Un jefe de estado (o jefe de estado ) es la persona pública que encarna oficialmente a un estado [1] en su unidad y legitimidad. Dependiendo de la forma de gobierno del país y la separación de poderes , el jefe de estado puede ser un testaferro ceremonial (como el monarca británico ) o al mismo tiempo el jefe de gobierno y más (como el presidente de los Estados Unidos , que también es el comandante). -en jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas de Estados Unidos ).
En un sistema parlamentario , como el Reino Unido o la India , el jefe de estado generalmente tiene poderes principalmente ceremoniales, con un jefe de gobierno separado. [2] Sin embargo, en algunos sistemas parlamentarios, como Sudáfrica , hay un presidente ejecutivo que es tanto jefe de estado como jefe de gobierno. Asimismo, en algunos sistemas parlamentarios el jefe de estado no es el jefe de gobierno, pero todavía tiene poderes importantes, por ejemplo, Marruecos . Por el contrario, un sistema semipresidencialista , como Francia , tiene tanto jefes de estado como de gobierno como líderes de facto de la nación (en la práctica, dividen el liderazgo de la nación entre ellos). Mientras tanto, en los sistemas presidenciales , el jefe de estado también es el jefe de gobierno. [1]
El ex presidente francés Charles de Gaulle , mientras desarrollaba la actual Constitución de Francia (1958), dijo que el jefe de estado debería encarnar l'esprit de la nation ("el espíritu de la nación"). [3]
Modelos constitucionales
Algunos escritores académicos discuten a los estados y gobiernos en términos de "modelos". [4] [5] [6] [7]
Un estado nación independiente normalmente tiene un jefe de estado y determina el alcance de los poderes ejecutivos del gobierno o las funciones formales de representación de su jefe. [8] En términos de protocolo : el jefe de un estado soberano e independiente generalmente se identifica como la persona que, de acuerdo con la constitución de ese estado, es el monarca reinante , en el caso de una monarquía ; o el presidente, en el caso de una república .
Entre las constituciones estatales (leyes fundamentales) que establecen diferentes sistemas políticos, se pueden distinguir cuatro tipos principales de jefes de estado:
- El sistema parlamentario , con dos subconjuntos de modelos;
- El modelo estándar , en el que el jefe de estado, en teoría, posee poderes ejecutivos clave, pero dicho poder se ejerce con el asesoramiento vinculante de un jefe de gobierno (por ejemplo, Reino Unido , India , Alemania ).
- El modelo no ejecutivo , en el que el jefe de estado no tiene poderes ejecutivos o los tiene muy limitados, y tiene principalmente un papel ceremonial y simbólico (por ejemplo , Suecia , Japón , Israel ).
- El sistema semipresidencial , en el que el jefe de estado comparte poderes ejecutivos clave con un jefe de gobierno o gabinete (por ejemplo , Rusia , Francia , Sri Lanka ); y
- El sistema presidencial , en el que el jefe de estado es también el jefe de gobierno y tiene todos los poderes ejecutivos (por ejemplo, Estados Unidos , Indonesia , Corea del Sur ).
En un territorio constituyente federal o dependiente, el mismo rol lo cumple el titular de un cargo correspondiente al de jefe de Estado. Por ejemplo, en cada provincia canadiense el papel lo desempeña el vicegobernador , mientras que en la mayoría de los territorios británicos de ultramar los poderes y deberes los desempeña el gobernador . Lo mismo se aplica a los estados australianos , indios , etc. El documento constitucional de Hong Kong , la Ley Básica , por ejemplo, especifica al director ejecutivo como el jefe de la región administrativa especial, además de su función como jefe de gobierno. Sin embargo, estos jefes de estados no soberanos tienen un papel limitado o nulo en los asuntos diplomáticos, según el estatus y las normas y prácticas de los territorios en cuestión.
