Zoonosis

Disease that can be transmitted from other species to humans

"Zoonotic" vuelve a dirigir aquí. Para el episodio de televisión, vea Zoonotic (Law & Order: Criminal Intent) .

Medical condition

Zoonosis
Otros nombres	Zoonosis
Un perro con rabia .
Pronunciación	/ Z oʊ ɒ n ə s ɪ s , ˌ z oʊ ə n oʊ s ɪ s / [1]
Especialidad	Enfermedad infecciosa

A zoonosis (plural zoonosis , o enfermedades zoonóticas ) es una enfermedad infecciosa causada por un patógeno (un agente infeccioso, tal como una bacteria, virus, parásito o prión ) que ha saltado de un animal (normalmente un vertebrado ) a un ser humano. ^{[1] [2] [3]} Normalmente, el primer ser humano infectado transmite el agente infeccioso al menos a otro ser humano, quien, a su vez, infecta a otros.

Las principales enfermedades modernas como la enfermedad por el virus del Ébola y la salmonelosis son zoonosis. El VIH fue una enfermedad zoonótica transmitida a los humanos a principios del siglo XX, aunque ahora ha mutado a una enfermedad separada solo para humanos. La mayoría de las cepas de influenza que infectan a los seres humanos son enfermedades humanas, aunque muchas cepas de la gripe aviar y la gripe porcina son zoonosis; estos virus ocasionalmente se recombinan con cepas humanas de la gripe y pueden causar pandemias como la gripe española de 1918 o la gripe porcina de 2009 . ^[4] Taenia soliumLa infección es una de las enfermedades tropicales desatendidas con preocupación para la salud pública y veterinaria en las regiones endémicas. ^{[5] Las} zoonosis pueden ser causadas por una variedad de patógenos de enfermedades como virus emergentes , bacterias, hongos y parásitos; de 1.415 patógenos que se sabe que infectan a los seres humanos, el 61% eran zoonóticos. ^[6] La mayoría de las enfermedades humanas se originaron en animales; sin embargo, sólo las enfermedades que habitualmente involucran la transmisión de un ser humano a otro, como la rabia , se consideran zoonosis directa. ^[7]

Las zoonosis tienen diferentes modos de transmisión. En la zoonosis directa, la enfermedad se transmite directamente de animales a humanos a través de medios como el aire ( influenza ) o mediante mordeduras y saliva ( rabia ). ^[8] Por el contrario, la transmisión también puede ocurrir a través de una especie intermedia (conocida como vector ), que transporta el patógeno de la enfermedad sin enfermarse. Cuando los humanos infectan a los animales, se denomina zoonosis inversa o antroponosis . ^[9] El término proviene del griego : ζῷον zoon "animal" y νόσος nosos "enfermedad".

La genética del hospedador juega un papel importante a la hora de determinar qué virus animales podrán hacer copias de sí mismos en el cuerpo humano. Los virus animales peligrosos son aquellos que requieren pocas mutaciones para comenzar a replicarse en las células humanas. Estos virus son peligrosos ya que las combinaciones requeridas de mutaciones pueden surgir al azar en el reservorio natural. ^[10]

Recientemente, ha aumentado la frecuencia de aparición de nuevas enfermedades zoonóticas. Según un informe del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente y del Instituto Internacional de Investigación Ganadera denominado: "Prevención de la próxima pandemia: enfermedades zoonóticas y cómo romper la cadena de transmisión", las causas son principalmente ambientales. ^{[11] [12]}

Causas

La transmisión zoonótica puede ocurrir en cualquier contexto en el que haya contacto o consumo de animales, productos animales o derivados de animales. Esto puede ocurrir en un contexto de compañía (mascotas), económico (agricultura, comercio, matanza, etc.), depredador (caza, matanza o consumo de animales de caza) o de investigación.

