms of race but identify the people that belongs to minorities with special rights in the Constitution like native indigenous, Rom, Black or Mulatto, native from San Andrés y Providencia or Palenque. The rest of the population does not identify themselves as belonging to any race.[128] However, according to United States sources, white Colombian population is approximately 40% of the Colombian population.[69][129] The same United States sources claim that white Colombians are mostly descendants of Spaniards. Italian, German, Irish, Portuguese, and Lebanese (Arab diaspora in Colombia) Colombians are found in notable numbers[130]

Many Spanish began their explorations searching for gold, while other Spanish established themselves as leaders of the native social organizations teaching natives the Christian faith and the ways of their civilization. Catholic priests would provide education for Native Americans that otherwise was unavailable. Within 100 years after the first Spanish settlement, nearly 95 percent of all Native Americans in Colombia had died. The majority of the deaths of Native Americans were the cause of diseases such as measles and smallpox, which were spread by European settlers. Many Native Americans were also killed by armed conflicts with European settlers.[131]

Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9 percent of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. It has been suggested that the present day incidence of business entrepreneurship in the region of Antioquia is attributable to the Basque immigration and Basque character traits.[132] Few Colombians of distant Basque descent are aware of their Basque ethnic heritage.[132] In Bogota, there is a small colony of thirty to forty families who emigrated as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War or because of different opportunities.[132] Basque priests were the ones that introduced handball into Colombia.[133] Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration.[133] In the first years of the Andean multinational company, Basque sailors navigated as captains and pilots on the majority of the ships until the country was able to train its own crews.[133]

In December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 4,000 Germans living in Colombia.[134] There were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt.[134] Colombia invited Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave.[134] SCADTA, a Colombian-German air transport corporation which was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the western hemisphere.[135]

The first and largest wave of immigration from the Middle East began around 1880, and remained during the first two decades of the twentieth century. They were mainly Maronite Christians from Greater Syria (Syria and Lebanon) and Palestine, fleeing the then colonized Ottoman territories.[136] Syrians, Palestinians, and Lebanese continued since then to settle in Colombia.[137] Due to poor existing information it is impossible to know the exact number of Lebanese and Syrians that immigrated to Colombia. A figure of 5,000–10,000 from 1880 to 1930 may be reliable.[137] Whatever the figure, Syrians and Lebanese are perhaps the biggest immigrant group next to the Spanish since independence.[137] Those who left their homeland in the Middle East to settle in Colombia left for different reasons such as religious, economic, and political reasons.[137] Some left to experience the adventure of migration. After Barranquilla and Cartagena, Bogota stuck next to Cali, among cities with the largest number of Arabic-speaking representatives in Colombia in 1945.[137] The Arabs that went to Maicao were mostly Sunni Muslim with some Druze and Shiites, as well as Orthodox and Maronite Christians.[136] The mosque of Maicao is the second largest mosque in Latin America.[136] Middle Easterns are generally called Turcos (Turkish).[136]

Costa Rica

In 2009, Costa Rica had an estimated population of 4,509,290. White people (includes mestizo) make up 94%, 3% are black people, 1% are Amerindians, and 1% are Chinese. White Costa Ricans are mostly of Spanish ancestry,[138] but there are also significant numbers of Costa Ricans descended from British, Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese and Polish families, as well a sizable Jewish community.[139]

Cuba

Nueva Trova and Latin Protest music icon Cuban musician Silvio Rodríguez.

White people in Cuba make up 64.1% of the total population according to the 2012 census[143][144] with the majority being of diverse Spanish descent. However, after the mass exodus resulting from the Cuban Revolution in 1959, the number of white Cubans actually residing in Cuba diminished. Today various records claiming the percentage of whites in Cuba are conflicting and uncertain; some reports (usually coming from Cuba) still report a less, but similar, pre-1959 number of 65% and others (usually from outside observers) report a 40–45%. Despite most white Cubans being of Spanish descent, many others are of French, Portuguese, German, Italian and Russian descent.[145] During the 18th, 19th and early part of the 20th century, large waves of Canarians, Catalans, Andalusians, Castilians, and Galicians emigrated to Cuba. Also, one significant ethnic influx is derived from various Middle Eastern nations. Many Jews have also immigrated there, some of them Sephardic.[146] Between 1901 and 1958, more than a million Spaniards arrived to Cuba from Spain; many of these and their descendants left after Castro's communist regime took power.

