| Alejandro III | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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 Busto de Alejandro Magno | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Rey de Macedonia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reinado | 336–323 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecesor | Felipe II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sucesor | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hegemón de la Liga Helénica Strategos autokrator de Grecia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reinado | 336 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecesor | Felipe II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Faraón de egipto | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reinado | 332–323 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecesor | Darío III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sucesor |
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| Rey de persia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reinado | 330–323 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecesor | Darío III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sucesor |
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| Señor de Asia | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reinado | 331–323 a. C. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecesor | Nueva oficina | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sucesor |
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| Nació | 20 o 21 de julio de 356 a.C. Pella , Macedonia , Antigua Grecia | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Fallecido | 10 u 11 de junio de 323 a.C. (32 años) Babilonia , Mesopotamia | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Cónyuge |
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| Asunto |
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| Dinastía | Argead | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Padre | Felipe II de Macedonia | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mamá | Olimpia de Epiro | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Religión | Politeísmo griego | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Alejandro III de Macedonia (en griego : Αλέξανδρος , Aléxandros ; 20/21 de julio de 356 a. C. - 10/11 de junio de 323 a. C.), comúnmente conocido como Alejandro Magno , fue un rey del antiguo reino griego de Macedonia [a] . Miembro de la dinastía Argead , nació en Pella, una ciudad de la antigua Grecia, en el 356 a. C. Sucedió a su padre, el rey Felipe II, en el trono a la edad de 20 años, y pasó la mayor parte de sus años de gobierno llevando a cabo una larga campaña militar en Asia occidental y el noreste de África.. A la edad de treinta años, había creado uno de los imperios más grandes de la historia, que se extendía desde Grecia hasta el noroeste de la India . [1] [2] Estuvo invicto en la batalla y es ampliamente considerado uno de los comandantes militares más exitosos de la historia. [3]
Durante su juventud, Alejandro fue instruido por Aristóteles hasta la edad de 16 años. Su padre, Filipo, fue asesinado en el 336 a. C. en la boda de su hermana, y Alejandro asumió el trono del Reino de Macedonia . Después de saquear la ciudad de Tebas , Alejandro recibió el título de general de Grecia . Usó su autoridad para lanzar el proyecto panhelénico de su padre, que lo involucró asumiendo la posición de liderazgo de todos los griegos en su conquista de Persia . [4] [5]
En el 334 a.C. invadió el Imperio Aqueménida ( Imperio Persa) y comenzó una serie de campañas que duraron 10 años. Tras su conquista de Asia Menor (la actual Turquía), Alejandro rompió el poder de Persia en una serie de batallas decisivas, incluidas las de Issus y Gaugamela . Posteriormente derrocó al rey Darío III y conquistó el Imperio aqueménida en su totalidad. [b] En ese momento, su imperio se extendía desde el mar Adriático hasta el río Beas . Alejandro se esforzó por llegar al "fin del mundo y el Gran Mar Exterior" e invadió la India.en el 326 a. C., logrando una importante victoria sobre el rey Poro y su dinastía ( Pauravas ) en la Batalla de los Hidaspes . Eventualmente se volvió a la demanda de sus tropas nostálgicas, muriendo en Babilonia en 323 AC; la ciudad que planeaba establecer como su capital. No logró ejecutar una serie de campañas planificadas que habrían comenzado con una invasión de Arabia . En los años posteriores a su muerte , una serie de guerras civiles destrozaron su imperio.
El legado de Alejandro incluye la difusión cultural y el sincretismo que engendraron sus conquistas, como el greco-budismo . Fundó una veintena de ciudades que llevaban su nombre , la más notable de las cuales era Alejandría en Egipto. El asentamiento de colonos griegos de Alejandro y la consiguiente difusión de la cultura griega dieron como resultado una nueva civilización helenística , cuyos aspectos aún eran evidentes en las tradiciones del Imperio bizantino a mediados del siglo XV d.C. y la presencia de hablantes de griego en el centro y el lejano oriente. Anatolia hasta el genocidio griego yel intercambio de población en la década de 1920. Alejandro se hizo legendario como un héroe clásico en el molde de Aquiles , destacando de manera prominente en la historia y las tradiciones míticas de las culturas griegas y no griegas. Sus logros militares y su éxito duradero y sin precedentes en la batalla lo convierten en la medida con la que se comparan muchos líderes militares modernos. [c] Las academias militares de todo el mundo todavía enseñan sus tácticas. [6] A menudo se le clasifica entre las personas más influyentes en la historia de la humanidad. [7] [8]
Vida temprana
Linaje e infancia
Alejandro nació en Pella , la capital del Reino de Macedonia , [9] el sexto día del antiguo mes griego de Hekatombaion , que probablemente corresponde al 20 de julio de 356 a. C., aunque la fecha exacta es incierta. [10] Era hijo del rey de Macedonia, Felipe II , y su cuarta esposa, Olimpia , hija de Neoptólemo I , rey de Epiro . [11] Aunque Felipe tuvo siete u ocho esposas, Olimpia fue su esposa principal durante algún tiempo, probablemente porque dio a luz a Alejandro. [12]
Varias leyendas rodean el nacimiento y la infancia de Alejandro. [13] Según el antiguo biógrafo griego Plutarco , en la víspera de la consumación de su matrimonio con Felipe, Olimpia soñó que un rayo golpeaba su útero y provocaba que una llama se extendiera "por todas partes" antes de morir. Algún tiempo después de la boda, se dice que Felipe se vio a sí mismo, en un sueño, asegurando el útero de su esposa con un sello grabado con la imagen de un león. [14] Plutarco ofreció una variedad de interpretaciones de estos sueños: que Olimpia estaba embarazada antes de su matrimonio, indicado por el sellado de su útero; o que el padre de Alejandro era Zeus. Los comentaristas antiguos estaban divididos acerca de si la ambiciosa Olimpia promulgó la historia de la ascendencia divina de Alejandro, alegando de diversas formas que se lo había contado a Alejandro o que rechazó la sugerencia como impía. [14]
El día que nació Alejandro, Felipe estaba preparando un sitio a la ciudad de Potidea en la península de Calcídica . Ese mismo día, Felipe recibió la noticia de que su general Parmenion había derrotado a los ejércitos combinados de Iliria y Paeonia y que sus caballos habían ganado en los Juegos Olímpicos . También se dijo que en este día, el Templo de Artemisa en Éfeso , una de las Siete Maravillas del Mundo , se incendió. Esto llevó a Hegesias de Magnesia a decir que se había quemado porque Artemisa estaba ausente, asistiendo al nacimiento de Alejandro.[15] Tales leyendas pueden haber surgido cuando Alejandro era rey, y posiblemente por instigación suya, para demostrar que era sobrehumano y estaba destinado a la grandeza desde su concepción. [13]