Contaminación del suministro de agua o alimentos

Los patógenos zoonóticos más importantes que causan enfermedades transmitidas por los alimentos son Escherichia coli O157: H7 , Campylobacter , Caliciviridae y Salmonella . ^{[13] [14] [15]}

En 2006, una conferencia celebrada en Berlín se centró en el tema de los efectos de los patógenos zoonóticos en la seguridad alimentaria , instando a la intervención del gobierno y la vigilancia pública contra los riesgos de contraer enfermedades transmitidas por los alimentos al comer de la granja a la mesa. ^[dieciséis]

Muchos brotes alimentarios pueden estar relacionados con patógenos zoonóticos. Muchos tipos diferentes de alimentos de origen animal pueden contaminarse. Algunos alimentos comunes relacionados con la contaminación zoonótica incluyen huevos, mariscos, carne, lácteos e incluso algunas verduras. ^{[17] Los} brotes que involucren alimentos contaminados deben manejarse en planes de preparación para prevenir brotes generalizados y contenerlos de manera eficiente y eficaz. ^{[ cita requerida ]}

Agricultura, ganadería y cría de animales

Ver también: Ganadería intensiva § Impacto en la salud humana

El contacto con animales de granja puede provocar enfermedades en los granjeros u otras personas que entren en contacto con animales de granja infectados. El muermo afecta principalmente a quienes trabajan en estrecha colaboración con caballos y burros. El contacto cercano con el ganado puede provocar una infección cutánea por carbunco , mientras que la infección por carbunco por inhalación es más común entre los trabajadores de mataderos , curtidurías y fábricas de lana . ^[18] El contacto cercano con ovejas que han parido recientemente puede provocar clamidiosis o aborto enzoótico en mujeres embarazadas, así como un mayor riesgo de fiebre Q , toxoplasmosis y listeriosis.en mujeres embarazadas o inmunodeprimidas. La equinococosis es causada por una tenia que puede transmitirse de las ovejas infectadas a través de alimentos o agua contaminados con heces o lana. La gripe aviar es común en los pollos. Aunque es poco común en los seres humanos, la principal preocupación de salud pública es que una cepa de la gripe aviar se recombinará con un virus de la gripe humana y provocará una pandemia como la gripe española de 1918 . En 2017, se ordenó temporalmente a los pollos de corral en el Reino Unido que permanecieran adentro debido a la amenaza de la gripe aviar. ^{[19] El} ganado vacuno es un importante reservorio de criptosporidiosis ^[20] y afecta principalmente a los inmunodeprimidos. Informes recientes han demostrado que los visones también pueden infectarse. ^[21]

Los veterinarios están expuestos a riesgos laborales únicos y enfermedades zoonóticas. En los EE. UU., Los estudios han destacado un mayor riesgo de lesiones y una falta de conciencia veterinaria sobre estos peligros. La investigación ha demostrado la importancia de la educación clínica veterinaria continua sobre los riesgos ocupacionales asociados con lesiones musculoesqueléticas , mordeduras de animales, pinchazos con agujas y cortes. ^[22]

A July 2020 report by the United Nations Environment Programme stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to anthropogenic destruction of nature and the increased global demand for meat, and that the industrial farming of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future.^[23]

Wild animal attacks

• Rabies

Insect vectors

• African sleeping sickness
• Dirofilariasis
• Eastern equine encephalitis
• Japanese encephalitis
• Saint Louis encephalitis
• Scrub typhus
• Tularemia
• Venezuelan equine encephalitis
• West Nile fever
• Western equine encephalitis
• Zika fever

Pets

Further information: Feline zoonosis

Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against rabies. Pets can also transmit ringworm and Giardia, which are endemic in both animal and human populations. Toxoplasmosis is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women.^[24] Dirofilariasis is caused by Dirofilaria immitis through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. Cat-scratch disease is caused by Bartonella henselae and Bartonella quintana from fleas which are endemic in cats. Toxocariasis is infection of humans of any of species of roundworm, including species specific to the dog (Toxocara canis) or the cat (Toxocara cati). Cryptosporidiosis can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the leopard gecko. Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a microsporidial parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important opportunistic pathogen in people immunocompromised by HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, or CD4+ T-lymphocyte deficiency.^[25]

Exhibition

Outbreaks of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with and exposure to other animals at fairs, live animal markets,^[26] petting zoos, and other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings.^[27] The recommendations, developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians,^[28] include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public animal contact, and animal care and management.