In 1958, it was estimated that approximately 74% of Cubans were of European ancestry, mainly of Spanish origin, 10% of African ancestry, 15% of both African and European ancestry (mulattos), and a small 1% of the population was Asian, predominantly Chinese. However, after the Cuban revolution, due to a combination of factors, mainly mass exodus to Miami, United States, a drastic decrease in immigration, and interracial reproduction, Cuba's demography has changed. As a result, those of complete European ancestry and those of pure African ancestry have decreased, the mulatto population has increased, and the Asian population has, for all intents and purposes, disappeared.

The Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at the University of Miami says the present Cuban population is 38% white and 62% black/mulatto.[147] The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 33.9 per cent to 62 per cent".[148][149]

According to the most recent 2012 census, Cuba's population was 11,167,325.

El Salvador

In 2013, white Salvadorans were a minority ethnic group in El Salvador, accounting for 12.7% of the country's population. An additional 86.3% of the population were mestizo, having mixed Amerindian and European ancestry.[150]

France

White people in France are a broad racial-based, or skin colour-based, social category in French society.

In statistical terms, the French government banned the collection of racial or ethnic information in 1978, and the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE), therefore, does not provide census data on white residents or citizens in France. French courts have, however, made cases,[151] and issued rulings, which have identified white people as a demographic group within the country.[152]

White people in France are defined, or discussed, as a racial or social grouping, from a diverse and often conflicting range of political and cultural perspectives; in anti-racism activism in France, from right-wing political dialogue or propaganda, and other sources.[153][154]

Background

Whites in France have been studied with regard the group's historical involvement in French colonialism; how "whites in France have played a major international role in colonizing areas of the globe such as the African continent."[155]

They have been described as a privileged social class within the country, comparatively sheltered from racism and poverty. Der Spiegel has reported how "most white people in France only know the banlieues as a kind of caricature". Banlieues, outer-city regions across the country that are increasingly identified with minority groups, often have residents who are disproportionately affected by unemployment and poverty.[156]

The lack of census data collected by the INED and INSEE for whites in France has been analyzed, from some academic perspectives, as masking racial issues within the country, or a form of false racial color blindness. Writing for Al Jazeera, French journalist Rokhaya Diallo suggests that "a large portion of white people in France are not used to having frank conversations about race and racism."[157] According to political sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, "whites in France lie to themselves and the world by proclaiming that they do not have institutional racism in their nation."[158] Sociologist Crystal Marie Fleming has written; "While many whites in France refuse to acknowledge institutionalized racism and white supremacy, there is widespread belief in the specter of 'anti-white racism'".[159][160]

Use in right-wing politics

Accusations of anti-white racism,[159] suggestions of the displacement of,[153] or lack of representation for,[161] the group, and rhetoric surrounding whites in France experiencing poverty have been, at times, utilised by various right-wing political elements in the country. University of Lyon's political scientist Angéline Escafré-Dublet has written that "the equivalent to a white backlash in France can be traced through the debate over the purported neglect of the 'poor Whites' in France".[162]

In 2006, French politician Jean-Marie Le Pen suggested there were too many "players of colour" in the France national football team, after he suggested that 7 of the 23-player squad were white.[161] In 2020, French politician Nadine Morano stated that French actress Aïssa Maïga, who was born in Senegal, should "go back to Africa" if she "was not happy with seeing so many white people in France".[163]

Guatemala

In 2010, 18.5% of Guatemalans belonged to the white ethnic group, with 41.7% of the population being mestizo, and 39.8% of the population belonging to the 23 Indigenous groups.[164][clarification needed] It is difficult to make an accurate census of whites in Guatemala, because the country categorizes all non-indigenous people are mestizo or ladino and a large majority of white Guatemalans consider themselves as mestizos or ladinos.[165] By the 19th century the majority of immigrants were Germans, many who were bestowed fincas and coffee plantations in Cobán, while others went to Quetzaltenango and Guatemala City. Many young Germans married mestiza and indigenous Q'eqchi' women, which caused a gradual whitening. There was also immigration of Belgians to Santo Tomas and this contributed to the mixture of black and mestiza women in that region.[citation needed]