Sistema parlamentario
Modelo estandar
En los sistemas parlamentarios, el jefe de estado puede ser simplemente el director ejecutivo nominal , encabezar la rama ejecutiva del estado y poseer un poder ejecutivo limitado. En realidad, sin embargo, siguiendo un proceso de evolución constitucional, los poderes generalmente solo se ejercen bajo la dirección de un gabinete , presidido por un jefe de gobierno que responde ante la legislatura. Esta responsabilidad y legitimidad requiere que se elija a alguien que tenga un apoyo mayoritario en la legislatura (o, al menos, no una oposición mayoritaria, una diferencia sutil pero importante). También le da a la legislatura el derecho de votar en contra del jefe de gobierno y su gabinete, obligándolo a renunciar o buscar una disolución parlamentaria. Por lo tanto, se dice que el poder ejecutivo es responsable (o responde) ante el legislativo, y el jefe de gobierno y el gabinete a su vez aceptan la responsabilidad constitucional de ofrecer asesoramiento constitucional al jefe de estado.
En las monarquías constitucionales parlamentarias , la legitimidad del jefe de estado no electo se deriva típicamente de la aprobación tácita del pueblo a través de los representantes electos. En consecuencia, en el momento de la Revolución Gloriosa , el parlamento inglés actuó por su propia autoridad para nombrar un nuevo rey y una reina (los monarcas conjuntos María II y Guillermo III ); asimismo, la abdicación de Eduardo VIII requirió la aprobación de cada uno de los seis reinos independientes de los que era monarca. En las monarquías con una constitución escrita, el cargo de monarca es una criatura de la constitución y podría ser abolido con bastante propiedad mediante un procedimiento democrático de enmienda constitucional, aunque a menudo se imponen importantes obstáculos procesales a dicho procedimiento (como en la Constitución de España). ).
En las repúblicas con un sistema parlamentario (como India, Alemania, Austria, Italia e Israel), el jefe de estado generalmente se titula presidente y las funciones principales de dichos presidentes son principalmente ceremoniales y simbólicas, a diferencia de los presidentes en un presidente o presidente. sistema semipresidencial.
En realidad, existen numerosas variantes de la posición de un jefe de estado dentro de un sistema parlamentario. Cuanto más antigua es la constitución, más margen constitucional tiende a existir para que un jefe de estado ejerza mayores poderes sobre el gobierno, ya que muchas constituciones de sistemas parlamentarios más antiguos otorgan a los jefes de estado poderes y funciones similares a los sistemas presidenciales o semipresidenciales, en algunos casos. casos sin hacer referencia a los principios democráticos modernos de rendición de cuentas al parlamento o incluso a las oficinas gubernamentales modernas. Por lo general, el rey tenía el poder de declarar la guerra sin el consentimiento previo del parlamento.
Por ejemplo, según la constitución del Reino de Italia de 1848 , el Statuto Albertino —la aprobación parlamentaria del gobierno designado por el rey— era habitual, pero no exigido por la ley. Entonces, Italia tenía de facto
sistema parlamentario, pero de jure "Sistema presidencial.Ejemplos de jefes de estado en los sistemas parlamentarios que utilizan mayores poderes de lo habitual, ya sea debido a constituciones ambiguas o emergencias nacionales sin precedentes, incluyen la decisión del rey Leopoldo III de los belgas de rendirse en nombre de su estado al ejército alemán invasor en 1940, contra la voluntad de su gobierno. Al juzgar que su responsabilidad con la nación en virtud de su juramento de coronación requería que actuara, creía que la decisión de su gobierno de luchar en lugar de rendirse era errónea y dañaría a Bélgica. (Decisión de Leopold resultó muy controvertida. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , Bélgica votó en un referéndum que le permita reanudar sus poderes y deberes monárquicos, pero debido a la controversia en curso que en última instancia, abdicó.) La crisis constitucional belga en 1990, cuando el jefe de El estado se negó a convertir en ley un proyecto de ley que permitía el aborto, fue resuelto por el gabinete asumiendo el poder de promulgar la ley mientras se le trataba como "incapaz de reinar" durante veinticuatro horas. [9] [10]
Modelo no ejecutivo
Estos funcionarios están completamente excluidos del ejecutivo: ni siquiera poseen poderes ejecutivos teóricos ni ningún rol, ni siquiera formal, dentro del gobierno. Por lo tanto, los gobiernos de sus estados no son referidos por el modelo parlamentario tradicional de los estilos de jefe de estado del gobierno de Su / Su Majestad o el Gobierno de Su / Su Excelencia . Dentro de esta categoría general, pueden existir variantes en términos de poderes y funciones.