Hunting and bushmeat

Main articles: Hunting and Bushmeat

• COVID-19
• HIV
• SARS

Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation

Main articles: Deforestation, Biodiversity loss, and Environmental degradation

Kate Jones, chair of ecology and biodiversity at University College London, says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behaviour. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development".^[29] In a guest article published by IPBES, Peter Daszak and three co-chairs of the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz and Eduardo Brondizio, write that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, intensive farming, mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a ‘perfect storm’ for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people."^[30]

An April 2020 study published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society Part B found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to biodiversity loss and environmental degradation, as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980.^[31] An August 2020 study published in Nature concludes that the anthropogenic destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, who are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics.^[32]

In October 2020, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields, and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era, and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a growing human population. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment."^[33][34][35]

Climate change

Further information: Effects of global warming on human health § Coronavirus

According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute named: "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission" climate change is one of the 7 human – related causes of increase in the number of zoonotic diseases.^[11][12]

Secondary transmission

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2020)

• Ebola and Marburg

Lists of diseases

Disease[36]	Pathogen(s)	Animals involved	Mode of transmission	Emergence
African sleeping sickness	Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense	range of wild animals and domestic livestock	transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly	'present in Africa for thousands of years' – major outbreak 1900–1920, cases continue (sub-Saharan Africa, 2020)
Angiostrongyliasis	Angiostrongylus cantonensis, Angiostrongylus costaricensis	rats, cotton rats	consuming raw or undercooked snails, slugs, other mollusks, crustaceans, contaminated water, and unwashed vegetables contaminated with larvae
Anisakiasis	Anisakis	whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, other marine animals	eating raw or undercooked fish and squid contaminated with eggs
Anthrax	Bacillus anthracis	commonly – grazing herbivores such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs	by ingestion, inhalation or skin contact of spores
Babesiosis	Babesia spp.	mice, other animals	tick bite
Baylisascariasis	Baylisascaris procyonis	raccoons	ingestion of eggs in feces
Barmah Forest fever	Barmah Forest virus	kangaroos, wallabies, opossums	mosquito bite
Bird flu	Influenza A virus subtype H5N1	wild birds, domesticated birds such as chickens[citation needed]	close contact	2003–19 Avian Influenza in Southeast Asia and Egypt
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy	Prions	cattle	eating infected meat	isolated similar cases reported in ancient history; in recent UK history probable start in the 1970s[37]
Brucellosis	Brucella spp.	cattle, goats, pigs, sheep	infected milk or meat	historically widespread in Mediterranean region; identified early 20th century
Bubonic plague, Pneumonic plague, Septicemic plague, Sylvatic plague	Yersinia pestis	rabbits, hares, rodents, ferrets, goats, sheep, camels	flea bite	Epidemics like Black Death in Europe around 1347–53 during the Late Middle Age, Third Plague Pandemic in China-Qing dynasty and India alone
Capillariasis	Capillaria spp.	rodents, birds, foxes	eating raw or undercooked fish, ingesting embryonated eggs in fecal-contaminated food, water, or soil
Cat-scratch disease	Bartonella henselae	cats	bites or scratches from infected cats
Chagas disease	Trypanosoma cruzi	armadillos, Triatominae (kissing bug)	Contact of mucosae or wounds with feces of kissing bugs. Accidental ingestion of parasites in food contaminated by bugs or infected mammal excretae.
Clamydiosis / Enzootic abortion	Chlamydophila abortus	domestic livestock, particularly sheep	close contact with postpartum ewes
