La Segunda Guerra Mundial en Yugoslavia , [a] oficialmente la Guerra de Liberación Nacional y la Revolución Socialista [b] en la historiografía yugoslava, se refiere a las operaciones militares de la Segunda Guerra Mundial que ocurrieron en el territorio del entonces Reino de Yugoslavia . El conflicto en Yugoslavia comenzó el 6 de abril de 1941, cuando el Reino de Yugoslavia fue rápidamente conquistado por las fuerzas del Eje y dividido entre Alemania , Italia , Hungría , Bulgaria y los regímenes clientes . Posteriormente, una guerra de guerrilla de liberaciónfue combatido contra las fuerzas de ocupación del Eje y sus regímenes títeres establecidos localmente , incluido el fascista Estado Independiente de Croacia (NDH) y el Gobierno de Salvación Nacional en el territorio de Serbia ocupado por los alemanes , por los partisanos yugoslavos republicanos liderados por los comunistas . Simultáneamente, se libró una guerra civil de varios bandos entre los partisanos comunistas yugoslavos, los chetniks realistas serbios , los fascistas croatas Ustashe y la Guardia Nacional , el Cuerpo de Voluntarios Serbios y la Guardia Estatal , así como las tropas de la Guardia Nacional eslovena . [24]
Segunda Guerra Mundial en Yugoslavia | ||||||||
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Parte del teatro europeo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial | ||||||||
En el sentido de las agujas del reloj desde la parte superior izquierda: Ante Pavelić visita a Adolf Hitler en el Berghof ; Stjepan Filipović ahorcado por las fuerzas de ocupación; Draža Mihailović conversa con sus tropas; un grupo de chetniks con soldados alemanes en un pueblo de Serbia; Josip Broz Tito con miembros de la misión británica | ||||||||
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Beligerantes | ||||||||
Abril de 1941: Alemania Italia Hungría | Abril de 1941: Yugoslavia | |||||||
1941 - septiembre de 1943:
| 1941–43: Chetniks b Apoyo: Gobernador yugoslavo en el exilio Reino Unido | 1941–43: Apoyo a los partisanos yugoslavos : Unión Soviética | ||||||
Septiembre de 1943-1945:
| 1943-1945: DF Yugoslavia
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Comandantes y líderes | ||||||||
Maximilian von Weichs Alexander Löhr ( prisionero de guerra ) Paul Bader Hans Felber Vittorio Ambrosio Mario Roatta Alessandro P. Biroli de Ante Pavelic Slavko Kvaternik Jure Francetić † Rafael Boban Vjekoslav Luburić Vasil Boydev Asen Nikolov Milán Nedić Kosta Mušicki Sekula Drljević Kosta Pećanac Leon Rupnik Xhafer Deva Xhem Hasa † | Dušan Simović Danilo Kalafatović Draža Mihailović I. Trifunovic-Birčanin Dobroslav Jevđević Pavle Đurišić Momčilo Đujić Zaharije Ostojić Petar Baćović Vojislav Lukacevic Dragutin Keserović Jezdimir Dangić Nikola Kalabić Dragoslav Racic Velimir Piletić Karl Novak | Josip Broz Tito Ivan Ribar Arso Jovanović Andrija Hebrang Svetozar Vukmanović Kosta Nađ Peko Dapčević Koča Popovic Petar Drapšin Mihajlo Apostolski Ivan Gošnjak Aleksandar Rankovic Milovan Đilas Sava Kovacevic † Boris Kidrič Franc Rozman † Fiódor Tolbujin Vladimir Stoychev Fitzroy Maclean Enver Hoxha | ||||||
Fuerza | ||||||||
300.000 (1944) [1] 321.000 (1943) [2] 170.000 (1943) [3] 130.000 (1945) [4] 70.000 (1943) [5] [6] 40.000 (1943) [7] 12.000 (1944) [ 8] | 700.000 (1941) (400.000 mal preparados) [9] 93.000 (1943) [10] [11] | 100.000 (1943) [12] 800.000 (1945) [13] 580.000 (1944) | ||||||
Víctimas y pérdidas | ||||||||
Alemania: [14] c 19.235-103.693 muertos 14.805 desaparecidos; [15] Italia: d 9.065 muertos 15.160 heridos 6.306 desaparecidos; Estado Independiente de Croacia: [16] 99.000 muertos | Partisanos: [17] 245,549 muertos 399,880 heridos 31,200 muertos por heridas 28,925 desaparecidos | |||||||
a ^ Se estableció un régimen títere del Eje en el territorio yugoslavo ocupado. |
Tanto los partisanos yugoslavos como el movimiento Chetnik inicialmente resistieron la ocupación. Sin embargo, después de 1941, los chetniks colaboraron extensa y sistemáticamente con las fuerzas de ocupación italianas hasta la capitulación italiana , y luego también con las fuerzas alemanas y ustashe. [24] [25] El Eje organizó una serie de ofensivas destinadas a destruir a los partisanos, y estuvo a punto de hacerlo en la Batalla de Neretva y la Batalla de Sutjeska en la primavera y el verano de 1943.
A pesar de los reveses, los partisanos siguieron siendo una fuerza de combate creíble, con su organización ganando el reconocimiento de los aliados occidentales en la Conferencia de Teherán y sentando las bases para el estado yugoslavo de posguerra . Con el apoyo logístico y aéreo de los aliados occidentales y las tropas terrestres soviéticas en la ofensiva de Belgrado , los partisanos finalmente obtuvieron el control de todo el país y de las regiones fronterizas de Trieste y Carintia .
El costo humano de la guerra fue enorme. El número de víctimas de la guerra todavía está en disputa, pero en general se acepta que ha sido de al menos un millón. Las víctimas no combatientes incluían a la mayoría de la población judía del país , muchas de las cuales murieron en campos de concentración y exterminio (por ejemplo , Jasenovac , Stara Gradiška , Banjica , Sajmište , etc.) dirigidos por los regímenes cliente o las propias fuerzas de ocupación.
El régimen de Ustashe (en su mayoría croatas , pero también musulmanes y otros) cometió genocidio contra serbios , judíos , romaníes y croatas antifascistas . Los chetniks (en su mayoría serbios , pero también montenegrinos y otros) persiguieron el genocidio [26] [27] contra musulmanes, croatas y serbios partidarios, y las autoridades de ocupación italianas persiguieron la violencia y la limpieza étnica ( italianización ) contra eslovenos y croatas. La Wehrmacht llevó a cabo ejecuciones masivas de civiles en represalia por las actividades de resistencia, por ejemplo, la masacre de Kragujevac y la masacre de Kraljevo . La División de las SS "Prinz Eugen" masacró a un gran número de civiles y prisioneros de guerra. [[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|
Finalmente, durante y después de las etapas finales de la guerra, las autoridades yugoslavas y las tropas partisanas tomaron represalias, incluida la deportación de la población suaba del Danubio , marchas forzadas y ejecución de decenas de miles de soldados y civiles capturados (predominantemente croatas asociados con el NDH , pero también eslovenos y otros) que huyen de su avance (las repatriaciones de Bleiburg ), las atrocidades contra la población italiana en Istria ( las masacres de Foibe ) y las purgas contra serbios, húngaros y alemanes asociados con las fuerzas fascistas .
Fondo
Antes del estallido de la guerra, el gobierno de Milán Stojadinović (1935-1939) intentó navegar entre las potencias del Eje y las potencias imperiales buscando un estatus neutral, firmando un tratado de no agresión con Italia y extendiendo su tratado de amistad con Francia . Al mismo tiempo, el país se vio desestabilizado por las tensiones internas, ya que los líderes croatas exigieron un mayor nivel de autonomía. Stojadinović fue despedido por el príncipe regente Paul en 1939 y reemplazado por Dragiša Cvetković , quien negoció un compromiso con el líder croata Vladko Maček en 1939, lo que resultó en la formación de los Banovina de Croacia .
Sin embargo, en lugar de reducir las tensiones, el acuerdo solo reforzó la crisis en la gobernanza del país. [29] Los grupos de ambos lados del espectro político no estaban satisfechos: el profascista Ustaše buscó una Croacia independiente aliada con el Eje , los círculos públicos y militares serbios prefirieron la alianza con los imperios de Europa occidental, mientras que el entonces prohibido Partido Comunista de Yugoslavia vio a la Unión Soviética como un aliado natural.