Honduras

As of 2013, Hondurans of solely white ancestry are a small minority in Honduras, accounting for 1% of the country's population. An additional 90% of the population is mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry.[166]

Indonesia

Kenya

Malaysia

Mexico

Portrait of the Fagoga Arozqueta family (a criollo couple with their ten children), anonymous painter, ca. 1735, Mexico City. Museo Nacional de San Carlos, Mexico City[167]

White Mexicans are Mexican citizens of complete or predominant European descent.[168] While the Mexican government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the option of identifying as "white,"[169] the results obtained from these censuses are not published. Instead, Mexico's government publishes the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" residing in the country; that percentage was 47%[56] in 2010 and 49% in 2017.[170] Due to its less direct racial undertone, the label "Light-skinned Mexican" has been favored by the government and media outlets over "White Mexican" as the go-to choice to refer to the segment of Mexico's population possessing European physical traits[171] when discussing different ethno-racial dynamics in Mexico's society. Sometimes, nonetheless, "White Mexican" is used.[172][173][174]

Europeans began arriving in Mexico during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire; and while during the colonial period most European immigration was Spanish (mostly from northern provinces such as Cantabria, Navarra, Galicia and the Basque Country,[175]), in the 19th and 20th centuries European and European-derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the country. According to 20th- and 21st-century academics, large-scale intermixing between the European immigrants and the native Indigenous peoples produced a Mestizo group which would become the overwhelming majority of Mexico's population by the time of the Mexican Revolution.[168] However, according to church and censal registers from the colonial times, the majority (73%) of Spanish men married Spanish women.[176][177] Said registers also put in question other narratives held by contemporary academics, such as European immigrants who arrived to Mexico being almost exclusively men or that "pure Spanish" people were all part of a small powerful elite, as Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in the colonial cities[178][179] and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of complete Spanish origin.[176]

Another ethnic group in Mexico, the Mestizos, is composed of people with varying degrees of European and indigenous ancestry, with some showing a European genetic ancestry higher than 90%.[180] However, the criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study, as in Mexico a large number of white people have been historically classified as Mestizos, because after the Mexican revolution the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial ones in an effort to unite all Mexicans under the same racial identity.[47]

Saúl Álvarez is a Mexican professional boxer.
Guillermo del Toro, Mexican film director

Estimates of Mexico's white population differ greatly in both, methodology and percentages given, extra-official sources such as the World Factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica, which use the 1921 census results as the base of their estimations, calculate Mexico's white population as only 9% or between one tenth to one fifth[181] (the results of the 1921 census, however, have been contested by various historians and deemed inaccurate).[177] Surveys that account for phenotypical traits and have performed actual field research suggest rather higher percentages: using the presence of blond hair as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico calculated the percentage of said ethnic group at 23%.[182] With a similar methodology, the American Sociological Association obtained a percentage of 18.8%.[183] Another study made by the University College London in collaboration with Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History found that the frequencies of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans are of 18% and 28% respectively,[184] nationwide surveys in the general population that use as reference skin color such as those made by Mexico's National Council to Prevent Discrimination and Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography report percentages of 47%[56] and 49%[170][169] respectively. A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City reported that an average 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the congenital skin birthmark known as the Mongolian spot whilst it was absent in 48.2% of the analyzed babies.[185] The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85–95%) in Asian, Native American, and African children.[186] The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American[187] and Mexican children who are racially Mestizos,[188] while having a very low frequency (5–10%) in Caucasian children.[189] According to the Mexican Social Security Institute (shortened as IMSS) nationwide, around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot.[190]

Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of White population, where, according to the American historian and anthropologist Howard F. Cline the majority of the people have no native admixture or is of predominantly European ancestry, resembling in aspect that of northern Spaniards.[191] In the north and west of Mexico, the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller than those found in central and southern Mexico, and also much less organized; thus, they remained isolated from the rest of the population or even in some cases were hostile towards Mexican colonists. The northeast region, in which the indigenous population was eliminated by early European settlers, became the region with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish colonial period. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its demographic trends.[192]