COVID-19	severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)	suspected: bats, felines, minks	respiratory transmission	COVID-19 pandemic; 2019–present; Ongoing pandemic
Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease	PrPvCJD	cattle	eating meat from animals with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)	1996–2001: United Kingdom
Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever	Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus	cattle, goats, sheep, birds, multimammate rats, hares	tick bite, contact with bodily fluids
Cryptococcosis	Cryptococcus neoformans	commonly – birds like pigeons	inhaling fungi
Cryptosporidiosis	Cryptosporidium spp.	cattle, dogs, cats, mice, pigs, horses, deer, sheep, goats, rabbits, leopard geckos, birds	ingesting cysts from water contaminated with feces
Cysticercosis and taeniasis	Taenia solium, Taenia asiatica, Taenia saginata	commonly – pigs and cattle	consuming water, soil or food contaminated with the tapeworm eggs (cysticercosis) or raw or undercooked pork contaminated with the cysticerci (taeniasis)
Dirofilariasis	Dirofilaria spp.	dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, cats, monkeys, raccoons, bears, muskrats, rabbits, leopards, seals, sea lions, beavers, ferrets, reptiles	mosquito bite
Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis	Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus	horses, donkeys, zebras, birds	mosquito bite
Ebola virus disease (a haemorrhagic fever)	Ebolavirus spp.	chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, fruit bats, monkeys, shrews, forest antelope and porcupines	through body fluids and organs	2013–16; possible in Africa
Other haemorrhagic fevers (Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Dengue fever, Lassa fever, Marburg viral haemorrhagic fever, Rift Valley fever[38])	Varies – commonly viruses	varies (sometimes unknown) – commonly camels, rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, cattle, sheep, goats, horses and swine	infection usually occurs through direct contact with infected animals	2019–20 dengue fever
Echinococcosis	Echinococcus spp.	commonly – dogs, foxes, jackals, wolves, coyotes, sheep, pigs, rodents	ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated food or water with feces of an infected, definitive host or fur
Fasciolosis	Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica	sheep, cattle, buffaloes	ingesting contaminated plants
Foodborne illnesses (commonly diarrheal diseases)	Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Listeria spp., Shigella spp. and Trichinella spp.	animals domesticated for food production (cattle, poultry)	raw or undercooked food made from animals and unwashed vegetables contaminated with feces
Giardiasis	Giardia lamblia	beavers, other rodents, raccoons, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, dogs, cats	ingesting spores and cysts in food and water contaminated with feces
Glanders	Burkholderia mallei.	horses, donkeys	direct contact
Gnathostomiasis	Gnathostoma spp.	dogs, minks, opossums, cats, lions, tigers, leopards, raccoons, poultry, other birds, frogs	raw or undercooked fish or meat
Hantavirus	Hantavirus spp.	deer mice, cotton rats and other rodents	exposure to feces, urine, saliva or bodily fluids
Henipavirus	Henipavirus spp.	horses, bats	exposure to feces, urine, saliva or contact with sick horses
Histoplasmosis	Histoplasma capsulatum	birds, bats	inhaling fungi in guano
HIV	SIV Simian immunodeficiency virus	Non-human primates	Blood	Immunodeficiency resembling human AIDS was reported in captive monkeys in the United States beginning in 1983.[39][40][41] SIV was isolated in 1985 from some of these animals, captive rhesus macaques suffering from simian AIDS (SAIDS).[40] The discovery of SIV was made shortly after HIV-1 had been isolated as the cause of AIDS and led to the discovery of HIV-2 strains in West Africa. HIV-2 was more similar to the then-known SIV strains than to HIV-1, suggesting for the first time the simian origin of HIV. Further studies indicated that HIV-2 is derived from the SIVsmm strain found in sooty mangabeys, whereas HIV-1, the predominant virus found in humans, is derived from SIV strains infecting chimpanzees (SIVcpz)
Japanese encephalitis	Japanese encephalitis virus	pigs, water birds	mosquito bite
Kyasanur Forest disease	Kyasanur Forest disease virus	rodents, shrews, bats, monkeys	tick bite
La Crosse encephalitis	La Crosse virus	chipmunks, tree squirrels	mosquito bite