Después de la caída de Francia ante la Alemania nazi en mayo de 1940, el Reino Unido fue el único imperio en conflicto con las potencias del Eje, y el príncipe Paul y el gobierno no vieron forma de salvar Yugoslavia excepto adoptando políticas de acomodación con las potencias del Eje. Aunque Hitler no estaba particularmente interesado en crear otro frente en los Balcanes , y la propia Yugoslavia permaneció en paz durante el primer año de la guerra, la Italia de Benito Mussolini había invadido Albania en abril de 1939 y lanzó la guerra ítalo-griega bastante fallida en octubre. 1940. Estos eventos resultaron en el aislamiento geográfico de Yugoslavia del apoyo potencial aliado . El gobierno trató de negociar con el Eje la cooperación con el menor número de concesiones posible, mientras intentaba negociaciones secretas con los Aliados y la Unión Soviética , pero esos movimientos no mantendrían al país fuera de la guerra. [30] Una misión secreta a los EE. UU., Dirigida por el influyente capitán serbio-judío David Albala con el propósito de obtener fondos para comprar armas para la invasión esperada no llegó a ninguna parte, mientras que Stalin expulsó al embajador yugoslavo Gavrilovic solo un mes después de acordar un tratado de amistad con Yugoslavia. [31]
1941
Después de haber caído constantemente dentro de la órbita del Eje durante 1940 después de eventos como el Segundo Premio de Viena , Yugoslavia siguió a Bulgaria y se unió formalmente a las potencias del Eje mediante la firma del Pacto Tripartito el 25 de marzo de 1941. Los oficiales de la fuerza aérea que se oponían a la medida dieron un golpe de estado. 'état y asumió el control en los días siguientes. Estos eventos fueron vistos con gran aprensión en Berlín, y como se estaba preparando para ayudar a su aliado italiano en su guerra contra Grecia de todos modos, los planes se modificaron para incluir también a Yugoslavia .
Invasión
El 6 de abril de 1941, el Reino de Yugoslavia fue invadido por todos lados por las potencias del Eje de Alemania, Italia y su aliado Hungría . Durante la invasión, Belgrado fue bombardeada por la fuerza aérea alemana ( Luftwaffe ). La invasión duró poco más de diez días y terminó con la rendición incondicional del Real Ejército Yugoslavo el 17 de abril. Además de estar desesperadamente mal equipado en comparación con el ejército alemán ( Heer ), el ejército yugoslavo intentó defender todas las fronteras, pero solo logró distribuir muy poco los recursos limitados disponibles. Además, un gran número de la población se negó a luchar y, en cambio, dio la bienvenida a los alemanes como liberadores de la opresión del gobierno. Sin embargo, como esto significaba que cada grupo étnico individual se convertiría en movimientos opuestos a la unidad promovida por el estado eslavo del sur, surgieron dos conceptos diferentes de resistencia, los chetniks realistas y los partisanos comunistas . [32]
Dos de los principales grupos nacionales constituyentes, eslovenos y croatas, no estaban preparados para luchar en defensa de un estado yugoslavo con una monarquía serbia continuada . La única oposición efectiva a la invasión fue de unidades totalmente de la propia Serbia. [33] El Estado Mayor de Serbia estaba unido en la cuestión de Yugoslavia como una "Gran Serbia" gobernada, de una forma u otra, por Serbia. En vísperas de la invasión, había 165 generales en la lista activa yugoslava. De éstos, todos menos cuatro eran serbios. [34]
Los términos de la capitulación fueron extremadamente severos, ya que el Eje procedió a desmembrar Yugoslavia. Alemania anexó el norte de Eslovenia , al tiempo que mantuvo la ocupación directa sobre un estado serbio rudo , y una influencia considerable sobre su estado títere recién creado , el Estado Independiente de Croacia , que se extendía por gran parte de la actual Croacia y contenía toda la actual Bosnia y Herzegovina . La Italia de Mussolini ganó el resto de Eslovenia, Kosovo , las zonas costeras y del interior del litoral croata y grandes trozos de la región costera de Dalmacia (junto con casi todas las islas del Adriático y la bahía de Kotor ). También obtuvo el control sobre la gobernación italiana de Montenegro y se le concedió la realeza en el Estado Independiente de Croacia, aunque ejercía poco poder real dentro de él; aunque mantuvo (junto con Alemania) una zona de influencia de facto dentro de las fronteras del NDH . Hungría envió al Tercer Ejército húngaro para ocupar Vojvodina en el norte de Serbia, y luego anexó por la fuerza secciones de Baranja, Bačka, Međimurje y Prekmurje . [35]
El ejército búlgaro se trasladó el 19 de abril de 1941, ocupando casi la totalidad de la actual Macedonia del Norte y algunos distritos del este de Serbia que, junto con la Tracia occidental griega y Macedonia oriental (la provincia del Egeo), fueron anexados por Bulgaria el 14 de mayo. [36]
El gobierno en el exilio ahora solo era reconocido por las potencias aliadas . [37] El Eje había reconocido las adquisiciones territoriales de sus estados aliados. [[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|
Resistencia temprana
Varias formaciones militares más o menos vinculadas al movimiento de liberación general participaron en enfrentamientos armados con las fuerzas del Eje que estallaron en varias zonas de Yugoslavia en las semanas siguientes.
Al principio hubo dos movimientos de resistencia en Yugoslavia, los chetniks y los partisanos. La resistencia de los chetniks había durado sólo hasta el otoño de 1941, cuando sus líderes se pasaron al enemigo o volvieron a la pasividad. [40]
Desde el principio, las fuerzas de resistencia yugoslavas consistieron en dos facciones: los partisanos , un movimiento liderado por comunistas que propaga la tolerancia pan-yugoslava (" hermandad y unidad ") e incorpora elementos republicanos, izquierdistas y liberales de la política yugoslava, por un lado. , y los chetniks , una fuerza conservadora realista y nacionalista, que disfruta del apoyo casi exclusivamente de la población serbia en la Yugoslavia ocupada, por otro lado. Inicialmente, los chetniks recibieron el reconocimiento de los aliados occidentales , mientras que los partisanos fueron apoyados por la Unión Soviética .
Al principio, las fuerzas partisanas eran relativamente pequeñas, mal armadas y sin infraestructura. Pero tenían dos ventajas importantes sobre otras formaciones militares y paramilitares en la ex Yugoslavia: la primera y más inmediata ventaja era un cuadro pequeño pero valioso de veteranos de la Guerra Civil española . A diferencia de algunas de las otras formaciones militares y paramilitares, estos veteranos tenían experiencia con una guerra moderna librada en circunstancias bastante similares a las encontradas en la Segunda Guerra Mundial en Yugoslavia. En Eslovenia, los partisanos también recurrieron a los experimentados miembros de TIGR para entrenar tropas.
Su otra gran ventaja, que se hizo más evidente en las etapas posteriores de la guerra, fue que los partisanos se basaban en una ideología comunista en lugar de una etnia . Por lo tanto, obtuvieron apoyos que traspasaron las fronteras nacionales, lo que significa que podían esperar al menos algunos niveles de apoyo en casi cualquier rincón del país, a diferencia de otras formaciones paramilitares limitadas a territorios con mayoría croata o serbia. Esto permitió que sus unidades fueran más móviles y llenaran sus filas con un grupo más grande de reclutas potenciales.
Aunque la actividad de los partisanos macedonios y eslovenos fue parte de la Guerra de Liberación del Pueblo Yugoslavo, las condiciones específicas en Macedonia y Eslovenia, debido a las fuertes tendencias autonomistas de los comunistas locales, llevaron a la creación de sub-ejércitos separados llamados Liberación del Pueblo. Ejército de Macedonia y Partisanos eslovenos liderados por el Frente de Liberación del Pueblo Esloveno , respectivamente.