The white population of central Mexico, despite not being as numerous as in the north due to higher mixing, is ethnically more diverse, as there are large numbers of other European and Middle Eastern ethnic groups, aside from Spaniards. This also results in non-Iberian surnames (mostly French, German, Italian and Arab) being more common in central Mexico, especially in the country's capital and in the state of Jalisco. A number of settlements on which European immigrants have maintained their original culture and language survive to this day and are spread all over Mexican territory; among the most notable groups are the Mennonites who have colonies in states as variated as Chihuahua[193] or Campeche[194] and the town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla, inhabited nearly in its totality by descendants of Italian immigrants that still speak their Venetian-derived dialect.[195]

Namibia

New Zealand

Lucy Lawless, New Zealand actress.

James Cook claimed New Zealand for Britain on his arrival in 1769. The establishment of British colonies in Australia from 1788 and the boom in whaling and sealing in the Southern Ocean brought many Europeans to the vicinity of New Zealand. Whalers and sealers were often itinerant and the first real settlers were missionaries and traders in the Bay of Islands area from 1809. Early visitors to New Zealand included whalers, sealers, missionaries, mariners, and merchants, attracted to natural resources in abundance. They came from the Australian colonies, Great Britain and Ireland, Germany (forming the next biggest immigrant group after the British and Irish),[196] France, Portugal, the Netherlands, Denmark, the United States, and Canada.

In the 1860s, discovery of gold started a gold rush in Otago. By 1860 more than 100,000 British and Irish settlers lived throughout New Zealand. The Otago Association actively recruited settlers from Scotland, creating a definite Scottish influence in that region, while the Canterbury Association recruited settlers from the south of England, creating a definite English influence over that region.[197]

In the 1870s, the MP Julius Vogel borrowed millions of pounds from Britain to help fund capital development such as a nationwide rail system, lighthouses, ports and bridges, and encouraged mass migration from Britain. By 1870 the non-Māori population reached over 250,000.[198]Other smaller groups of settlers came from Germany, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe as well as from China and India, but British and Irish settlers made up the vast majority, and did so for the next 150 years.

Nicaragua

As of 2013, the white ethnic group in Nicaragua account for 17% of the country's population. An additional 69% of the population is mestizo, having mixed indigenous and European ancestry.[199] In the 19th century, Nicaragua was the subject of central European immigration, mostly from Germany, England and the United States, who often married native Nicaraguan women. Some Germans were given land to grow coffee in Matagalpa, Jinotega and Esteli, although most Europeans settled in San Juan del Norte.[200] In the late 17th century, pirates from England, France and Holland mixed with the indigenous population and started a settlement at Bluefields (Mosquito Coast).[201]

Peru

According to the 2017 census 5.9% or 1.3 million (1,336,931) people 12 years of age and above self-identified as white. There were 619,402 (5.5%) males and 747,528 (6.3%) females. This was the first time a question for ethnic origins had been asked. The regions with the highest proportion of self-identified whites were in La Libertad (10.5%), Tumbes and Lambayeque (9.0% each), Piura (8.1%), Callao (7.7%), Cajamarca (7.5%), Lima Province (7.2%) and Lima Region (6.0%).[72]

South Africa

South African author, anti-war campaigner and intellectual Olive Schreiner

White Hollanders first arrived in South Africa around 1652.[202][203] By the beginning of the eighteenth century, some 2,000 Europeans and their descendants were established in the region. Although these early Afrikaners represented various nationalities, including German peasants and French Huguenots, the community retained a thoroughly Dutch character.[204]

The Kingdom of Great Britain captured Cape Town in 1795 during the Napoleonic Wars and permanently acquired South Africa from Amsterdam in 1814. The first British immigrants numbered about 4,000 and were introduced in 1820. They represented groups from England, Ireland, Scotland, or Wales and were typically more literate than the Dutch.[204] The discovery of diamonds and gold led to a greater influx of English speakers who were able to develop the mining industry with capital unavailable to Afrikaners.[204] They have been joined in more subsequent decades by former colonials from elsewhere, such as Zambia and Kenya, and poorer British nationals looking to escape famine at home.[204]