Leishmaniasis	Leishmania spp.	dogs, rodents, other animals[42][43]	sandfly bite	2004 Afghanistan
Leprosy	Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium lepromatosis	armadillos, monkeys, rabbits, mice[44]	direct contact, including meat consumption. However, scientists believe most infections are spread human to human.[44][45]
Leptospirosis	Leptospira interrogans	rats, mice, pigs, horses, goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, opossums, raccoons, mongooses, foxes, dogs	direct or indirect contact with urine of infected animals	1616–20 New England infection: Present day in the United States–Native Americans; Killed around 90–95% of (Native America)
Lassa fever	Lassa fever virus	rodents	exposure to rodents
Lyme disease	Borrelia burgdorferi	deer, wolves, dogs, birds, rodents, rabbits, hares, reptiles	tick bite
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis	Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus	rodents	exposure to urine, feces, or saliva
Melioidosis	Burkholderia pseudomallei	various animals	direct contact with contaminated soil and surface water
Microsporidiosis	Encephalitozoon cuniculi	Rabbits, dogs, mice, and other mammals	ingestion of spores
Middle East respiratory syndrome	MERS coronavirus	bats, camels	close contact	2012–present: Saudi Arabia
Monkeypox	Monkeypox virus	rodents, primates	contact with infected rodents, primates, or contaminated materials
Nipah virus infection	Nipah virus (NiV)	bats, pigs	direct contact with infected bats, infected pigs
Orf	Orf virus	goats, sheep	close contact
Psittacosis	Chlamydophila psittaci	macaws, cockatiels, budgerigars, pigeons, sparrows, ducks, hens, gulls and many other bird species	contact with bird droplets
Q fever	Coxiella burnetii	livestock and other domestic animals such as dogs and cats	inhalation of spores, contact with bodily fluid or faeces
Rabies	Rabies virus	commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, goats, sheep, wolves, coyotes, groundhogs, horses, mongooses and cats	through saliva by biting, or through scratches from an infected animal	Variety of places like Oceanic, South America, Europe; Year is unknown
Rat-bite fever	Streptobacillus moniliformis, Spirillum minus	rats, mice	bites of rats but also urine and mucus secretions
Rift Valley fever	Phlebovirus	livestock, buffaloes, camels	mosquito bite, contact with bodily fluids, blood, tissues, breathing around butchered animals or raw milk	2006–07 East Africa outbreak
Rocky Mountain spotted fever	Rickettsia rickettsii	dogs, rodents	tick bite
Ross River fever	Ross River virus	kangaroos, wallabies, horses, opossums, birds, flying foxes	mosquito bite
Saint Louis encephalitis	Saint Louis encephalitis virus	birds	mosquito bite
Severe acute respiratory syndrome	SARS coronavirus	bats, civets	close contact, respiratory droplets	2002–04 SARS outbreak; started in China
Smallpox	Variola virus	Possible Monkeys or horses	Spread to person to person quickly	The last cases was in 1977; WHO certified to Eradicated (for the world) in December 1979 or 1980.
Swine influenza	A new strain of the influenza virus endemic in pigs (excludes H1N1 swine flu, which is a human virus).	pigs	close contact	2009–10; 2009 swine flu pandemic; The outbreak began in Mexico.
Taenia crassiceps infection	Taenia crassiceps	wolves, coyotes, jackals, foxes	contact with soil contaminated with feces
Toxocariasis	Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati	dogs, foxes, cats	ingestion of eggs in soil, fresh or unwashed vegetables or undercooked meat
Toxoplasmosis	Toxoplasma gondii	cats, livestock, poultry	exposure to cat feces, organ transplantation, blood transfusion, contaminated soil, water, grass, unwashed vegetables, unpasteurized dairy products and undercooked meat
Trichinosis	Trichinella spp.	rodents, pigs, horses, bears, walruses, dogs, foxes, crocodiles, birds	eating undercooked meat
Tuberculosis	Mycobacterium bovis	infected cattle, deer, llamas, pigs, domestic cats, wild carnivores (foxes, coyotes) and omnivores (possums, mustelids and rodents)	milk, exhaled air, sputum, urine, faeces and pus from infected animals
Tularemia	Francisella tularensis	lagomorphs (type A), rodents (type B), birds	ticks, deer flies, and other insects including mosquitoes
West Nile fever	Flavivirus	birds, horses	mosquito bite
Zika fever	Zika virus	chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, monkeys, baboons	mosquito bite, sexual intercourse, blood transfusion and sometimes bites of monkeys	2015–16 epidemic in the Americas and Oceanic