La fuerza local más numerosa, además de las cuatro divisiones de infantería de la Wehrmacht alemana de segunda línea asignadas a tareas de ocupación, fue la Guardia Nacional croata ( Hrvatsko domobranstvo ), fundada en abril de 1941, pocos días después de la fundación del Estado Independiente de Croacia (NDH). sí mismo. Se hizo con la autorización de las autoridades de ocupación alemanas. La tarea de las nuevas fuerzas armadas croatas era defender el nuevo estado contra enemigos tanto nacionales como extranjeros. [42]
La Guardia Nacional croata se limitó originalmente a 16 batallones de infantería y 2 escuadrones de caballería , 16.000 hombres en total. Los 16 batallones originales pronto se ampliaron a 15 regimientos de infantería de dos batallones cada uno entre mayo y junio de 1941, organizados en cinco comandos divisionales, unos 55.000 soldados. [43] Las unidades de apoyo incluían 35 tanques ligeros suministrados por Italia, [44] 10 batallones de artillería (equipados con armas capturadas del Ejército Real Yugoslavo de origen checo), un regimiento de caballería en Zagreb y un batallón de caballería independiente en Sarajevo . Dos batallones independientes de infantería motorizada tenían su base en Zagreb y Sarajevo, respectivamente. [45] También se formaron varios regimientos de la milicia Ustaše en este momento, que operaron bajo una estructura de mando separada e independientemente de la Guardia Nacional croata, hasta finales de 1944. [46] La Guardia Nacional aplastó la revuelta serbia en el este de Herzegovina. en junio de 1941, y en julio lucharon en Bosnia oriental y occidental. Lucharon nuevamente en Herzegovina Oriental, cuando los batallones croata-dálmata y eslavonia reforzaron las unidades locales. [45]
El Alto Mando italiano asignó 24 divisiones y tres brigadas costeras a tareas de ocupación en Yugoslavia desde 1941. Estas unidades estaban ubicadas desde Eslovenia, Croacia y Dalmacia hasta Montenegro y Kosovo. [47]
De 1931 a 1939, la Unión Soviética había preparado a los comunistas para una guerra de guerrillas en Yugoslavia. En vísperas de la guerra, cientos de futuros líderes comunistas yugoslavos destacados completaron "cursos partidistas" especiales organizados por la inteligencia militar soviética en la Unión Soviética y España. [48] La Operación Barbarroja , la invasión del Eje de la Unión Soviética, comenzó el 22 de junio de 1941. [49] El mismo día, los partisanos yugoslavos formaron el 1er Destacamento Partisano Sisak , fue la primera unidad armada de resistencia antifascista formada por una resistencia. movimiento en la Yugoslavia ocupada durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [50] Fundada en el bosque Brezovica cerca de Sisak , Croacia, su creación marcó el comienzo de la resistencia anti-Eje en la Yugoslavia ocupada. [50]
Después del ataque alemán a la Unión Soviética el 22 de junio de 1941, el Partido Comunista de Yugoslavia decidió formalmente lanzar un levantamiento armado el 4 de julio de 1941, una fecha que luego se marcó como el Día del Luchador, un día festivo en la República Federativa Socialista de Yugoslavia. . En el pueblo de Bela Crkva , el veterano español Žikica Jovanović Španac disparó la primera bala de la campaña el 7 de julio de 1941, fecha que más tarde se conoció como el "Día del Levantamiento de la República Socialista de Serbia ". El 10 de agosto de 1941 en Stanulović, un pueblo de montaña, los partisanos formaron el Cuartel General del Destacamento Partisano de Kopaonik. Su área liberada, compuesta por aldeas cercanas y llamada "República de los Mineros", fue la primera en Yugoslavia y duró 42 días. Los combatientes de la resistencia se unieron formalmente a las filas de los partisanos más tarde.
El movimiento Chetnik fue organizado después de la rendición del Ejército Real Yugoslavo por algunos de los soldados yugoslavos restantes. Esta fuerza se organizó en el distrito de Ravna Gora del oeste de Serbia bajo el mando del coronel Draža Mihailović . Sin embargo, a diferencia de los partisanos, las fuerzas de Mihailović eran casi en su totalidad de etnia serbia. Ordenó a sus unidades que se armaran y esperaran sus órdenes para el empujón final. Mihailović evitó la acción directa contra el Eje, que consideró de escasa importancia estratégica.
Los chetniks realistas (oficialmente el ejército yugoslavo en la patria, JVUO), bajo el mando del general Draža Mihailović, se nutrieron principalmente de los restos dispersos del ejército yugoslavo real, y dependieron abrumadoramente del apoyo de la población de etnia serbia. Se formaron poco después de la invasión de Yugoslavia y la rendición del gobierno el 17 de abril de 1941. Los chetniks fueron inicialmente el único movimiento de resistencia reconocido por el gobierno yugoslavo en el exilio y los aliados occidentales. Los partisanos y chetniks intentaron cooperar al principio del conflicto, pero esto se vino abajo rápidamente.
En septiembre de 1941, los partisanos organizaron un sabotaje en la Oficina General de Correos de Zagreb . A medida que crecían los niveles de resistencia a su ocupación, las potencias del Eje respondieron con numerosas ofensivas menores. También hubo siete operaciones principales del Eje destinadas específicamente a eliminar toda o la mayor parte de la resistencia partisana yugoslava. Estas grandes ofensivas fueron típicamente esfuerzos combinados de la Wehrmacht y las SS alemanas , Italia , Chetniks, el Estado Independiente de Croacia, el gobierno colaboracionista serbio, Bulgaria y Hungría .
La Primera Ofensiva Antipartisana fue el ataque llevado a cabo por el Eje en el otoño de 1941 contra la " República de Užice ", un territorio liberado que los partisanos establecieron en el oeste de Serbia. En noviembre de 1941, las tropas alemanas atacaron y volvieron a ocupar este territorio, y la mayoría de las fuerzas partisanas escaparon hacia Bosnia . Fue durante esta ofensiva que la débil colaboración entre los partisanos y el movimiento realista Chetnik se rompió y se convirtió en abierta hostilidad.
Después de negociaciones infructuosas, el líder Chetnik, el general Mihailović, se volvió contra los partisanos como su principal enemigo. Según él, el motivo era humanitario: la prevención de las represalias alemanas contra los serbios. [51] Sin embargo, esto no detuvo las actividades de la resistencia partisana, y las unidades Chetnik atacaron a los partisanos en noviembre de 1941, mientras recibían cada vez más suministros y cooperaban con los alemanes e italianos en esto. El enlace británico con Mihailović aconsejó a Londres que dejara de suministrar a los chetniks después del ataque de Užice (ver Primera ofensiva anti-partisana ), pero Gran Bretaña continuó haciéndolo. [52]
El 22 de diciembre de 1941, los partisanos formaron la 1ª Brigada de Asalto Proletaria ( 1. Brigada Proleterska Udarna ), la primera unidad militar partisana regular capaz de operar fuera de su área local. El 22 de diciembre se convirtió en el "Día del Ejército Popular Yugoslavo ".
1942
El 15 de enero de 1942, el 1º ejército búlgaro, con 3 divisiones de infantería, se trasladó al sureste de Serbia. Con sede en Niš , reemplazó las divisiones alemanas necesarias en Croacia y la Unión Soviética. [53]
Los chetniks inicialmente contaron con el apoyo de los aliados occidentales (hasta la Conferencia de Teherán en diciembre de 1943). En 1942, la revista Time publicó un artículo que elogiaba el "éxito" de los Chetniks de Mihailović y lo anunciaba como el único defensor de la libertad en la Europa ocupada por los nazis.
Los partisanos de Tito lucharon contra los alemanes más activamente durante este tiempo. Tito y Mihailović tenían una recompensa de 100.000 marcos del Reich ofrecidos por los alemanes por sus cabezas. Aunque "oficialmente" seguían siendo enemigos mortales de los alemanes y los ustas , los chetniks eran conocidos por hacer tratos clandestinos con los italianos. La Segunda Ofensiva Enemiga fue un ataque coordinado del Eje realizado en enero de 1942 contra las fuerzas partisanas en el este de Bosnia . Las tropas partisanas evitaron una vez más el cerco y se vieron obligadas a retirarse sobre la montaña Igman cerca de Sarajevo .
La Tercera Ofensiva Enemiga , una ofensiva contra las fuerzas partisanas en el este de Bosnia, Montenegro , Sandžak y Herzegovina que tuvo lugar en la primavera de 1942. Fue conocida como Operación TRIO por los alemanes y nuevamente terminó con una oportuna fuga partisana. Algunas fuentes identifican erróneamente este ataque como la Batalla de Kozara [ ¿cuál? ] , que tuvo lugar en el verano de 1942.
Los partisanos libraron una campaña de guerrillas cada vez más exitosa contra los ocupantes del Eje y sus colaboradores locales , incluidos los chetniks (a los que también consideraban colaboradores). Disfrutaron de niveles gradualmente crecientes de éxito y apoyo de la población en general, y lograron controlar grandes porciones del territorio yugoslavo. Los comités populares se organizaron para actuar como gobiernos civiles en áreas del país liberadas por los partisanos. En algunos lugares, se establecieron incluso industrias de armas limitadas.