En sus primeros años, Alejandro fue criado por una enfermera, Lanike , hermana del futuro general de Alejandro , Clito el Negro . Más tarde en su infancia, Alejandro fue instruido por el estricto Leonidas , un pariente de su madre, y por Lisímaco de Acarnania . [16] Alejandro fue criado a la manera de los jóvenes nobles macedonios, aprendiendo a leer, tocar la lira , montar, luchar y cazar. [17]
Cuando Alejandro tenía diez años, un comerciante de Tesalia le trajo a Felipe un caballo, que ofreció vender por trece talentos . El caballo se negó a que lo montaran y Felipe ordenó que se fuera. Alexander, sin embargo, al detectar el miedo del caballo a su propia sombra, pidió domesticarlo, lo que finalmente logró. [13] Plutarco declaró que Felipe, encantado por esta demostración de coraje y ambición, besó a su hijo entre lágrimas y le dijo: "Muchacho, debes encontrar un reino lo suficientemente grande para tus ambiciones. Macedonia es demasiado pequeña para ti", y compró el caballo para él. [18] Alejandro lo llamó Bucéfalo , que significa "cabeza de buey". Bucéfalas llevó a Alejandro hasta la India.. Cuando el animal murió (debido a la vejez, según Plutarco, a los treinta años), Alejandro le puso su nombre a una ciudad, Bucéfala . [19]
Educación
Cuando Alejandro tenía 13 años, Felipe comenzó a buscar un tutor y consideró a académicos como Isócrates y Speusippus , este último se ofreció a renunciar a su administración de la Academia para ocupar el puesto. Al final, Felipe eligió a Aristóteles y proporcionó el Templo de las Ninfas en Mieza como aula. A cambio de enseñar a Alejandro, Felipe aceptó reconstruir Stageira , la ciudad natal de Aristóteles , que Felipe había arrasado, y repoblarla comprando y liberando a los ex ciudadanos que eran esclavos o perdonando a los exiliados. [20]
Mieza era como un internado para Alejandro y los hijos de nobles macedonios, como Ptolomeo , Hefaistion y Casandro . Muchos de estos estudiantes se convertirían en sus amigos y futuros generales, y a menudo se les conoce como los "Compañeros". Aristóteles enseñó a Alejandro y sus compañeros sobre medicina, filosofía, moral, religión, lógica y arte. Bajo la tutela de Aristóteles, Alejandro desarrolló una pasión por las obras de Homero , y en particular por la Ilíada ; Aristóteles le dio una copia anotada, que Alejandro llevó más tarde a sus campañas. [21]
Alejandro pudo citar a Eurípides de memoria. [22]
Durante su juventud, Alejandro también conoció a los exiliados persas en la corte macedonia, quienes recibieron la protección de Felipe II durante varios años mientras se oponían a Artajerjes III . [23] [24] [25] Entre ellos se encontraban Artabazos II y su hija Barsine , futura amante de Alejandro, que residió en la corte macedonia del 352 al 342 a. C., así como Amminapes , futuro sátrapa de Alejandro o un noble persa. llamado Sisines . [23] [26] [27] [28]Esto le dio a la corte macedonia un buen conocimiento de los asuntos persas, e incluso puede haber influido en algunas de las innovaciones en la gestión del estado macedonio. [26]
Suda escribe que, también, Anaxímenes de Lampsaco fue uno de sus maestros. Anaximenes, también lo acompañó en sus campañas. [29]
El heredero de Felipe
Regencia y ascenso de Macedonia
A la edad de 16 años, la educación de Alejandro bajo Aristóteles terminó. Felipe libró la guerra contra Bizancio , dejando a Alejandro a cargo como regente y heredero aparente . [13] Durante la ausencia de Filipo, el tracio Maedi se rebeló contra Macedonia. Alexander respondió rápidamente, expulsándolos de su territorio. La colonizó con griegos y fundó una ciudad llamada Alejandrópolis . [30]
Al regreso de Felipe, envió a Alejandro con una pequeña fuerza para someter las revueltas en el sur de Tracia . Haciendo campaña contra la ciudad griega de Perinthus , se informa que Alejandro salvó la vida de su padre. Mientras tanto, la ciudad de Amphissa comenzó a trabajar tierras que eran sagradas para Apolo cerca de Delfos , un sacrilegio que le dio a Felipe la oportunidad de intervenir más en los asuntos griegos. Todavía ocupado en Tracia, ordenó a Alejandro que reuniera un ejército para una campaña en el sur de Grecia. Preocupado de que otros estados griegos pudieran intervenir, Alejandro hizo que pareciera que se estaba preparando para atacar Iliria en su lugar. Durante esta agitación, los ilirios invadieron Macedonia, solo para ser repelidos por Alejandro. [31]
Felipe y su ejército se unieron a su hijo en 338 a. C., y marcharon hacia el sur a través de las Termópilas , tomándolas después de la obstinada resistencia de su guarnición tebana. Continuaron ocupando la ciudad de Elatea , a solo unos días de marcha tanto de Atenas como de Tebas . Los atenienses, encabezados por Demóstenes , votaron a favor de buscar una alianza con Tebas contra Macedonia. Tanto Atenas como Felipe enviaron embajadas para ganarse el favor de Tebas, pero Atenas ganó el concurso. [32] Felipe marchó sobre Amphissa (aparentemente actuando a petición de la Liga Anfictiónica), capturando a los mercenarios enviados allí por Demóstenes y aceptando la rendición de la ciudad. Felipe luego regresó a Elatea, enviando una oferta final de paz a Atenas y Tebas, quienes la rechazaron. [33]
Mientras Felipe marchaba hacia el sur, sus oponentes lo bloquearon cerca de Chaeronea , Beocia . Durante la subsiguiente batalla de Chaeronea , Felipe comandó el ala derecha y Alejandro el izquierdo, acompañado por un grupo de generales de confianza de Felipe. Según las fuentes antiguas, los dos bandos lucharon encarnizadamente durante algún tiempo. Felipe ordenó deliberadamente a sus tropas que se retiraran, contando con que los hoplitas atenienses no probados los seguirían, rompiendo así su línea. Alejandro fue el primero en romper las líneas tebas, seguido por los generales de Felipe. Después de haber dañado la cohesión del enemigo, Felipe ordenó a sus tropas que avanzaran y rápidamente los derrotó. Con los atenienses perdidos, los tebanos fueron rodeados. Dejados para luchar solos, fueron derrotados. [34]
Después de la victoria en Chaeronea, Felipe y Alejandro marcharon sin oposición hacia el Peloponeso, bienvenidos por todas las ciudades; sin embargo, cuando llegaron a Esparta , fueron rechazados, pero no recurrieron a la guerra. [35] En Corinto , Felipe estableció una "Alianza Helénica" (inspirada en la antigua alianza antipersa de las Guerras Greco-Persas ), que incluía a la mayoría de las ciudades-estado griegas excepto Esparta. Felipe fue nombrado entonces Hegemón (a menudo traducido como "Comandante Supremo") de esta liga (conocida por los eruditos modernos como la Liga de Corinto ), y anunció sus planes para atacar el Imperio Persa . [36] [37]
Exilio y regreso
Cuando Felipe regresó a Pella, se enamoró y se casó con Cleopatra Eurídice en 338 a. C. [38], la sobrina de su general Atalo . [39] El matrimonio hizo que la posición de Alejandro como heredero fuera menos segura, ya que cualquier hijo de Cleopatra Eurídice sería un heredero completamente macedonio, mientras que Alejandro era sólo medio macedonio. [40] Durante el banquete de bodas , un Atalo borracho rogó públicamente a los dioses que la unión produjera un heredero legítimo. [39]
En la boda de Cleopatra, de quien Filipo se enamoró y se casó, siendo ella demasiado joven para él, su tío Atalo deseó en su bebida que los macedonios suplicaran a los dioses que les dieran un sucesor legítimo al reino de su sobrina. Esto irritó tanto a Alexander, que tirándole una de las tazas a la cabeza, "Tú, villano", dijo, "¿qué, entonces soy un bastardo?" Entonces Felipe, tomando parte de Atalo, se levantó y habría atravesado a su hijo; pero por suerte para los dos, o su rabia precipitada, o el vino que había bebido, le hizo resbalar el pie, de modo que cayó al suelo. Ante lo cual Alejandro lo insultó con reproche: "Mira allí", dijo, "el hombre que hace los preparativos para pasar de Europa a Asia, volcó al pasar de un asiento a otro".