Both Afrikaners and English have been politically dominant in South Africa during the past; due to the controversial racial order under apartheid, the nation's predominantly Afrikaner government became a target of condemnation by other African states and the site of considerable dissension between 1948 and 1991.[202]

There were 4.6 million whites in South Africa in 2011,[205][206] down from an all-time high of 5.2 million in 1995 following a wave of emigration commencing in the late 20th century.[207] However, many returned over time.[208]

Thailand

United Kingdom and Ireland

English writer and poet William Shakespeare
English naturalist and geologist Charles Darwin
James Cook, explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy

Historical white identities

Before the Industrial Revolutions in Europe whiteness may have been associated with social status. Aristocrats may have had less exposure to the sun and therefore a pale complexion may have been associated with status and wealth.[209] This may be the origin of "blue blood" as a description of royalty, the skin being so lightly pigmented that the blueness of the veins could be clearly seen.[210] The change in the meaning of white that occurred in the colonies (see above) to distinguish Europeans from non-Europeans did not apply to the 'home land' countries (England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales). Whiteness therefore retained a meaning associated with social status for the time being, and, during the 19th century, when the British Empire was at its peak, many of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy developed extremely negative attitudes to those of lower social rank.[211]

Edward Lhuyd discovered that Welsh, Gaelic, Cornish and Breton are all part of the same language family, which he termed the "Celtic family", and was distinct from the Germanic English; this can be seen in context of the emerging romantic nationalism, which was also prevalent among those of Celtic descent.[212][213][214][215]

Just as race reified whiteness in America, Africa, and Asia, capitalism without social welfare reified whiteness with regards to social class in 19th-century Britain and Ireland; this social distinction of whiteness became, over time, associated with racial differences.[216] For example, George Sims in his 1883 book How the poor live wrote of "a dark continent that is within easy reach of the General Post Office […] the wild races who inhabit it will, I trust, gain public sympathy as easily as [other] savage tribes".[216]

Modern and official use

From the early 1700s, Britain received a small-scale immigration of black people due to the transatlantic slave trade.[217] The oldest Chinese community in Britain (as well as in Europe) dates from the 19th century.[218] Since the end of World War II, a substantial immigration from the African, Caribbean and South Asian (namely the British Raj) colonies changed the picture more radically,[217] while the adhesion to the European Union brought with it a heightened immigration from Central and Eastern Europe.[219]

Today the Office for National Statistics uses the term white as an ethnic category. The terms white British, White Irish, White Scottish and White Other are used. These classifications rely on individuals' self-identification, since it is recognised that ethnic identity is not an objective category.[220] Socially, in the UK white usually refers only to people of native British, Irish and European origin.[221] As a result of the 2011 census the white population stood at 85.5% in England (White British: 79.8%),[222] at 96% in Scotland (White British: 91.8%),[223] at 95.6% in Wales (White British: 93.2%),[222] while in Northern Ireland 98.28% identified themselves as white,[224][225] amounting to a total of 87.2% white population (or c. 82 % White British and Irish).[222][226][227]

United States

First President of the United States George Washington
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement
Most decorated Olympian of all time, American swimmer Michael Phelps

The cultural boundaries separating white Americans from other racial or ethnic categories are contested and always changing. Professor David R. Roediger of the University of Illinois, suggests that the construction of the white race in the United States was an effort to mentally distance slave owners from slaves.[232] By the 18th century, white had become well established as a racial term. According to John Tehranian, among those not considered white at some points in American history have been: the Germans, Greeks, white Hispanics, Arabs, Iranians, Afghans, Irish, Italians, Jews, Slavs and Spaniards.[233] Finns were also on several occasions "racially" discriminated against[234] and not seen as white, but "Asian". The reasons for this were the arguments and theories about the Finns originally being of Mongolian instead of "native" European origin due to the Finnish language belonging to the Uralic and not the Indo-European language family.[235]

During American history, the process of officially being defined as white by law often came about in court disputes over pursuit of citizenship. The Immigration Act of 1790 offered naturalization only to "any alien, being a free white person". In at least 52 cases, people denied the status of white by immigration officials sued in court for status as white people. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence" was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian argues that in reality this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage and a community's role in the United States.[233]