Para reunir información de inteligencia , los agentes de los aliados occidentales se infiltraron tanto en los partisanos como en los chetniks. La inteligencia recopilada por los enlaces con los grupos de resistencia fue crucial para el éxito de las misiones de suministro y fue la principal influencia en la estrategia aliada en Yugoslavia . La búsqueda de inteligencia finalmente resultó en el declive de los Chetniks y su eclipse por parte de los Partisanos de Tito. En 1942, aunque los suministros eran limitados, el apoyo simbólico se envió por igual a cada uno. En noviembre de 1942, los destacamentos partisanos se fusionaron oficialmente en el Ejército Popular de Liberación y los Destacamentos Partisanos de Yugoslavia ( NOV i POJ ).
1943
Ofensivas del Eje Crítico
En la primera mitad de 1943, dos ofensivas del Eje estuvieron a punto de derrotar a los partisanos. Son conocidos por sus nombres en clave alemanes Fall Weiss (Caso Blanco) y Fall Schwarz (Caso Negro) , como la Batalla de Neretva y la Batalla de Sutjeska después de los ríos en las áreas en las que se combatieron, o la Cuarta y Quinta Ofensiva Enemiga. respectivamente, según la historiografía comunista yugoslava.
El 7 de enero de 1943, el 1º ejército búlgaro también ocupó el suroeste de Serbia. Las salvajes medidas de pacificación redujeron apreciablemente la actividad partisana. Las divisiones de infantería búlgaras participaron en la Quinta Ofensiva Antipartisana como fuerza de bloqueo de la ruta de escape Partisana de Montenegro a Serbia y en la Sexta Ofensiva Antipartisana en Bosnia Oriental. [53]
Las negociaciones entre alemanes y partisanos comenzaron el 11 de marzo de 1943 en Gornji Vakuf , Bosnia. Los oficiales clave de Tito, Vladimir Velebit , Koča Popović y Milovan Đilas, presentaron tres propuestas, primero sobre un intercambio de prisioneros, segundo sobre la implementación del derecho internacional sobre el tratamiento de los prisioneros y tercero sobre cuestiones políticas. [54] La delegación expresó su preocupación por la participación italiana en el suministro del ejército Chetnik y declaró que el Movimiento de Liberación Nacional es un movimiento independiente, sin ayuda de la Unión Soviética o el Reino Unido. [55] Algo más tarde, Đilas y Velebit fueron llevados a Zagreb para continuar las negociaciones. [56]
En la Cuarta Ofensiva Enemiga , también conocida como la Batalla de Neretva o Fall Weiss (Caso Blanco), las fuerzas del Eje empujaron a las tropas partisanas a retirarse desde el oeste de Bosnia hasta el norte de Herzegovina , culminando con la retirada partisana sobre el río Neretva . Tuvo lugar de enero a abril de 1943.
The Fifth Enemy Offensive, also known as the Battle of the Sutjeska or Fall Schwarz (Case Black), immediately followed the Fourth Offensive and included a complete encirclement of Partisan forces in southeastern Bosnia and northern Montenegro in May and June 1943.
In that August of my arrival [1943] there were over 30 enemy divisions on the territory of Jugoslavia, as well as a large number of satellite and police formations of Ustashe and Domobrani (military formations of the puppet Croat State), German Sicherheitsdienst, chetniks, Neditch militia, Ljotitch militia, and others. The partisan movement may have counted up to 150,000 fighting men and women (perhaps five per cent women) in close and inextricable co-operation with several million peasants, the people of the country. Partisan numbers were liable to increase rapidly.[57]
The Croatian Home Guard reached its maximum size at the end of 1943, when it had 130,000 men. It also included an air force, the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia (Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske, or ZNDH), the backbone of which was provided by 500 former Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers and 1,600 NCOs with 125 aircraft.[58] By 1943 the ZNDH was 9,775 strong and equipped with 295 aircraft.[46]
Italian capitulation and Allied support for the Partisans
On 8 September 1943, the Italians concluded an armistice with the Allies, leaving 17 divisions stranded in Yugoslavia. All divisional commanders refused to join the Germans. Two Italian infantry divisions joined the Montenegrin Partisans as complete units, while another joined the Albanian Partisans. Other units surrendered to the Germans to face imprisonment in Germany or summary execution. Others surrendered themselves, arms, ammunition and equipment to Croatian forces or to the Partisans, simply disintegrated, or reached Italy on foot via Trieste or by ship across the Adriatic.[43] The Italian Governorship of Dalmatia was disestablished and the country's possessions were subsequently divided between Germany, which established its Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral, and the Independent State of Croatia, which established the new district of Sidraga-Ravni Kotari. The former Italian kingdoms of Albania and of Montenegro were placed under German occupation.
On 25 September 1943, the German High Command launched Operation "Istrien", and on October 21 the military operation "Wolkenbruch" with the aim of destroying Partisan units in the Slovene-populated lands, Istria and the Littoral. In that operation were killed 2,500 Istrians among whom were Partisans and civilians (including women, children, and elderly). Partisan units which did not withdraw from Istria in time were completely destroyed. German troops, including the SS division "Prinz Eugen", on September 25 began to carry out a plan for the complete destruction of the Partisans in Primorska and Istria.[59]
The events which occurred in 1943 would bring about a change in the attitude of the Allies. The Germans were executing Operation Schwarz (Battle of Sutjeska, the Fifth anti-Partisan offensive), one of a series of offensives aimed at the resistance fighters, when F.W.D. Deakin was sent by the British to gather information. His reports contained two important observations. The first was that the Partisans were courageous and aggressive in battling the German 1st Mountain and 104th Light Division, had suffered significant casualties, and required support. The second observation was that the entire German 1st Mountain Division had transited from the Soviet Union on rail lines through Chetnik-controlled territory. British intercepts (ULTRA) of German message traffic confirmed Chetnik timidity. Even though today many circumstances, facts, and motivations remain unclear, intelligence reports resulted in increased Allied interest in Yugoslavia air operations and shifted policy.
The Sixth Enemy Offensive was a series of operations undertaken by the Wehrmacht and the Ustaše after the capitulation of Italy in an attempt to secure the Adriatic coast. It took place in the autumn and winter of 1943/1944.
At this point the Partisans were able to win the moral, as well as limited material support of the Western Allies, who until then had supported General Draža Mihailović's Chetnik Forces, but were finally convinced of their collaboration by many intelligence-gathering missions dispatched to both sides during the course of the war.
In September 1943, at Churchill's request, Brigadier General Fitzroy Maclean was parachuted to Tito's headquarters near Drvar to serve as a permanent, formal liaison to the Partisans. While the Chetniks were still occasionally supplied, the Partisans received the bulk of all future support.[60]
When the AVNOJ (the Partisan wartime council in Yugoslavia) was eventually recognized by the Allies, by late 1943, the official recognition of the Partisan Democratic Federal Yugoslavia soon followed. The National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia was recognized by the major Allied powers at the Tehran Conference, when United States agreed to the position of other Allied.[61] The newly recognized Yugoslav government, headed by Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito, was a joint body formed of AVNOJ members and the members of the former government-in-exile in London. The resolution of a fundamental question, whether the new state remained a monarchy or was to be a republic, was postponed until the end of the war, as was the status of King Peter II.
Subsequent to switching their support to the Partisans, the Allies set-up the RAF Balkan Air Force (under the suggestion of Brigadier-General Fitzroy Maclean) with the aim to provide increased supplies and tactical air support for Marshal Tito's Partisan forces.
1944
Last Axis offensive
In January 1944, Tito's forces unsuccessfully attacked Banja Luka. But, while Tito was forced to withdraw, Mihajlović and his forces were also noted by the Western press for their lack of activity.[62]
The Seventh Enemy Offensive was the final Axis attack in western Bosnia in the spring of 1944, which included Operation Rösselsprung (Knight's Leap), an unsuccessful attempt to eliminate Josip Broz Tito personally and annihilate the leadership of the Partisan movement.