- Plutarco, describiendo la pelea en la boda de Philip. [41]
En 337 a. C., Alejandro huyó de Macedonia con su madre y la dejó con su hermano, el rey Alejandro I de Epiro en Dodona , capital de los molosenses . [42] Continuó a Iliria, [42] donde buscó refugio con uno o más reyes ilirios, quizás con Glaukias , y fue tratado como un invitado, a pesar de haberlos derrotado en batalla unos años antes. [43] Sin embargo, parece que Felipe nunca tuvo la intención de repudiar a su hijo entrenado política y militarmente. [42] En consecuencia, Alejandro regresó a Macedonia después de seis meses debido a los esfuerzos de un amigo de la familia, Demaratus , quien medió entre las dos partes.[44]
Al año siguiente, el sátrapa persa (gobernador) de Caria , Pixodarus , ofreció su hija mayor al medio hermano de Alejandro, Philip Arrhidaeus . [42] Olimpia y varios de los amigos de Alejandro sugirieron que esto mostraba que Felipe tenía la intención de convertir a Arrideo en su heredero. [42] Alexander reaccionó enviando a un actor, Thessalus of Corinth, a decirle a Pixodarus que no debería ofrecer la mano de su hija a un hijo ilegítimo, sino a Alexander. Cuando Felipe se enteró de esto, detuvo las negociaciones y regañó a Alejandro por querer casarse con la hija de un cario, y le explicó que quería una novia mejor para él. [42]Felipe exilió a cuatro de los amigos de Alejandro, Harpalus , Nearchus , Ptolomeo y Erigyius , e hizo que los corintios le trajeran a Tesalus encadenado. [45]
Rey de Macedonia
Adhesión
En el verano de 336 a. C., mientras asistía en Aegae a la boda de su hija Cleopatra con el hermano de Olimpia, Alejandro I de Epiro , Felipe fue asesinado por el capitán de sus guardaespaldas , Pausanias . [e] Cuando Pausanias intentó escapar, tropezó con una enredadera y fue asesinado por sus perseguidores, incluidos dos de los compañeros de Alejandro, Perdiccas y Leonnatus . Alejandro fue proclamado rey en el acto por los nobles y el ejército a la edad de 20 años. [47] [48] [49]
Consolidación de poder
Alejandro comenzó su reinado eliminando a posibles rivales al trono. Hizo ejecutar a su primo, el ex Amintas IV . [50] También hizo matar a dos príncipes macedonios de la región de Lyncestis , pero perdonó a un tercero, Alejandro Lyncestes . Olimpia hizo quemar vivas a Cleopatra Eurídice y Europa, su hija de Felipe. Cuando Alejandro se enteró de esto, se puso furioso. Alejandro también ordenó el asesinato de Atalo, [50] que estaba al mando de la vanguardia del ejército en Asia Menor y tío de Cleopatra. [51]
Atalo estaba en ese momento en correspondencia con Demóstenes, con respecto a la posibilidad de desertar a Atenas. Atalo también había insultado severamente a Alejandro y, tras el asesinato de Cleopatra, Alejandro pudo haberlo considerado demasiado peligroso para dejarlo con vida. [51] Alejandro perdonó a Arrhidaeus, quien, según todos los informes, estaba mentalmente discapacitado, posiblemente como resultado del envenenamiento por Olimpia. [47] [49] [52]
La noticia de la muerte de Filipo hizo que muchos estados se rebelaran, incluidos Tebas, Atenas, Tesalia y las tribus tracias al norte de Macedonia. Cuando las noticias de las revueltas llegaron a Alejandro, respondió rápidamente. Aunque se le aconsejó que usara la diplomacia, Alejandro reunió a 3.000 jinetes macedonios y cabalgó hacia el sur hacia Tesalia. Encontró al ejército de Tesalia ocupando el paso entre el monte Olimpo y el monte Ossa , y ordenó a sus hombres que cabalgaran sobre el monte Ossa. Cuando los tesalianos se despertaron al día siguiente, encontraron a Alejandro en su retaguardia y se rindieron rápidamente, agregando su caballería a la fuerza de Alejandro. Luego continuó hacia el sur hacia el Peloponeso . [53]
Alejandro se detuvo en las Termópilas, donde fue reconocido como el líder de la Liga Anfictiónica antes de dirigirse al sur hacia Corinto . Atenas pidió la paz y Alejandro perdonó a los rebeldes. El famoso encuentro entre Alejandro y Diógenes el Cínico ocurrió durante la estancia de Alejandro en Corinto. Cuando Alejandro le preguntó a Diógenes qué podía hacer por él, el filósofo le pidió con desdén a Alejandro que se pusiera un poco a un lado, ya que estaba bloqueando la luz del sol. [54] Esta respuesta aparentemente deleitó a Alejandro, de quien se dice que dijo: "Pero, en verdad, si no fuera Alejandro, me gustaría ser Diógenes". [55] En Corinto, Alejandro tomó el título de Hegemón.("líder") y, como Felipe, fue nombrado comandante de la guerra que se avecinaba contra Persia. También recibió noticias de un levantamiento tracio. [56]
Campaña balcánica
Antes de cruzar a Asia, Alejandro quería proteger sus fronteras del norte. En la primavera del 335 a. C., avanzó para reprimir varias revueltas. Partiendo de Anfípolis , viajó al este hacia el país de los "tracios independientes"; y en el monte Hemo , el ejército macedonio atacó y derrotó a las fuerzas tracias que ocupaban las alturas. [57] Los macedonios entraron en el país de los triballi y derrotaron a su ejército cerca del río Lyginus [58] (un afluente del Danubio ). Alejandro luego marchó durante tres días hacia el Danubio , encontrándose con los Getae.tribu en la orilla opuesta. Cruzando el río por la noche, los sorprendió y obligó a su ejército a retirarse después de la primera escaramuza de caballería . [59]
Entonces llegó a Alejandro la noticia de que Clito , rey de Iliria, y el rey Glaukias de los Taulantii se rebelaban abiertamente contra su autoridad. Al marchar hacia el oeste hacia Iliria, Alejandro derrotó a cada uno por turno, lo que obligó a los dos gobernantes a huir con sus tropas. Con estas victorias, aseguró su frontera norte. [60]
Mientras Alejandro hacía campaña hacia el norte, los tebanos y atenienses se rebelaron una vez más. Alejandro inmediatamente se dirigió al sur. [61] Mientras las otras ciudades volvían a vacilar, Tebas decidió luchar. La resistencia tebana fue ineficaz y Alejandro arrasó la ciudad y dividió su territorio entre las otras ciudades beocias. El fin de Tebas atemorizó a Atenas, dejando a toda Grecia temporalmente en paz. [61] Alejandro luego emprendió su campaña asiática, dejando a Antípatro como regente. [62]
Según los escritores antiguos, Demóstenes llamó a Alejandro "Margites" (en griego : Μαργίτης ) [63] [64] [65] y un niño. [65] Los griegos usaban la palabra Margitas para describir a gente tonta e inútil, debido a los Margitas . [64] [66]
Conquista del imperio persa
Asia Menor