La Constitución de Japón (日本国 憲法, Nihonkoku-Kenpō ) fue redactada bajo la ocupación aliada que siguió a la Segunda Guerra Mundial y estaba destinada a reemplazar el anterior sistema de monarquía militarista y cuasi absoluto por una forma de sistema parlamentario de democracia liberal . La constitución confiere explícitamente todo el poder ejecutivo al Gabinete , que está presidido por el primer ministro (artículos 65 y 66) y es responsable ante la Dieta (artículos 67 y 69). El emperador se define en la constitución como "el símbolo del Estado y de la unidad del pueblo" (artículo 1), y es generalmente reconocido en todo el mundo como el jefe de estado japonés. Aunque el emperador nombra formalmente al primer ministro en el cargo, el artículo 6 de la constitución le exige que designe al candidato "según lo designado por la Dieta", sin ningún derecho a declinar el nombramiento. Es un testaferro ceremonial sin poderes discrecionales independientes relacionados con el gobierno de Japón. [11] [12] [13]
Desde la aprobación en Suecia del Instrumento de Gobierno de 1974 , el monarca sueco ya no tiene muchas de las funciones de jefe de estado del sistema parlamentario estándar que antes le habían pertenecido, como fue el caso en el anterior Instrumento de Gobierno de 1809 . Hoy, el presidente del Riksdag nombra (tras una votación en el Riksdag ) al primer ministro y pone fin a su comisión tras un voto de censura o dimisión voluntaria. Los miembros del gabinete son nombrados y destituidos a discreción exclusiva del primer ministro. Las leyes y ordenanzas son promulgadas por dos miembros del gabinete al unísono que firman "En nombre del gobierno" y el gobierno, no el monarca, es la principal parte contratante con respecto a los tratados internacionales. Las funciones oficiales restantes del soberano, por mandato constitucional o por convención no escrita, son abrir la sesión anual del Riksdag, recibir a los embajadores extranjeros y firmar las cartas credenciales de los embajadores suecos, presidir el comité asesor extranjero, presidir el gabinete especial consejo cuando un nuevo primer ministro asume el cargo, y el primer ministro lo mantendrá informado sobre asuntos de estado. [14] [15]
Por el contrario, el único contacto que tiene el presidente de Irlanda con el gobierno irlandés es a través de una sesión informativa formal dada por el taoiseach (jefe de gobierno) al presidente. Sin embargo, él o ella no tiene acceso a la documentación y todo acceso a los ministros pasa por el Departamento del Taoiseach . Sin embargo, el presidente tiene poderes de reserva limitados , como remitir un proyecto de ley a la Corte Suprema para probar su constitucionalidad, que se utilizan bajo la discreción del presidente. [dieciséis]
El jefe de estado republicano no ejecutivo más extremo es el presidente de Israel , que no tiene ningún poder de reserva [ cita requerida ] . Los poderes menos ceremoniales que tiene el presidente son nombrar al primer ministro , aprobar la disolución del Knesset hecha por el primer ministro y perdonar a los criminales o conmutar su sentencia.
Modelo ejecutivo
Algunas repúblicas parlamentarias (como Sudáfrica , Botswana y Myanmar ) han fusionado los roles del jefe de estado con el jefe de gobierno (como en un sistema presidencial), mientras que el único funcionario ejecutivo, a menudo llamado presidente, depende de la La confianza del Parlamento para gobernar (como en un sistema parlamentario). Si bien también es el símbolo principal de la nación, el presidente en este sistema actúa principalmente como primer ministro, ya que el titular debe ser miembro de la legislatura en el momento de la elección, responder a las sesiones de preguntas en el Parlamento, evitar mociones de censura, etc.