Partisan growth to domination
Allied aircraft specifically started targeting ZNDH (Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia) and Luftwaffe bases and aircraft for the first time as a result of the Seventh Offensive, including Operation Rösselsprung in late May 1944. Up until then Axis aircraft could fly inland almost at will, as long as they remained at low altitude. Partisan units on the ground frequently complained about enemy aircraft attacking them while hundreds of Allied aircraft flew above at higher altitude. This changed during Rösselsprung as Allied fighter-bombers went low en-masse for the first time, establishing full aerial superiority. Consequently, both the ZNDH and Luftwaffe were forced to limit their operations in clear weather to early morning and late afternoon hours.[63]
The Yugoslav Partisan movement grew to become the largest resistance force in occupied Europe, with 800,000 men organised in 4 field armies. Eventually the Partisans prevailed against all of their opponents as the official army of the newly founded Democratic Federal Yugoslavia (later Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia).
In 1944, the Macedonian and Serbian commands made contact in southern Serbia and formed a joint command, which consequently placed the Macedonian Partisans under the direct command of Marshal Josip Broz Tito.[64] The Slovene Partisans also merged with Tito's forces in 1944.[65][66]
On 16 June 1944, the Tito-Šubašić agreement between the Partisans and the Yugoslav Government in exile of King Peter II was signed on the island of Vis. This agreement was an attempt to form a new Yugoslav government which would include both the communists and the royalists. It called for a merge of the Partisan Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (Antifašističko V(ij)eće Narodnog Oslobođenja Jugoslavije, AVNOJ) and the Government in exile. The Tito-Šubašić agreement also called on all Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs to join the Partisans. The Partisans were recognized by the Royal Government as Yugoslavia's regular army. Mihajlović and many Chetniks refused to answer the call. The Chetniks were, however, praised for saving 500 downed Allied pilots in 1944; United States President Harry S. Truman posthumously awarded Mihailović the Legion of Merit for his contribution to the Allied victory.[67]
Allied advances in Romania and Bulgaria
In August 1944 after the Jassy-Kishinev Offensive overwhelmed the front line of Germany's Army Group South Ukraine, King Michael I of Romania staged a coup, Romania quit the war, and the Romanian army was placed under the command of the Red Army. Romanian forces, fighting against Germany, participated in the Prague Offensive. Bulgaria quit as well and, on 10 September, declared war on Germany and its remaining allies. The weak divisions sent by the Axis powers to invade Bulgaria were easily driven back. In Macedonia, the Bulgarian troops, surrounded by German forces and betrayed by high-ranking military commanders, fought their way back to the old borders of Bulgaria. In late September 1944 three Bulgarian armies, some 455,000 strong in total led by General Georgi Marinov Mandjev from the village of Goliamo Sharkovo – Elhovo, entered Yugoslavia with the strategic task of blocking the German forces withdrawing from Greece. Southern and eastern Serbia and Macedonia were liberated within two months and the 130,000-strong Bulgarian First Army continued to Hungary.
On 10 September 1944, Bulgaria changed sides and declared war on Germany as an Allied Power. The Germans swiftly disarmed the 1st Occupation Corps of 5 divisions and the 5th Army, despite short-lived resistance by the latter. Survivors retreated to the old borders of Bulgaria. After the occupation of Bulgaria by the Soviet army negotiations between Tito and the Bulgarian Communist leaders were organised, resulting in a military alliance between them. The new Bulgarian People's Army and the Red Army 3rd Ukrainian Front troops were concentrated at the old Bulgarian-Yugoslav border. On 8 October, they entered Yugoslavia. The First and Fourth Bulgarian Armies invaded Vardar Macedonia, and the Second Army south-eastern Serbia. The First Army then swung north with the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front, through eastern Yugoslavia and south-western Hungary, before linking up with the British 8th Army in Austria in May 1945.[68]
Liberation of Belgrade and eastern Yugoslavia
Concurrently, with Allied air support and assistance from the Red Army, the Partisans turned their attention to Central Serbia. The chief objective was to disrupt railroad communications in the valleys of the Vardar and Morava rivers, and prevent Germans from withdrawing their 300,000+ forces from Greece.
The Allied air forces sent 1,973 aircraft (mostly from the US 15th Air Force) over Yugoslavia, which discharged over 3,000 tons of bombs. On 17 August 1944 Marshal Josip Broz Tito offered an amnesty to all collaborators. On 12 September, King Peter broadcast a message from London, calling upon all Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to "join the National Liberation Army under the leadership of Marshal Tito". The message had a devastating effect on the morale of the Chetniks. Many of them switched sides to the Partisans.
In September under the leadership of the new Bulgarian pro-Soviet government, four Bulgarian armies, 455,000 strong in total, were mobilized. By the end of September, the Red Army (3rd Ukrainian Front) troops were concentrated at the Bulgarian-Yugoslav border. In the early October 1944 three Bulgarian armies, consisting of around 340,000-man,[69] together with the Red Army reentered occupied Yugoslavia and moved from Sofia to Niš, Skopje and Pristina to blocking the German forces withdrawing from Greece.[70][71] The Red Army organised the Belgrade Offensive, and took the city on 20 October. At the onset of winter, the Partisans effectively controlled the entire eastern half of Yugoslavia—Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro—as well as most of the Dalmatian coast. The Wehrmacht and the forces of the Ustaše-controlled Independent State of Croatia fortified a front in Syrmia that held through the winter of 1944–45 in order to aid the evacuation of German Army Group E from the Balkans. To raise the number of Partisan troops Tito again offered the amnesty on 21 November 1944. In November 1944, the units of the Ustaše militia and the Croatian Home Guard were reorganised and combined to form the Army of the Independent State of Croatia.[46]
1945
Every German unit which could safely evacuate from Yugoslavia might count itself lucky.[72]
The Germans continued their retreat. Having lost the easier withdrawal route through Serbia, they fought to hold the Syrmian front in order to secure the more difficult passage through Kosovo, Sandzak and Bosnia. They even scored a series of temporary successes against the People's Liberation Army. They left Mostar on 12 February 1945. They did not leave Sarajevo until 15 April. Sarajevo had assumed a last-moment strategic position as the only remaining withdrawal route and was held at substantial cost. In early March the Germans moved troops from southern Bosnia to support an unsuccessful counter-offensive in Hungary, which enabled the NOV to score some successes by attacking the Germans' weakened positions. Although strengthened by Allied aid, a secure rear and mass conscription in areas under their control, the one-time partisans found it difficult to switch to conventional warfare, particularly in the open country west of Belgrade, where the Germans held their own until mid-April in spite of all of the raw and untrained conscripts the NOV hurled in a bloody war of attrition against the Syrmian Front.[73]
On 8 March 1945, a coalition Yugoslav government was formed in Belgrade with Tito as Premier and Ivan Šubašić as Foreign Minister.
Partisan general offensive
On 20 March 1945, the Partisans launched a general offensive in the Mostar-Višegrad-Drina sector. With large swaths of Bosnian, Croatian and Slovenian countryside already under Partisan guerrilla control, the final operations consisted in connecting these territories and capturing major cities and roads. For the general offensive Marshal Josip Broz Tito commanded a Partisan force of about 800,000 men organised into four armies: the
- 1st Army commanded by Peko Dapčević,
- 2nd Army commanded by Koča Popović,
- 3rd Army commanded by Kosta Nađ,
- 4th Army commanded by Petar Drapšin.
In addition, the Yugoslav Partisans had eight independent army corps (the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 9th, and the 10th).
Set against the Yugoslav Partisans was German General Alexander Löhr of Army Group E (Heeresgruppe E). This Army Group had seven army corps :
- XV Mountain Corps,
- XV Cossack Corps,
- XXI Mountain Corps,
- XXXIV Infantry Corps,
- LXIX Infantry Corps,
- LXXXXVII Infantry Corps.