Después de su victoria en la batalla de Chaeronea (338 a. C.) , Felipe II comenzó el trabajo de establecerse como hēgemṓn ( griego : ἡγεμών ) de una liga que, según Diodoro, iba a emprender una campaña contra los persas por los diversos agravios que Grecia sufría en Grecia. 480 y liberar las ciudades griegas de la costa occidental y las islas del dominio aqueménida. En 336 envió a Parmenion , con Amintas , Andromenes y Atalo , y un ejército de 10.000 hombres a Anatolia para hacer los preparativos para una invasión. [67] [68]Al principio todo fue bien. Las ciudades griegas de la costa occidental de Anatolia se rebelaron hasta que llegó la noticia de que Felipe había sido asesinado y había sido sucedido por su joven hijo Alejandro. Los macedonios fueron desmoralizados por la muerte de Filipo y posteriormente fueron derrotados cerca de Magnesia por los aqueménidas bajo el mando del mercenario Memnon de Rodas . [67] [68]
Tomando el control del proyecto de invasión de Felipe II, el ejército de Alejandro cruzó el Helesponto en 334 a. C. con aproximadamente 48.100 soldados, 6.100 jinetes y una flota de 120 barcos con tripulaciones de 38.000, [61] procedentes de Macedonia y varias ciudades-estado griegas, mercenarios, y soldados criados feudalmente de Tracia , Paionia e Iliria . [69] [f] Mostró su intención de conquistar la totalidad del Imperio Persa lanzando una lanza al suelo asiático y diciendo que aceptaba Asia como un regalo de los dioses. Esto también mostró el afán de luchar de Alejandro, en contraste con la preferencia de su padre por la diplomacia. [61]
Después de una victoria inicial contra las fuerzas persas en la batalla del Gránico , Alejandro aceptó la rendición de la capital provincial persa y el tesoro de Sardis ; luego procedió a lo largo de la costa jónica , otorgando autonomía y democracia a las ciudades. Mileto , en poder de las fuerzas aqueménidas, requirió una delicada operación de asedio, con las fuerzas navales persas cerca. Más al sur, en Halicarnaso , en Caria , Alejandro libró con éxito su primer asedio a gran escala , y finalmente obligó a sus oponentes, el capitán mercenario Memnon de Rodas y el sátrapa persa de Caria, Orontobates., para retirar por mar. [70] Alejandro dejó el gobierno de Caria a un miembro de la dinastía Hecatomnid, Ada , quien adoptó a Alejandro. [71]
Desde Halicarnaso, Alejandro procedió a la montañosa Licia y la llanura de Panfilo , afirmando el control sobre todas las ciudades costeras para negar las bases navales persas. Desde Panfilia en adelante, la costa no tenía puertos importantes y Alejandro se trasladó tierra adentro. En Termessos , Alejandro se humilló pero no asaltó la ciudad de Pisidia . [72] En la antigua capital frigia de Gordium , Alejandro "deshizo" el hasta entonces irresoluble Nudo Gordiano , una hazaña que se dice que aguarda al futuro "rey de Asia ". [73] Según la historia, Alejandro proclamó que no importaba cómo se deshacía el nudo y lo cortó con su espada.[74]
El Levante y Siria
En la primavera del 333 a. C., Alejandro cruzó el Tauro hacia Cilicia . Después de una larga pausa debido a una enfermedad, marchó hacia Siria. Aunque superado por el ejército significativamente más grande de Darius, marchó de regreso a Cilicia, donde derrotó a Darius en Issus . Darius huyó de la batalla, provocando el colapso de su ejército y dejó atrás a su esposa, sus dos hijas, su madre Sisygambis y un fabuloso tesoro. [75] Ofreció un tratado de paz que incluía las tierras que ya había perdido y un rescate de 10.000 talentos para su familia. Alejandro respondió que, dado que ahora era rey de Asia, era él solo quien decidía las divisiones territoriales. [76]Alejandro procedió a tomar posesión de Siria y la mayor parte de la costa del Levante . [71] Al año siguiente, 332 a. C., se vio obligado a atacar Tiro , que capturó después de un asedio largo y difícil . [77] [78] Los hombres en edad militar fueron masacrados y las mujeres y los niños vendidos como esclavos . [79]
Egipto
Cuando Alejandro destruyó Tiro, la mayoría de las ciudades en la ruta a Egipto capitularon rápidamente. Sin embargo, Alejandro encontró resistencia en Gaza . La fortaleza estaba fuertemente fortificada y construida sobre una colina, lo que requería un asedio. Cuando "sus ingenieros le señalaron que por la altura del montículo sería imposible ... esto animó aún más a Alejandro a hacer el intento". [80] Después de tres asaltos fallidos, la fortaleza cayó, pero no antes de que Alejandro hubiera recibido una herida grave en el hombro. Como en Tiro, los hombres en edad militar fueron pasados por la espada y las mujeres y los niños fueron vendidos como esclavos. [81]
Alejandro avanzó hacia Egipto a finales del 332 a. C., donde fue considerado un libertador. [82] Fue declarado hijo de la deidad Amón en el Oráculo de Siwa Oasis en el desierto de Libia . [83] De ahora en adelante, Alejandro se refirió a menudo a Zeus-Ammón como su verdadero padre, y después de su muerte, la moneda lo representaba adornado con los Cuernos de Ammón como símbolo de su divinidad. [84] Durante su estancia en Egipto, fundó Alejandría por Egipto , que se convertiría en la próspera capital del Reino Ptolemaico después de su muerte. [85]
Asiria y Babilonia
Dejando Egipto en 331 a. C., Alejandro marchó hacia el este hacia la Asiria aqueménida en la Alta Mesopotamia (ahora norte de Irak ) y derrotó a Darío nuevamente en la Batalla de Gaugamela . [86] Darío volvió a huir del campo y Alejandro lo persiguió hasta Arbela . Gaugamela sería el encuentro definitivo y decisivo entre los dos. [87] Darío huyó por las montañas a Ecbatana (la actual Hamadán ) mientras Alejandro capturaba Babilonia . [88]
Persia
Desde Babilonia, Alejandro fue a Susa , una de las capitales aqueménidas , y capturó su tesoro. [88] Envió la mayor parte de su ejército a la capital ceremonial persa de Persépolis a través del Camino Real Persa . El propio Alejandro llevó tropas seleccionadas en la ruta directa a la ciudad. Luego irrumpió en el paso de las Puertas Persas (en las modernas Montañas Zagros ) que había sido bloqueado por un ejército persa al mando de Ariobarzanes y luego se apresuró a Persépolis antes de que su guarnición pudiera saquear el tesoro. [89]
Al entrar en Persépolis, Alejandro permitió que sus tropas saquearan la ciudad durante varios días. [90] Alejandro se quedó en Persépolis durante cinco meses. [91] Durante su estancia, se produjo un incendio en el palacio oriental de Jerjes I y se extendió al resto de la ciudad. Las posibles causas incluyen un accidente de borrachera o una venganza deliberada por la quema de la Acrópolis de Atenas durante la Segunda Guerra Persa por Jerjes; [92] Plutarco y Diodoro alegan que el compañero de Alejandro, el hetaera Thaïs , instigó y encendió el fuego. Incluso mientras veía arder la ciudad, Alejandro inmediatamente comenzó a lamentar su decisión. [93][94] [95] Plutarco afirma que ordenó a sus hombres que apagaran los incendios, [93] pero que las llamas ya se habían extendido a la mayor parte de la ciudad. [93] Curtius afirma que Alejandro no se arrepintió de su decisión hasta la mañana siguiente. [93] Plutarco cuenta una anécdota en la que Alejandro hace una pausa y habla con una estatua caída de Jerjes como si fuera una persona viva:
¿Debo pasar y dejarte allí tirado por las expediciones que dirigiste contra Grecia, o te coloco de nuevo por tu magnanimidad y tus virtudes en otros aspectos? [96]
Caída del Imperio y Oriente
Alexander luego persiguió a Darius, primero a Media y luego a Partia. [98] El rey persa ya no controlaba su propio destino y fue hecho prisionero por Bessus , su sátrapa y pariente bactriano . [99] Cuando Alejandro se acercó, Bessus hizo que sus hombres apuñalaran fatalmente al Gran Rey y luego se declarara sucesor de Darío como Artajerjes V, antes de retirarse a Asia Central para lanzar una campaña de guerrillas contra Alejandro. [100] Alejandro enterró los restos de Darío junto a sus predecesores aqueménidas en un funeral real. [101] Afirmó que, mientras agonizaba, Darío lo había nombrado sucesor del trono aqueménida. [102]Normalmente se considera que el Imperio aqueménida cayó con Darío. [103]
Alejandro vio a Beso como un usurpador y se dispuso a derrotarlo. Esta campaña, inicialmente contra Bessus, se convirtió en una gran gira por Asia central. Alejandro fundó una serie de nuevas ciudades, todas llamadas Alejandría, incluida la moderna Kandahar en Afganistán, y Alejandría Eschate ("La más lejana") en la actual Tayikistán . La campaña llevó a Alexander a través de Media , Parthia , Aria (oeste de Afganistán), Drangiana , Arachosia (sur y centro de Afganistán), Bactria (norte y centro de Afganistán) y Scythia . [104]
En 329 a. C., Espitamenes , que ocupaba un puesto indefinido en la satrapía de Sogdiana, entregó a Beso a Ptolomeo , uno de los compañeros de confianza de Alejandro, y Beso fue ejecutado. [105] Sin embargo, cuando, en algún momento después, Alejandro estaba en el Jaxartes lidiando con una incursión de un ejército nómada de caballos, Espitamenes levantó Sogdiana en rebelión. Alejandro derrotó personalmente a los escitas en la batalla de Jaxartes e inmediatamente lanzó una campaña contra Espitamenes, derrotándolo en la batalla de Gabai. Después de la derrota, Espitamenes fue asesinado por sus propios hombres, quienes luego pidieron la paz. [106]
Problemas y tramas
Durante este tiempo, Alejandro adoptó algunos elementos de la vestimenta y las costumbres persas en su corte, en particular la costumbre de la proskynesis , ya sea un beso simbólico de la mano o la postración en el suelo, que los persas mostraban a sus superiores sociales. [107] Los griegos consideraban el gesto como el territorio de las deidades y creían que Alejandro tenía la intención de deificarse a sí mismo al exigirlo. Esto le costó las simpatías de muchos de sus compatriotas y finalmente lo abandonó. [108]
Se reveló un complot contra su vida, y uno de sus oficiales, Philotas , fue ejecutado por no alertar a Alejandro. La muerte del hijo requirió la muerte del padre, y así Parmenion , que había sido encargado de custodiar el tesoro en Ecbatana , fue asesinado por orden de Alejandro, para evitar intentos de venganza. Lo más infame es que Alejandro mató personalmente al hombre que le había salvado la vida en Granicus, Clito el Negro , durante un violento altercado de borrachos en Maracanda (hoy en día Samarcanda en Uzbekistán).), en la que Clito acusó a Alejandro de varios errores de juicio y, sobre todo, de haber olvidado las costumbres macedonias en favor de un estilo de vida oriental corrupto. [109]
Más tarde, en la campaña de Asia Central, se reveló un segundo complot contra su vida, instigado por sus propios pajes reales . Su historiador oficial, Calístenes de Olynthus , estuvo implicado en el complot, y en la Anábasis de Alejandro , Arriano afirma que Calístenes y los pajes fueron luego torturados en el potro como castigo, y probablemente murieron poco después. [110] No está claro si Calístenes estuvo realmente involucrado en el complot, ya que antes de su acusación había caído en desgracia al liderar la oposición al intento de introducir proskynesis. [111]
Macedonia en ausencia de Alejandro
Cuando Alejandro partió hacia Asia, dejó a su general Antípater , un experimentado líder militar y político y parte de la "Vieja Guardia" de Felipe II, a cargo de Macedonia. [62] El saqueo de Tebas por Alejandro aseguró que Grecia permaneciera en silencio durante su ausencia. [62] La única excepción fue un llamado a las armas por el rey espartano Agis III en el 331 a. C., a quien Antípatro derrotó y mató en la batalla de Megalópolis . [62] Antípater refirió el castigo de los espartanos a la Liga de Corinto, que luego lo cedió a Alejandro, quien decidió perdonarlos. [112] También hubo una considerable fricción entre Antípatro y Olimpia, y cada uno se quejó con Alejandro del otro.[113]
En general, Grecia disfrutó de un período de paz y prosperidad durante la campaña de Alejandro en Asia. [114] Alejandro devolvió grandes sumas de su conquista, lo que estimuló la economía y aumentó el comercio en todo su imperio. [115] Sin embargo, las constantes demandas de tropas de Alejandro y la migración de macedonios a lo largo de su imperio agotaron la fuerza de Macedonia, debilitándola en gran medida en los años posteriores a Alejandro, y finalmente condujeron a su subyugación por Roma después de la Tercera Guerra de Macedonia (171-168 a. C.) . [17]
Campaña india
Incursiones al subcontinente indio
Después de la muerte de Espitamenes y su matrimonio con Roxana (Raoxshna en Antiguo iraní ) para cimentar las relaciones con sus nuevas satrapías, Alejandro se dirigió al subcontinente indio . Invitó a los jefes de la antigua satrapía de Gandhara (una región que actualmente se extiende a ambos lados del este de Afganistán y el norte de Pakistán ) a que acudieran a él y se sometieran a su autoridad. Omphis (nombre indio Ambhi ), el gobernante de Taxila , cuyo reino se extendía desde el Indo hasta los Hydaspes (Jhelum) , cumplió, pero los jefes de algunos clanes de las colinas, incluidos losLas secciones Aspasioi y Assakenoi de Kambojas (conocidas en los textos indios también como Ashvayanas y Ashvakayanas) se negaron a someterse. [116] Ambhi se apresuró a aliviar a Alejandro de su aprehensión y lo recibió con valiosos regalos, poniéndose a sí mismo y todas sus fuerzas a su disposición. Alejandro no sólo le devolvió a Ambhi su título y los regalos, sino que también le entregó un guardarropa de "túnicas persas, adornos de oro y plata, 30 caballos y 1.000 talentos en oro". Alejandro se animó a dividir sus fuerzas, y Ambhi ayudó a Hefestión y Pérdicas a construir un puente sobre el Indo donde se dobla en Hund , [117]suministró provisiones a sus tropas y recibió al propio Alejandro, ya todo su ejército, en su ciudad capital, Taxila, con todas las demostraciones de amistad y la más generosa hospitalidad.