In 1923, the Supreme Court decided in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind that people of Indian descent were not white men, and thus not eligible to citizenship.[236] While Thind was a high caste Hindu born in the northern Punjab region and classified by certain scientific authorities as of the Aryan race, the court conceded that he was not white or Caucasian since the word Aryan "has to do with linguistic and not at all with physical characteristics" and "the average man knows perfectly well that there are unmistakable and profound differences" between Indians and white people.[236] In United States v. Cartozian (1925), an Armenian immigrant successfully argued (and the Supreme Court agreed) that his nationality was white in contradistinction to other people of the Near East—Kurds, Turks, and Arabs in particular—on the basis of their Christian religious traditions.[233] In conflicting rulings In re Hassan (1942) and Ex parte Mohriez, United States District Courts found that Arabs did not, and did qualify as white under immigration law.[233]

Still today the relationship between some ethnic groups and whiteness remains complex. In particular, some Jewish and Arab individuals both self-identify and are considered as part of the White American racial category, but others with the same ancestry feel they are not white nor are they perceived as white by American society. The United States Census Bureau proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020, owing to a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a race.[237] According to Frank Sweet "various sources agree that, on average, people with 12 percent or less admixture appear White to the average American and those with up to 25 percent look ambiguous (with a Mediterranean skin tone)".[238]

The current U.S. Census definition includes as white "a person having origins in any of Europe, the Middle East or North Africa."[231] The U.S. Department of Justice's Federal Bureau of Investigation describes white people as "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa through racial categories used in the Uniform Crime Reports Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce."[239] The "white" category in the UCR includes non-black Hispanics.[240]

White Americans made up nearly 90% of the population in 1950.[228] A report from the Pew Research Center in 2008 projects that by 2050, non-Hispanic white Americans will make up 47% of the population, down from 67% projected in 2005.[241] According to a study on the genetic ancestry of Americans, white Americans (stated "European Americans") on average are 98.6% European, 0.19% African and 0.18% Native American.[242] Southern states with higher African American populations, tend to have higher percentages of African ancestry. According to the 23andMe database, up to 13% of self-identified white American Southerners have greater than 1% African ancestry.[242] Southern states with the highest African American populations tended to have the highest percentages of hidden African ancestry.[243] Robert P. Stuckert, member of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Ohio State University, has poignantly stated that today the majority of the descendants of African slaves are white.[244]

Black author Rich Benjamin, in his book, Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America, reveals how racial divides and white decline, both real and perceived, shape democratic and economic urgencies in America.[245] The book examines how white flight, and the fear of white decline, impacts the country's political debates and policy-making, including housing, lifestyle, social psychology, gun control,[246] and community. Benjamin states that seemingly race-neutral issues such as fiscal policy or immigration or "Best Place to Live" lists are defined by racial anxiety over perceived white decline.

One-drop rule

The "one-drop rule"–that a person with any amount of known black African ancestry (however small or invisible) is considered black–is a classification that was used in parts of the United States.[247] It is a colloquial term for a set of laws passed by 18 U.S. states between 1910 and 1931, many as a consequence of Plessy v. Ferguson, a Supreme Court decision that upheld the concept of racial segregation by accepting a "separate but equal" argument. The set of laws was finally declared unconstitutional in 1967, when the Supreme Court ruled on anti-miscegenation laws while hearing Loving v. Virginia, which also found that Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924 was unconstitutional. The one-drop rule attempted to create a bifurcated system of either black or white regardless of a person's physical appearance, but sometimes failed as people with African ancestry sometimes passed as "white", as noted above. This contrasts with the more flexible social structures present in Latin America (derived from the Spanish colonial era casta system) where there were less clear-cut divisions between various ethnicities.

As a result of centuries of having children with white people, the majority of African Americans have some European admixture,[248] and many white people also have African ancestry.[249][250] Writer and editor Debra Dickerson questions the legitimacy of the one-drop rule, stating that "easily one-third of black people have white DNA".[251] She argues that in ignoring their European ancestry, African Americans are denying their fully articulated multi-racial identities. The peculiarity of the one-drop rule may be illustrated by the case of singer Mariah Carey, who was publicly called "another white girl trying to sing black", but in an interview with Larry King, responded that—despite her physical appearance and the fact that she was raised primarily by her white mother—due to the one-drop rule, she did not "feel white".[252][253] Recently, the possibility of genetic testing has raised new questions about the way African Americans describe their race.[254]

Puerto Rico

Contrary to most other Caribbean places, Puerto Rico gradually became predominantly populated by European immigrants.[255] Puerto Ricans of Spanish, Italian (primarily via Corsica) and French descent comprise the majority. (See: Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico).