These corps included seventeen weakened divisions (1st Cossack, 2nd Cossack, 7th SS, 11th Luftwaffe Field Division, 22nd, 41st, 104th, 117th, 138th, 181st, 188th, 237th, 297th, 369th Croat, 373rd Croat, 392nd Croat and the 14th SS Ukrainian Division). In addition to the seven corps, the Axis had remnant naval and Luftwaffe forces, under constant attack by the British Royal Navy, Royal Air Force and United States Air Force.[74]
The army of the Independent State of Croatia was at the time composed of eighteen divisions: 13 infantry, two mountain, two assault and one replacement Croatian Divisions, each with its own organic artillery and other support units. There were also several armoured units. From early 1945, the Croatian Divisions were allocated to various German corps and by March 1945 were holding the Southern Front.[46] Securing the rear areas were some 32,000 men of the Croatian gendarmerie (Hrvatsko Oružništvo), organised into 5 Police Volunteer Regiments plus 15 independent battalions, equipped with standard light infantry weapons, including mortars.[75]
The Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia (Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske, or ZNDH) and the units of the Croatian Air Force Legion (Hrvatska Zrakoplovna Legija, or HZL), returned from service on the Eastern Front provided some level of air support (attack, fighter and transport) right up until May 1945, encountering and sometimes defeating opposing aircraft from the British Royal Air Force, United States Air Force and the Soviet Air Force. Although 1944 had been a catastrophic year for the ZNDH, with aircraft losses amounting to 234, primarily on the ground, it entered 1945 with 196 machines. Further deliveries of new aircraft from Germany continued in the early months of 1945 to replace losses. By 10 March, the ZNDH had 23 Messerschmitt 109 G&Ks, three Morane-Saulnier M.S.406, six Fiat G.50 Freccia, and two Messerschmitt 110 G fighters. The final deliveries of up-to-date German Messerschmitt 109 G and K fighter aircraft were still taking place in March 1945.[76] and the ZNDH still had 176 aircraft on its strength in April 1945.[77]
Between 30 March and 8 April 1945, General Mihailović's Chetniks mounted a final attempt to establish themselves as a credible force fighting the Axis in Yugoslavia. The Chetniks under Lieutenant Colonel Pavle Đurišić fought a combination of Ustaša and Croatian Home Guard forces in the Battle on Lijevča field. In late March 1945 elite NDH Army units were withdrawn from the Syrmian front to destroy Djurisic's Chetniks trying to make their way across the northern NDH.[78] The battle was fought near Banja Luka in what was then the Independent State of Croatia and ended in a decisive victory for the Independent State of Croatia forces.
Serbian units included the remnants of the Serbian State Guard and the Serbian Volunteer Corps from the Serbian Military Administration. There were even some units of the Slovene Home Guard (Slovensko domobranstvo, SD) still intact in Slovenia.[79]
By the end of March, 1945, it was obvious to the Croatian Army Command that, although the front remained intact, they would eventually be defeated by sheer lack of ammunition. For this reason, the decision was made to retreat into Austria, in order to surrender to the British forces advancing north from Italy.[80] The German Army was in the process of disintegration and the supply system lay in ruins.[81]
Bihać was liberated by the Partisans the same day that the general offensive was launched. The 4th Army, under the command of Petar Drapšin, broke through the defences of the XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps. By 20 April, Drapšin liberated Lika and the Croatian Littoral, including the islands, and reached the old Yugoslav border with Italy. On 1 May, after capturing the Italian territories of Rijeka and Istria from the German LXXXXVII Corps, the Yugoslav 4th Army beat the western Allies to Trieste by one day.
The Yugoslav 2nd Army, under the command of Koča Popović, forced a crossing of the Bosna River on 5 April, capturing Doboj, and reached the Una River. On 6 April, the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th Corps of the Yugoslav Partisans took Sarajevo from the German XXI Corps. On 12 April, the Yugoslav 3rd Army, under the command of Kosta Nađ, forced a crossing of the Drava river. The 3rd Army then fanned out through Podravina, reached a point north of Zagreb, and crossed the old Austrian border with Yugoslavia in the Dravograd sector. The 3rd Army closed the ring around the enemy forces when its advanced motorized detachments linked up with detachments of the 4th Army in Carinthia.
Also, on 12 April, the Yugoslav 1st Army, under the command of Peko Dapčević penetrated the fortified front of the German XXXIV Corps in Syrmia. By 22 April, the 1st Army had smashed the fortifications and was advancing towards Zagreb.
The long-drawn out liberation of western Yugoslavia caused more victims among the population. The breakthrough of the Syrmian front on 12 April was, in Milovan Đilas's words, "the greatest and bloodiest battle our army had ever fought", and it would not have been possible had it not been for Soviet instructors and arms.[82] By the time General Peko Dapčević's NOV units had reached Zagreb, on 9 May 1945, they had perhaps lost as many as 36,000 dead. There were by then over 400,000 refugees in Zagreb.[83] After entering Zagreb with the Yugoslav 2nd Army, both armies advanced in Slovenia.
Final operations
On 2 May, the German capital city, Berlin, fell to the Red Army. On 8 May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally and the war in Europe officially ended. The Italians had quit the war in 1943, the Bulgarians in 1944, and the Hungarians earlier in 1945. Despite the German capitulation, however, sporadic fighting still took place in Yugoslavia. On 7 May, Zagreb was evacuated, on 9 May, Maribor and Ljubljana were captured by the Partisans, and General Alexander Löhr, Commander-in-Chief of Army Group E was forced to sign the total surrender of the forces under his command at Topolšica, near Velenje, Slovenia, on Wednesday 9 May 1945. Only the Croatian and other anti-Partisan forces remained.
From 10 to 15 May, the Yugoslav Partisans continued to face resistance from Croatian, and other anti-Partisan forces throughout the rest of Croatia and Slovenia. The Battle of Poljana started on 14 May, ending on 15 May 1945 at Poljana, near Prevalje in Slovenia. It was the culmination and last of a series of battles between Yugoslav Partisans and a large (in excess of 30,000) mixed column of German Army (Heer) soldiers together with Croatian Ustaše, Croatian Home Guard, Slovenian Home Guard, and other anti-Partisan forces who were attempting to retreat to Austria. Battle of Odžak was the last World War II battle in Europe.[84] The battle began on 19 April 1945 and lasted until 25 May 1945,[85] 17 days after the end of the war in Europe.
Aftermath
On 5 May, in the town of Palmanova (50 km northwest of Trieste), between 2,400 and 2,800 members of the Serbian Volunteer Corps surrendered to the British.[86] On 12 May, about 2,500 additional Serbian Volunteer Corps members surrendered to the British at Unterbergen on the Drava River.[86] On 11 and 12 May, British troops in Klagenfurt, Austria, were harassed by arriving forces of the Yugoslav Partisans.[why?] In Belgrade, the British ambassador to the Yugoslav coalition government handed Tito a note demanding that the Yugoslav troops withdraw from Austria.
On 15 May 1945 a large column of the Croatian Home Guard, the Ustaše, the XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps and the remnants of the Serbian State Guard, and the Serbian Volunteer Corps, arrived at the southern Austrian border near the town of Bleiburg. The representatives of the Independent State of Croatia attempted to negotiate a surrender to the British under the terms of the Geneva Convention that they had joined in 1943, and were recognised by it as a "belligerent", but were ignored.[80] Most of the people in the column were turned over to the Yugoslav government as part of what is sometimes referred to as Operation Keelhaul. Following the Bleiburg repatriations, the Partisans proceeded to brutalize the POWs. The Partisans' actions were partly done for revenge as well as to suppress the potential continuation of armed struggle within Yugoslavia.[87]
On 15 May, Tito had placed Partisan forces in Austria under Allied control. A few days later he agreed to withdraw them. By 20 May, Yugoslav troops in Austria had begun to withdraw. On 8 June, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia agreed on the control of Trieste. On 11 November, parliamentary elections were held in Yugoslavia.[88] In these elections the communists had an important advantage because they controlled the police, judiciary and media. For that reason the opposition did not want to participate in the elections.[89] On 29 November, in accordance with election result, Peter II was deposed by communist dominated Yugoslavia's Constituent Assembly.[90] On the same day, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was established as a socialist state during the first meeting of the Yugoslav Parliament in Belgrade. Josip Broz Tito was appointed Prime Minister. The autonomist wing in the Communist Party of Macedonia, which dominated during World War II, was finally pushed aside in 1945 after the Second Assembly of the ASNOM.