En el avance posterior del rey macedonio , Taxiles lo acompañó con una fuerza de 5.000 hombres y participó en la batalla del río Hydaspes . Después de esa victoria, Alejandro lo envió en busca de Porus (nombre indio Puru), a quien se le encargó ofrecer condiciones favorables, pero escapó por poco de perder la vida a manos de su antiguo enemigo. Posteriormente, sin embargo, los dos rivales se reconciliaron por mediación personal de Alejandro; y Taxiles, después de haber contribuido con celo al equipo de la flota en el Hydaspes, fue confiado por el rey con el gobierno de todo el territorio entre ese río y el Indo. Se le concedió un considerable ascenso al poder después de la muerte de Felipe., hijo de Machatas; y se le permitió conservar su autoridad a la muerte del propio Alejandro (323 a. C.), así como en la posterior partición de las provincias en Triparadisus , 321 a. C.
En el invierno de 327/326 a. C., Alejandro dirigió personalmente una campaña contra los aspasioi de los valles de Kunar , los guraeanos del valle de Guraeus y los assakenoi de los valles de Swat y Buner . [118] Se produjo una feroz contienda con los Aspasioi en la que Alejandro fue herido en el hombro por un dardo, pero finalmente los Aspasioi perdieron. Alexander luego se enfrentó a Assakenoi, que luchó contra él desde las fortalezas de Massaga, Ora y Aornos . [116]
El fuerte de Massaga se redujo solo después de días de sangrientos combates, en los que Alejandro resultó gravemente herido en el tobillo. Según Curtius , "Alejandro no solo mató a toda la población de Massaga, sino que también redujo sus edificios a escombros". [119] Una matanza similar siguió en Ora. A raíz de Massaga y Ora, numerosos Assakenianos huyeron a la fortaleza de Aornos . Alejandro lo siguió de cerca y capturó el estratégico fortín después de cuatro sangrientos días. [116]
Después de Aornos, Alejandro cruzó el Indo y luchó y ganó una batalla épica contra el rey Porus , que gobernó una región situada entre los hidaspes y los acesinos ( Chenab ), en lo que ahora es el Punjab , en la batalla de los hidaspes en el 326 a. C. [120] Alejandro quedó impresionado por la valentía de Poro y lo convirtió en un aliado. Nombró a Poro sátrapa y añadió al territorio de Poro tierras que antes no poseía, hacia el sureste, hasta la Hifasis ( Beas ). [121] [122] La elección de un local le ayudó a controlar estas tierras tan distantes de Grecia. [123] Alejandro fundó dos ciudades en lados opuestos delRío Hydaspes , nombrando a un Bucephala , en honor a su caballo, que murió en esta época. [124] El otro fue Nicea (Victoria), que se cree que se encuentra en el sitio de la actual Mong, Punjab . [125] Filostrato el Viejo en la vida de Apolonio de Tyana escribe que en el ejército de Poro había un elefante que luchó valientemente contra el ejército de Alejandro y Alejandro se lo dedicó a los Helios. (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).[126]
Revolt of the army
East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east.[127] This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[128]
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.[129]
Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.[130]
Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.[131] Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.[132]
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa.[134][135] As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[136]
After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men.[137] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.[135] Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.[138] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.[139] During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.[139]
Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.[140][141] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning.[140] Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly after Hephaestion.[142]
Death and succession
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32.[143] There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.[144] He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.[145] In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony.[146] Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.[144]
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[147] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,[148] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.[146][149] The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence,[150] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[151] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[149][151] There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.[149]
The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[152] However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander.[153][154][155] In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the Alexander Romance.[156] Veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, Veratrum album offers the most plausible cause.[156][157] Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.[158]
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis.[159] Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.[160] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus.[161][162] Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.[159]
After death
Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.[163][164] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".[165] Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.[166]
While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis.[163][165] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage.[167] The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great[168] has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege. However, the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of Alexander the Great, Hephaestion.[169][170]
Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.[167]
The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331.[171][172] However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death.
Demades likened the Macedonian army, after the death of Alexander, to the blinded Cyclops, due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made.[173][174][175] In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them".[176]
Division of the empire
Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed.[62] Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death.[177] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".[146] Another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard "tôi Kraterôi"—"to Craterus", the general leading his Macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of Macedonia.[178]
Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.[179] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.[146][177]
Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.[180]
Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocs: Ptolemaic Egypt , Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.[181]
Last plans
Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death, which are known as Alexander's "last plans".[183] Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant.[183] Furthermore, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.[62]
According to Diodorus, Alexander's last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:
- Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the Pillars of Hercules, to be used for an invasion of Carthage and the western Mediterranean;[184]
- Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, all costing 1,500 talents, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy[62][184]
- Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities ("synoecisms") and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties"[185][184]
- Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"[62][184]
- Conquest of Arabia[62]
- Circumnavigation of Africa[62]
The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out.[184] Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance.[186]
Character
Generalship
Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered.[61] This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.[187] The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20 ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces.[188] Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle,[91] in the manner of a Macedonian king.[187]
In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000.[189] Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about 3 km (1.86 mi). By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.[190]
At Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through.[190] Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army.[191] At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again.[190]
When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.[191] In India, confronted by Porus's elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.[137]
Physical appearance
Greek biographer Plutarch (c. 45 – c. 120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as:
The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.[192]
The semi-legendary Alexander Romance also suggests that Alexander exhibited heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and the other light.[193]
British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents:
Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.[194]
Historian and Egyptologist Joann Fletcher has said that Alexander had blond hair.[195]
Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image.[196] Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros.[197] Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.[198]
Personality
Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[194] Olympias's influence instilled a sense of destiny in him,[200] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".[201] However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.[50] Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to outdo his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle.[194] While Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[202] he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.[194]
According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature,[203] which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.[194] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate.[204] He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.[205] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.[194] His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general.[203] He had great self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.[206]
Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences.[201][205] However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (timê) and glory (kudos).[207] He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader.[177][203] His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death—only Alexander had the ability to do so.[177]
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.[150] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect.[208] His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world,[150] in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition,[209][210] an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.[211][212]
He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.[150] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[213] a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa.[214] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon.[214] Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably proskynesis, a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform.[107] This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen.[215] However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine.[216] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.[217]
Personal relationships
Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[218][219][220] out of love;[221] and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons.[222][223] He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.[224][225]
Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.[140][194][226] Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander.[140][227] This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.[150][159]
Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times.[228] The Roman era writer Athenaeus says, based on the scholar Dicaearchus, who was Alexander's contemporary, that the king "was quite excessively keen on boys", and that Alexander kissed the eunuch Bagoas in public.[229] This episode is also told by Plutarch, probably based on the same source. None of Alexander's contemporaries, however, are known to have explicitly described Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion as sexual, though the pair was often compared to Achilles and Patroclus, whom classical Greek culture painted as a couple. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles."[230] Some modern historians (e.g., Robin Lane Fox) believe not only that Alexander's youthful relationship with Hephaestion was sexual, but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood, which went against the social norms of at least some Greek cities, such as Athens,[231][232] though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that Macedonia (or at least the Macedonian court) may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults.[233]
Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.[194] However, Ogden calculates that Alexander, who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years, had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age.[234] Two of these pregnancies — Stateira's and Barsine's — are of dubious legitimacy.[235]
According to Diodorus Siculus, Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, "not wishing to offend the Macedonians",[236] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body".[206] Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.[237] Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.[194]
Battle record
| Date | War | Action | Opponent/s | Type | Country (present day) | Rank | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 August 338 BC | Rise of Macedon | Battle of Chaeronea | Thebans, Athenians | Battle | Greece | Prince | Victory |
| 335 BC | Balkan Campaign | Battle of Mount Haemus | Getae, Thracians | Battle | Bulgaria | King | Victory |
| December 335 BC | Balkan Campaign | Siege of Pelium | Illyrians | Siege | Albania | King | Victory |
| December 335 BC | Balkan Campaign | Battle of Thebes | Thebans | Battle | Greece | King | Victory |
| May 334 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of the Granicus | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Turkey | King | Victory |
| 334 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Miletus | Achaemenid Empire, Milesians | Siege | Turkey | King | Victory |
| 334 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Halicarnassus | Achaemenid Empire | Siege | Turkey | King | Victory |
| 5 November 333 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of Issus | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Turkey | King | Victory |
| January–July 332 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Tyre | Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians | Siege | Lebanon | King | Victory |
| October 332 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Gaza | Achaemenid Empire | Siege | Palestine | King | Victory |
| 1 October 331 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of Gaugamela | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Iraq | King | Victory |
| December 331 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of the Uxian Defile | Uxians | Battle | Iran | King | Victory |
| 20 January 330 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of the Persian Gate | Achaemenid Empire | Battle | Iran | King | Victory |
| 329 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of Cyropolis | Sogdians | Siege | Turkmenistan | King | Victory |
| October 329 BC | Persian Campaign | Battle of Jaxartes | Scythians | Battle | Uzbekistan | King | Victory |
| 327 BC | Persian Campaign | Siege of the Sogdian Rock | Sogdians | Siege | Uzbekistan | King | Victory |
| May 327 – March 326 BC | Indian Campaign | Cophen Campaign | Aspasians | Expedition | Afghanistan and Pakistan | King | Victory |
| April 326 BC | Indian Campaign | Siege of Aornos | Aśvaka | Siege | Pakistan | King | Victory |
| May 326 BC | Indian Campaign | Battle of the Hydaspes | Paurava | Battle | Pakistan | King | Victory |
| November 326 – February 325 BC | Indian Campaign | Siege of Multan | Malli | Siege | Pakistan | King | Victory |
Legacy
Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence.[17] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.[17]
Hellenistic kingdoms
Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[239] and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.[240]
The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.[177] However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.[241]
Founding of cities
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris.[108][242] The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.[108] The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons.[108] Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece.[108][242] However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.[108]
Funding of temples
In 334 BC, Alexander the Great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene, in modern-day western Turkey.[244][245] An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias."[243] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life.[243] The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.[243][244][245][246]
Libanius wrote that Alexander founded the temple of Zeus Bottiaios (Ancient Greek: Βοττιαίου Δῖός), in the place where later the city of Antioch was built.[247][248]
Hellenization
Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.[240] That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch[249] and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).[250] Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.[251]
The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.[252] The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine", or "common" Greek dialect.[253] Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek.[253] Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language.[249] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[254]
Hellenization in South and Central Asia
Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India.[255] On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara (a region spanning the upper confluence of the Indus, Swat and Kabul rivers in modern Pakistan) of the ~3rd century BC to the ~5th century AD are most evident of the direct contact between Hellenistic civilization and South Asia, as are the Edicts of Ashoka, which directly mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as converting to Buddhism and the reception of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the Hellenistic world.[256] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[257] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism).
Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style.[255] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[258] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practised by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[255] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west.[259] For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan,[260] while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower.[259][261][262] The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC.[263] The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals.
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements.[264] Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.[264] Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.[264] The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla.[264] The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes.[265]
On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values.[266] Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as amicita (friendship) and clementia (clemency), but also iracundia (anger) and cupiditas gloriae (over-desire for glory).[266]
Emperor Julian in his satire called "The Caesars", describes a contest between the previous Roman emperors, with Alexander the Great called in as an extra contestant, in the presence of the assembled gods.[267]
The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes Alexander the Great's campaigns. Julius Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC. While there, he encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little.[268][269]
Pompey posed as the "new Alexander" since he was his boyhood hero.[270]
After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni, it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with Alexander the Great.[271][272] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire, Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes, despite the Roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation.[271][272][273] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. The first refers merely to the Roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes, and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole, which were in use until at least the 2nd century AD.[273] As a consequence, the Phalangarii of Legio II Parthica may not have been pikemen, but rather standard battle line troops or possibly Triarii.[273]
Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so far that Caracalla visited Alexandria while preparing for his Persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander. This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria.[272]
In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli.[274][275] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont.[275] Caligula, who could not swim,[276] then proceeded to ride his favourite horse Incitatus across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great.[275] This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".[275]
The diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the later Roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the Byzantine Empire, according to Errington.[277]
Unsuccessful plan to cut a canal through the isthmus
Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (today at the Karaburun area), but he didn't succeed. He also mentions that this was the only unsuccessful project of Alexander.[278] In addition, Pliny the Elder writes about this unsuccessful plan adding that the distance was 12 kilometres (7+1⁄2 mi), and the purpose was to cut a canal through the isthmus, so as to connect the Caystrian and Hermaean bays.[279][280]
Naming of the Icarus island in the Persian Gulf
Arrian wrote that Aristobulus said that the Icarus island (modern Failaka Island) in the Persian Gulf had this name because Alexander ordered the island to be named like this, after the Icarus island in the Aegean Sea.[281][282]
Legend
Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself.[283] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."[284]
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages,[285] containing many dubious stories,[283] and was translated into numerous languages.[286]
In ancient and modern culture
Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.[286]
Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure.[287] The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek ("O Megalexandros") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play.[287] One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain "Is King Alexander alive?" The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.[287]
In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak, meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.[288] In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the Alexander Romance (in Persian: اسکندرنامه Iskandarnamah), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges.[289] Firdausi's Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth.[290] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba.[291] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature.[292] Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.[289]
The figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally "the Two-Horned One") mentioned in the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of Alexander.[289] In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog.[293] He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.[293]
The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God".[289] In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest.[293] His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, "proving" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.[289]
According to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.[294]
In Hindi and Urdu, the name "Sikandar", derived from the Persian name for Alexander, denotes a rising young talent, and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khajli stylized himself as "Sikandar-i-Sani" (the Second Alexander the Great).[295] In medieval India, Turkic and Afghan sovereigns from the Iranian-cultured region of Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander to the Indian subcontinent, resulting in the efflorescence of Sikandernameh (Alexander Romances) written by Indo-Persian poets such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in Mughal-era Persian miniatures.[296] In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry.[297] During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia.[298]
In Greek Anthology there are poems referring to Alexander.[299][300]
Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. In addition to speech works, sculptures and paintings, in modern times Alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works. The song 'Alexander the Great' by the British heavy metal band Iron Maiden is indicative. Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are:
- Sikandar (1941), an Indian production directed by Sohrab Modi about the conquest of India by Alexander[301]
- Alexander the Great (1956), produced by MGM and starring Richard Burton
- Sikandar-e-Azam (1965), an Indian production directed by Kedar Kapoor
- Alexander (2004), directed by Oliver Stone, starring Colin Farrell
There are also many references to other movies and TV series.