In 1899, one year after the U.S acquired the island, 61.8% or 589,426 people self-identified as white.[255] One hundred years later (2000), the total increased to 80.5% (3,064,862);[256] not because there has been an influx of whites toward the island (or an exodus of non-White people), but a change of race conceptions, mainly because of Puerto Rican elites to portray Puerto Rico's image as the "white island of the Antilles", partly as a response to scientific racism.[258]

Hundreds are from Corsica, France, Italy, Portugal, Lebanon, Ireland, Scotland, and Germany, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain. This was the result of granted land from Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land.

Between 1960 and 1990, the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or color.[259] Racial categories therefore disappeared from the dominant discourse on the Puerto Rican nation. However, the 2000 census included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico and, for the first time in since 1950, allowed respondents to choose more than one racial category to indicate mixed ancestry. (Only 4.2% chose two or more races.) With few variations, the census of Puerto Rico used the same questionnaire as in the U.S. mainland. According to census reports, most islanders responded to the new federally mandated categories on race and ethnicity by declaring themselves "white"; few declared themselves to be black or some other race.[260] However, it was estimated 20% of white Puerto Ricans may have black ancestry.[261]

Uruguay

Uruguayans and Argentines share closely related demographic ties. Different estimates state that Uruguay's population of 3.4 million is composed of 88% to 93% white Uruguayans.[262][263] Uruguay's population is heavily populated by people of European origin, mainly Spaniards, followed closely by Italians,[264] including numbers of French, Greek, Lebanese, Armenians, Swiss, Scandinavians, Germans, Irish, Dutch, Belgians, Austrians, and other Southern and Eastern Europeans which migrated to Uruguay in the late 19th century and 20th century.[265][266]According to the 2006 National Survey of Homes by the Uruguayan National Institute of Statistics: 94.6% self-identified as having a white background, 9.1% chose black ancestry, and 4.5% chose an Amerindian ancestry (people surveyed were allowed to choose more than one option).[66]

Venezuela

Alberto Arvelo Torrealba, author of Florentino y El Diablo, considered as the most valuable work within the Venezuelan traditional folklore after independence.

According to the 2011 National Population and Housing Census, 43.6% of the Venezuelan population (approx. 13.1 million people) identify as white.[267][268] Genetic research by the University of Brasilia shows an average admixture of 60.6% European, 23.0% Amerindian and 16.3% African ancestry in Venezuelan populations.[269] The majority of white Venezuelans are of Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and German descent. Nearly half a million European immigrants, mostly from Spain (as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War), Italy and Portugal, entered the country during and after World War II, attracted by a prosperous, rapidly developing country where educated and skilled immigrants were welcomed.

Spaniards were introduced into Venezuela during the colonial period. Most of them were from Andalusia, Galicia, Basque Country and from the Canary Islands. Until the last years of World War II, a large part of the European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands, and its cultural impact was significant, influencing the development of Castilian in the country, its gastronomy and customs. With the beginning of oil operations during the first decades of the 20th century, citizens and companies from the United States, United Kingdom and Netherlands established themselves in Venezuela. Later, in the middle of the century, there was a new wave of originating immigrants from Spain (mainly from Galicia, Andalucia and the Basque Country), Italy (mainly from southern Italy and Venice) and Portugal (from Madeira) and new immigrants from Germany, France, England, Croatia, Netherlands, the Middle East and other European countries, among others, animated simultaneously by the program of immigration and colonization implanted by the government.[270]

Zambia

Zimbabwe

See also

  • Caucasoid
  • Criollo people
  • Ethnic groups in Europe
  • Ethnic groups in West Asia
  • European diaspora
  • Europhobia
  • Genetic history of Europe
  • White supremacy

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External links

  • The dictionary definition of Wikisaurus:white person at Wiktionary