On 13 March 1946, Mihailović was captured by agents of the Yugoslav Department of National Security (Odsjek Zaštite Naroda or OZNA).[91][92] From 10 June to 15 July of the same year, he was tried for high treason and war crimes. On 15 July, he was found guilty and sentenced to death by firing squad.[93]
On 16 July, a clemency appeal was rejected by the Presidium of the National Assembly. During the early hours of 18 July, Mihailović, together with nine other Chetnik and Nedić's officers, were executed in Lisičji Potok.[94] This execution essentially ended the World War II-era civil war between the communist Partisans and the royalist Chetniks.[95]
Atrocidades y crímenes de guerra
Ustaše
The Ustaše, a Croatian ultranationalist and fascist movement which operated from 1929 to 1945 and was led by Ante Pavelić, gained control of the newly formed Independent State of Croatia (NDH) that was set up by the Germans after the invasion of Yugoslavia.[96] The Ustaše sought an ethnically pure Croatian state by exterminating Serbs, Jews and Roma from its territory.[97] Their main focus were Serbs, who numbered about two million.[98] The strategy to achieve their goal was purportedly to kill one-third of Serbs, expel one-third and forcibly convert the remaining one-third.[99] The first massacre of Serbs took place on 28 April 1941 in the village of Gudovac where nearly 200 Serbs were rounded up and executed. The event initiated the wave of Ustasha violence targeting Serbs that came in the following weeks and months, as massacres occurred in villages throughout Croatia and Bosnia,[100] particularly in Banija, Kordun, Lika, northwest Bosnia and eastern Herzegovina.[101] Serbs in villages in the countryside were hacked to death with various tools, thrown alive into pits and ravines or in some cases locked in churches that were afterwards set on fire.[102] Ustaše Militia units razed whole villages, often torturing the men and raping the women.[103] Approximately every sixth Serb living in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina was the victim of a massacre, meaning that almost every Serb from this region had a family member that was killed in the war, mostly by the Ustaše.[104]
The Ustaše also set up camps throughout the NDH. Some of them were used to detain political opponents and those regarded as enemies of the state, some were transit and resettlement camps for the deportation and transfers of populations while others were used for the purpose of mass murder. The largest camp was the Jasenovac concentration camp which was a complex of five subcamps, located some 100 km southeast of Zagreb.[103] The camp was notorious for its barbaric and cruel practices of murder as described by testimonies of witnesses.[105] By the end of 1941, along with Serbs and Roma, NDH authorities incarcerated the majority of the country's Jews in camps including Jadovno, Kruščica, Loborgrad, Đakovo, Tenja and Jasenovac. Nearly the entire Roma population of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were also killed by the Ustaše.[103]
Chetniks
The Chetniks, a Serb royalist and nationalist movement which initially resisted the Axis[106] but progressively entered into collaboration with Italian, German and parts of the Ustaše forces, sought the creation of a Greater Serbia by cleansing non-Serbs, mainly Muslims and Croats from territories that would be incorporated into their post-war state.[107] The Chetniks systemically massacred Muslims in villages that they captured.[108] These occurred primarily in Eastern Bosnia, in towns and municipalities like Goražde, Foča, Srebrenica and Višegrad.[108] Later, "cleansing actions" against Muslims took place in counties in Sandžak.[109] Actions against Croats were smaller in scale but similar in action.[110] Croats were killed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, northern Dalmatia, and Lika.[101]
German forces
In Serbia, in order to squelch resistance, retaliate against their opposition and terrorize the population, the Germans devised a formula where 100 hostages would be shot for every German soldier killed and 50 hostages would be shot for every wounded German soldier.[111][c] Those primarily targeted for execution were Jews and Serbian communists.[112] The most notable examples were the massacres in the villages of Kraljevo and Kragujevac in October 1941.[111] Germans also set up concentration camps and were aided in their persecution of Jews by Milan Nedić's puppet government and other collaborationist forces.
Italian forces
In April 1941, Italy invaded Yugoslavia, occupying large portions of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, Serbia and Macedonia, while directly annexing to Italy the Ljubljana Province, Gorski Kotar and Central Dalmatia, along with most Croatian islands. To suppress the mounting resistance led by the Slovenian and Croatian Partisans, the Italians adopted tactics of "summary executions, hostage-taking, reprisals, internments and the burning of houses and villages.".[113] This was particularly the case in the Province of Ljubljana, where Italian authorities terrorized the Slovene civilian population and deported them to concentration camps with the goal of Italianizing the area.[114][115]
Hungarian forces
Thousands of Serbs and Jews were massacred by Hungarian forces in the region of Bačka, the territory occupied and annexed by Hungary since 1941. Several high-ranking military officials were complicit in the atrocities.[116]
Partisans
The Partisans engaged in the massacres of civilians during and after the war.[117] A number of Partisan units, and the local population in some areas, engaged in mass murder in the immediate postwar period against POWs and other perceived Axis sympathizers, collaborators, and/or fascists along with their relatives. These included the Bleiburg repatriations, Foibe massacres, Kočevski Rog massacre and communist purges in Serbia in 1944–45.[118]
Damnificados
Yugoslav casualties
Nationality | 1964 list | Kočović[119] | Žerjavić[19] |
---|---|---|---|
Serbs | 346,740 | 487,000 | 530,000 |
Croats | 83,257 | 207,000 | 192,000 |
Slovenes | 42,027 | 32,000 | 42,000 |
Montenegrins | 16,276 | 50,000 | 20,000 |
Macedonians | 6,724 | 7,000 | 6,000 |
Muslims | 32,300 | 86,000 | 103,000 |
Other Slavs | – | 12,000 | 7,000 |
Albanians | 3,241 | 6,000 | 18,000 |
Jews | 45,000 | 60,000 | 57,000 |
Gypsies | – | 27,000 | 18,000 |
Germans | – | 26,000 | 28,000 |
Hungarians | 2,680 | – | – |
Slovaks | 1,160 | – | – |
Turks | 686 | – | – |
Others | – | 14,000 | 6,000 |
Unknown | 16,202 | – | – |
Total | 597,323 | 1,014,000 | 1,027,000 |
Location | Death toll | Survived |
---|---|---|
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 177,045 | 49,242 |
Croatia | 194,749 | 106,220 |
Macedonia | 19,076 | 32,374 |
Montenegro | 16,903 | 14,136 |
Slovenia | 40,791 | 101,929 |
Serbia (proper) | 97,728 | 123,818 |
AP Kosovo (Serbia) | 7,927 | 13,960 |
AP Vojvodina (Serbia) | 41,370 | 65,957 |
Unknown | 1,744 | 2,213 |
Total | 597,323 | 509,849 |
The Yugoslav government estimated the number of casualties to be at 1,704,000 and submitted the figure to the International Reparations Commission in 1946 without any documentation.[120] An estimate of 1.7 million war related deaths was later submitted to the Allied Reparations Committee in 1948, despite it being an estimate of total demographic loss that covered the expected population if war did not break out, the number of unborn children, and losses from emigration and disease.[121] After Germany requested verifiable data the Yugoslav Federal Bureau of Statistics created a nationwide survey in 1964.[121] The total number of those killed was found to be 597,323.[122][123] The list stayed a state secret until 1989 when it was published for the first time.[19]
The U.S. Bureau of the Census published a report in 1954 that concluded that Yugoslav war related deaths were 1,067,000. The U.S. Bureau of the Census noted that the official Yugoslav government figure of 1.7 million war dead was overstated because it "was released soon after the war and was estimated without the benefit of a postwar census".[124] A study by Vladimir Žerjavić estimates total war related deaths at 1,027,000. Military losses are estimated at 237,000 Yugoslav partisans and 209,000 collaborators, while civilian losses at 581,000, including 57,000 Jews. Losses of the Yugoslav Republics were Bosnia 316,000; Serbia 273,000; Croatia 271,000; Slovenia 33,000; Montenegro 27,000; Macedonia 17,000; and killed abroad 80,000.[19] Statistician Bogoljub Kočović calculated that the actual war losses were 1,014,000.[19] The late Jozo Tomasevich, Professor Emeritus of Economics at San Francisco State University, believes that the calculations of Kočović and Žerjavić "seem to be free of bias, we can accept them as reliable".[125] Stjepan Mestrovic estimates that about 850,000 people were killed in the war.[20] Vego cites figures from 900,000 to a million dead.[126] Stephen R. A'Barrow estimates that the war caused 446,000 dead soldiers and 514,000 dead civilians, or 960,000 dead in total from the Yugoslav population out of 15 million.[18]
Kočović's research into human losses in Yugoslavia during World War Two was considered to be the first objective examination of the issue.[127] Shortly after Kočović published his findings in Žrtve drugog svetskog rata u Jugoslaviji, Vladeta Vučković, a U.S. based college professor, claimed in a London-based émigré magazine that he had participated in the calculation of the number of victims in Yugoslavia in 1947.[128] Vučković claimed that the figure of 1,700,000 originated with him, explaining that as an employee of the Yugoslav Federal Statistical Office, he was ordered to estimate the number of casualties suffered by Yugoslavia during the war, using appropriate statistical tools.[129] He came up with an estimated demographic (not real) population loss of 1.7 million.[129] He did not intend for his estimate to be used as a calculation of actual losses.[130] However, Foreign Minister Edvard Kardelj took this figure as the real loss in his negotiations with the Inter-Allied Reparations Agency.[129] This figure had also already been used by Marshal Tito in May 1945, and the figure of 1,685,000 was used by Mitar Bakić, secretary general of the Presidium of the Yugoslav government in an address to foreign correspondents in August 1945.[129] The Yugoslav Reparations Commission had also already communicated the figure of 1,706,000 to the Inter-Allied Reparations Agency in Paris in late 1945.[129] This suggests that subsequent estimates had to conform to the predetermined figure.[129] Tito's figure of 1.7 million was aimed at both maximizing war compensation from Germany and demonstratting to the world that the heroism and suffering of Yugoslavs during the Second World War surpassed that of all other peoples save only the Soviets and perhaps the Poles.[131]
The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as follows:
- Military operations of five main armies (Germans, Italians, Ustaše, Yugoslav partisans and Chetniks).[132]
- German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a special vengeance against the Serbs, who were considered Untermensch.[132] One of the worst massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was the Kragujevac massacre.
- Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war Ustaše collaborators were killed after the Bleiburg repatriations.[133]
- The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims were Serbs killed by the Ustaše. Croats and Muslims were also killed by the Chetniks.
- The reduced food supply caused famine and disease.[134]
- Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities were Podgorica, Leskovac, Zadar and Belgrade.[135]
- The demographic losses due to a 335,000 reduction in the number of births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties.[135]
- Slovenia
In Slovenia, the Institute for Contemporary History, Ljubljana launched a comprehensive research on the exact number of victims of World War II in Slovenia in 1995.[136] After more than a decade of research, the final report was published in 2005, which included a list of names. The number of victims was set at 89,404.[137] The figure also includes the victims of summary killings by the Communist regime immediately after the war (around 13,500 people). The results of the research came as a shock for the public, since the actual figures were more than 30% higher than the highest estimates during the Yugoslav period.[138] Even counting only the number of deaths up to May 1945 (thus excluding the military prisoners killed by the Yugoslav Army between May and July 1945), the number remains considerably higher than the highest previous estimates (around 75,000 deaths versus a previous estimate of 60,000).
There are several reasons for such a difference. The new comprehensive research also included Slovenes killed by the Partisan resistance, both in battle (members of collaborationist and anti-Communist units), and civilians (around 4,000 between 1941 and 1945). Furthermore, the new estimates includes all the Slovenians from Nazi-occupied Slovenia who were drafted in the Wehrmacht and died either in battle or in prisoner camps during the war. The figure also includes the Slovenes from the Julian March who died in the Italian Army (1940–43), those from Prekmurje who died in the Hungarian Army, and those who fought and died in various Allied (mostly British) units. The figure does not include victims from Venetian Slovenia (except of those who joined the Slovenian Partisan units), nor does it include the victims among Carinthian Slovenes (again with the exception of those fighting in the Partisan units) and Hungarian Slovenes. 47% percent of casualties during the war were partisans, 33% were civilians (of which 82% were killed by Axis powers or Slovene home guard), and 20% were members of the Slovene home guard.[139]
- Territory of the NDH
According to Žerjavić's research on the losses of the Serbs in the NDH, 82,000 died as members of the Yugoslav Partisans, and 23,000 as Chetniks and Axis collaborators. Of the civilian casualties, 78,000 were killed by the Ustaše in direct terror and in camps, 45,000 by German forces, 15,000 by Italian forces, 34,000 in battles between the Ustaše, the Chetniks, and the Partisans, and 25,000 died of typhoid. A further 20,000 died in the Sajmište concentration camp.[19] According to Ivo Goldstein, on NDH territory 45,000 of Croats are killed as Partisans while 19,000 perishing in prisons or camps.[140]
Žerjavić estimated the structure of the actual war and post-war losses of Croats and Bosniaks. According to his research, 69–71,000 Croats died as members of the NDH armed forces, 43–46,000 as members of the Yugoslav Partisans, and 60–64,000 as civilians, in direct terror and in camps.[141] Outside of the NDH, a further 14,000 Croats died abroad; 4,000 as Partisans and 10,000 civilian victims of terror or in camps. Regarding Bosniaks, including Muslims of Croatia, he estimated that 29,000 died as members of the NDH armed forces, 11,000 as members of the Yugoslav Partisans, while 37,000 were civilians and a further 3,000 Bosniaks were killed abroad; 1,000 Partisans and 2,000 civilians. Of the total Croat and Bosniak civilian casualties in the NDH, his research showed that 41,000 civilian deaths (18,000+ Croats and 20,000+ Bosniaks) were caused by the Chetniks, 24,000 by the Ustaše (17,000 Croats and 7,000 Bosniaks), 16,000 by the Partisans (14,000 Croats and 2,000 Bosniaks), 11,000 by German forces (7,000 Croats and 4,000 Bosniaks), 8,000 by Italian forces (5,000 Croats and 3,000 Bosniaks), while 12,000 died abroad (10,000 Croats and 2,000 Bosniaks).[142]
Individual researchers who assert the inevitability of using identification of casualties and fatalities by individual names have raised serious objections to Žerjavić's calculations/estimates of human losses by using standard statistical methods and consolidation of data from various sources, pointing out that such an approach is insufficient and unreliable in determining the number and character of casualties and fatalities, as well as the affiliation of the perpetrators of the crimes.[143]
In Croatia, the Commission for the Identification of War and Post-War Victims of the Second World War was active from 1991 until the Seventh Government of the republic, under Prime Minister Ivica Račan ended the commission in 2002.[144] In the 2000s, concealed mass grave commissions were established in both Slovenia and Serbia to document and excavate mass graves from the Second World War.
German casualties
According to German casualty lists quoted by The Times for 30 July 1945, from documents found amongst the personal effects of General Hermann Reinecke, head of the Public Relations Department of the German High Command, total German casualties in the Balkans amounted to 24,000 killed and 12,000 missing, no figure being mentioned for wounded. A majority of these casualties suffered in the Balkans were inflicted in Yugoslavia.[145] According to German researcher Rüdiger Overmans, German losses in the Balkans were more than three times higher – 103,693 during the course of the war, and some 11,000 who died as Yugoslav prisoners of war.[146]
Italian casualties
The Italians incurred 30,531 casualties during their occupation of Yugoslavia (9,065 killed, 15,160 wounded, 6,306 missing). The ratio of dead/missing men to wounded men was uncommonly high, as Yugoslav partisans would often murder prisoners. Their highest losses were in Bosnia and Herzegovina: 12,394. In Croatia the total was 10,472 and in Montenegro 4,999. Dalmatia was less bellicose: 1,773. The quietest area was Slovenia, where the Italians incurred 893 casualties.[147] An additional 10,090 Italians died post-armistice, either killed during Operation Achse or after joining Yugoslav partisans.
Ver también
- Adriatic Campaign of World War II
- Allied bombing of Yugoslavia in World War II
- Museum of 4 July
- Liberation Front of the Slovenian People
- Uprising in Serbia (1941)
- Seven anti-Partisan offensives
- Air warfare on the Yugoslav Front
- Yugoslavia and the Allies
- National Liberation War of Macedonia
- Slovene Lands in World War II
- Beisfjord massacre, a prisoner transfer from Yugoslavia that led to Norway's largest massacre
- Russian Protective Corps, a Wehrmacht unit composed of White Russian émigrés from Serbia
- Yugoslav World War II monuments and memorials
Notas
- ^ (Serbo-Croatian: Drugi svjetski rat u Jugoslaviji / Други светски рат у Југославији; Slovene: Druga svetovna vojna v Jugoslaviji; Macedonian: Втора светска војна во Југославија)
- ^ (Serbo-Croatian: Narodnooslobodilački rat i socijalistička revolucija / Народноослободилачки рат и социјалистичка револуција; Slovene: Ljudsko osvobodilna vojna in socialistična revolucija; Macedonian: Народноослободителната војна и Социјалистичка револуција)
- ^ All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale, however, the largest numbers of hostages were shot by the Germans in Serbia between 1941 and 1944.[111]
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