Newer novels about Alexander are:
The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by Valerio Massimo Manfredi consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world". The trilogy of Mary Renault consisting of "Fire from Heaven", "The Persian Boy" and "Funeral Games|Funeral Games (novel)".
- The Virtues of War, about Alexander the Great (2004), ISBN 0385500998 and "* The Afghan Campaign, about Alexander the Great's conquests in Afghanistan (2006), ISBN 038551641X" by Steven Pressfield.
Irish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem.
Historiography
Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost.[17] Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century.[17] Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.[17]
See also
- Ancient Macedonian army
- Bucephalus
- Chronology of European exploration of Asia
- Diogenes and Alexander
- Hypotheses about the identity of Dhu al-Qarnayn
- Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great
- List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
- List of people known as The Great
Annotations
- ^ Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe.[302]
- ^ By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[303][304] An approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see Hecataeus world map.
- ^ For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;[305] Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;[306] Pompey consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[307] the young Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander. Napoleon also placed Alexander in the first rank.[308]Caracalla was so obsessed with Alexander that he arranged 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes during his Parthian Invasion. His mania for Alexander went so far that he visited Alexandria while preparing the invasion and persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had poisoned Alexander.[309][310]Caligula wore the breastplate of Alexander in order to show his power.[311][312] Mehmed the Conqueror's heroes were Alexander and Achilles.[313]
- ^ The name Ἀλέξανδρος derives from the Greek verb ἀλέξω (aléxō, lit. 'ward off, avert, defend')[314][315] and ἀνδρ- (andr-), the stem of ἀνήρ (anḗr, lit. 'man'),[316][315] and means "protector of men".[317]
- ^ There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered.[318]
- ^ However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men.
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- ^ a b Green 2007, pp. 5–6
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- ^ Stoneman 2004, p. 21.
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- ^ Arrian 1976, I, 5–6, Renault 2001, p. 77
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- ^ Arrian 1976, I, 11
- ^ Arrian 1976, I, 20–23
- ^ a b Arrian 1976, I, 23
- ^ Arrian 1976, I, 27–28
- ^ Arrian 1976, I, 3
- ^ Green 2007, p. 351
- ^ Arrian 1976, I, 11–12
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- ^ Arrian 1976, II, 16–24
- ^ Gunther 2007, p. 84
- ^ Sabin, van Wees & Whitby 2007, p. 396
- ^ Arrian 1976, II, 26
- ^ Arrian 1976, II, 26–27
- ^ Ring et al. 1994, pp. 49, 320
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No record at all exists of such a woman [ie, Barsine] accompanying his march; nor of any claim by her, or her powerful kin, that she had borne him offspring. Yet twelve years after his death a boy was produced, seventeen years old, born therefore five years after Damascus, her alleged son "brought up in Pergamon"; a claimant and shortlived pawn in the succession wars, chosen probably for a physical resemblance to Alexander. That he actually did marry another Barsine must have helped both to launch and preserve the story; but no source reports any notice whatever taken by him of a child who, Roxane's being posthumous, would have been during his lifetime his only son, by a near-royal mother. In a man who named cities after his horse and dog, this strains credulity.
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- Wood, Michael (2001). In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23192-4.
- Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great: A Reader. Routledge. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-415-29187-3.
- Worthington, Ian (2008). Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12079-0.
- Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons From History's Undefeated General. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61915-9.
Further reading
- Badian, Ernst (1958). "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind". Historia. 7.
- Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek Sculpture and Painting. Cambridge University Press.[ISBN missing]
- Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek Experience. Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
- Boardman, John (2018). Alexander the Great: From His Death to the Present Day – illustrated history of his representations in art and literature[ISBN missing]
- Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English Universities Press.
- Rufus, Quintus Curtius. "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great" (in Latin). U Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
- Cartledge, Paul (2004). "Alexander the Great". Overlook.
- Doherty, Paul (2004). "The Death of Alexander the Great". Carroll & Graf.
- Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). How To Lose A Battle: Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-076024-3.
- Fuller, JFC (1958). The Generalship of Alexander the Great. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. ISBN 978-0-306-80371-0.
- Green, Peter (1992). Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 BC. A Historical Biography. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07166-7.
- Greene, Robert (2000). The 48 Laws of Power. Penguin. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-14-028019-7.
- Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814883-8.
- Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.). London: Bristol Classical Press.
- Hammond, NGL (1997). The Genius of Alexander the Great. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
- Lane Fox, Robin (1973). Alexander the Great. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-14-008878-4., also (1974) New York: E. P. Dutton and (1986) London: Penguin Books.
- Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc.
- McCrindle, J. W. (1893). The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin. Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co.
- Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill, Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-880393-35-2.
- Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 978-81-7276-301-5.
- O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge.
- Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J (1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9.
- Prevas, John (2004). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia (3 ed.). Da Capo.
- Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in European Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath.
- Savill, Agnes (1959). Alexander the Great and His Time (3 ed.). London: Barrie & Rockliff.
- Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Culture and Society. 11. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11203-0.
- Tarn, WW (1948). Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900). Alexander the Great; the merging of East and West in universal history. New York: GP Putnam's sons.
- Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932]. Alexander the Great. New York: WW Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00381-9.
- Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Resources from Wikiversity
| Library resources about Alexander the Great |
|
- Alexander the Great (king of Macedonia) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Delamarche, Félix (1833), The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great.
- Romm, James; Cartledge, Paul, "Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great", Forbes (conversations) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6.
- Alexander the Great at Curlie
- Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources, Livius.
- The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great, Archæology.
- Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes, Sherlockian Sherlock.
- In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.
Alexander the Great Argead dynasty Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC | ||
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| Preceded by Philip II | King of Macedon 336–323 BC | Succeeded by Philip III and Alexander IV |
| Preceded by Darius III | Great King (Shah) of Persia 330–323 BC | |
| Pharaoh of Egypt 332–323 BC | ||
| New creation | Lord of Asia 331–323 BC | |
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