History

During most of human prehistory groups of hunter-gatherers were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate immune response. To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a chronic infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as reservoir where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected. In fact, for many 'human' diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a dead-end host. Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia and West Nile virus. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic.

Possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions

Through religious scripture, different civilizations as early as 500 years B.C.E had dietary laws that prohibit or allow the consumption of certain animals. Christian and Hebrew religions have reflected these traditions in the Book of Leviticus,^[46] while Islamic religions spread the laws throughout the Quran, referring to these rules as Haram and Halal.^{[citation needed]} Some consider these dietary rules evolved, among other reasons, to reduce the risk of contracting diseases from animals.^{[citation needed]}

Many modern diseases, even epidemic diseases, started out as zoonotic diseases. It is hard to establish with certainty which diseases jumped from other animals to humans, but there is increasing evidence from DNA and RNA sequencing, that measles, smallpox, influenza, HIV, and diphtheria came to humans this way. Various forms of the common cold and tuberculosis also are adaptations of strains originating in other species. Some experts have suggested that all human viral infections were originally zoonotic.^[47]

Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus appeared in the United States in 1999 in the New York City area, and moved through the country in the summer of 2002, causing much distress. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease,^[48] as are salmonellosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Lyme disease.

A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife.^[49] This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus in peninsular Malaysia in 1999, when intensive pig farming began on the habitat of infected fruit bats. Unidentified infection of the pigs amplified the force of infection, eventually transmitting the virus to farmers and causing 105 human deaths.^[50]

Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals such as bats and birds may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation.

Because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African schistosomiasis, river blindness, and elephantiasis are not defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other vectors.

Use in vaccines

The first vaccine against smallpox by Edward Jenner in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called cowpox. Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass vaccination against this disease ceased in 1981.

See also

• Animal welfare#Animal welfare organizations – The well-being of (non-human) animals
• Conservation medicine
• Cross-species transmission – Transmission of a pathogen between different species
• Emerging infectious disease – Infectious disease of emerging pathogen, often novel in its outbreak range or transmission mode
• Foodborne illness – Illness resulting from food that is spoiled or contaminated by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, or toxins
• Spillover infection – Occurs when a reservoir population causes an epidemic in a novel host population
• Wildlife disease
• Veterinary medicine – Deals with the diseases of animals, animal welfare, etc.
• Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses – Health risks associated with the trade in exotic wildlife
• List of zoonotic primate viruses – Wikipedia list article

References

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Bibliography

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• Crawford, Dorothy (2018). Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped our History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198815440.
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• H. Krauss, A. Weber, M. Appel, B. Enders, A. v. Graevenitz, H. D. Isenberg, H. G. Schiefer, W. Slenczka, H. Zahner: Zoonoses. Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans. 3rd Edition, 456 pages. ASM Press. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 2003. ISBN 1-55581-236-8.
• Jorge Guerra González (2010), Infection Risk and Limitation of Fundamental Rights by Animal-To-Human Transplantations. EU, Spanish and German Law with Special Consideration of English Law (in German), Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac, ISBN 978-3-8300-4712-4
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External links

Classification	D MeSH: D015047 DiseasesDB: 28555

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• AVMA Collections: Zoonosis Updates
• WHO tropical diseases and zoonoses
• Detection and Forensic Analysis of Wildlife and Zoonotic Disease
• Publications in Zoonotics and Wildlife Disease
• A message from nature: coronavirus. United Nations Environment Programme