Sistemas semipresidenciales
Los sistemas semipresidenciales combinan características de los sistemas presidencial y parlamentario, en particular (en el subtipo presidente-parlamentario) el requisito de que el gobierno responda tanto al presidente como a la legislatura. La constitución de la Quinta República Francesa prevé un primer ministro que es elegido por el presidente, pero que, no obstante, debe poder obtener apoyo en la Asamblea Nacional . Si un presidente es de un lado del espectro político y la oposición tiene el control de la legislatura, el presidente generalmente está obligado a seleccionar a alguien de la oposición para que se convierta en primer ministro, un proceso conocido como Cohabitación . El presidente François Mitterrand , socialista, por ejemplo, se vio obligado a convivir con el neogaullista (de derecha) Jacques Chirac , quien se convirtió en su primer ministro de 1986 a 1988. En el sistema francés, en caso de convivencia, el presidente es a menudo se le permite establecer la agenda política en seguridad y asuntos exteriores y el primer ministro maneja la agenda doméstica y económica.
Otros países evolucionan hacia algo parecido a un sistema semipresidencial o, de hecho, a un sistema presidencial completo. La Alemania de Weimar , por ejemplo, en su constitución preveía un presidente elegido popularmente con poderes ejecutivos teóricamente dominantes que estaban destinados a ser ejercidos solo en emergencias, y un gabinete designado por él del Reichstag , que se esperaba, en circunstancias normales, que fuera responsable ante el Reichstag. Inicialmente, el presidente era simplemente una figura simbólica con el Reichstag dominante; sin embargo, la persistente inestabilidad política, en la que los gobiernos a menudo duraban solo unos pocos meses, llevó a un cambio en la estructura de poder de la república, y los poderes de emergencia del presidente se pusieron cada vez más en uso para apuntalar gobiernos desafiados por votos críticos o incluso hostiles del Reichstag. Para 1932, el poder se había desplazado a tal punto que el presidente alemán, Paul von Hindenburg , pudo despedir a un canciller y seleccionar a su propia persona para el puesto, aunque el canciller saliente poseía la confianza del Reichstag mientras que el nuevo canciller sí. no. Posteriormente, el presidente von Hindenburg usó su poder para nombrar a Adolf Hitler como canciller sin consultar al Reichstag.
Sistema presidencial
Nota: Es posible que el jefe de estado en un sistema "presidencial" no tenga el título de " presidente "; el nombre del sistema se refiere a cualquier jefe de estado que gobierne y no dependa directamente de la legislatura para permanecer en el cargo.
Algunas constituciones o leyes fundamentales prevén un jefe de estado que no solo es en teoría sino en la práctica el presidente ejecutivo, que opera de forma separada e independiente de la legislatura. Este sistema se conoce como "sistema presidencial" y, en ocasiones, se denomina "modelo imperial", porque los funcionarios ejecutivos del gobierno responden única y exclusivamente a un jefe de Estado en funciones que preside, y en ocasiones son seleccionados y destituidos por el mismo. jefe de estado sin referencia a la legislatura. Es notable que algunos sistemas presidenciales, si bien no prevén la responsabilidad ejecutiva colectiva ante la legislatura, pueden requerir la aprobación legislativa de las personas antes de que asuman el cargo de gabinete y facultar a la legislatura para destituir a un presidente de su cargo (por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos). de América ). En este caso el debate se centra en ratificarlos en el cargo, no en destituirlos, y no involucra la facultad de rechazar o aprobar en bloque a los miembros del gabinete propuestos , por lo que la rendición de cuentas no opera en el mismo sentido entendido como sistema parlamentario.
Los sistemas presidenciales son una característica notable de las constituciones de las Américas , incluidas las de Argentina , Brasil , Colombia , El Salvador , México y Venezuela ; esto generalmente se atribuye a la fuerte influencia de Estados Unidos en la región, y como la Constitución de los Estados Unidos sirvió de inspiración y modelo para las guerras de independencia latinoamericanas de principios del siglo XIX. La mayoría de los presidentes de estos países se seleccionan por medios democráticos (elección popular directa o indirecta); sin embargo, como todos los demás sistemas, el modelo presidencial también abarca a personas que se convierten en jefes de estado por otros medios, en particular a través de una dictadura militar o un golpe de estado , como se ve a menudo en América Latina , Medio Oriente y otros regímenes presidenciales. Algunas de las características de un sistema presidencial, como una figura política dominante fuerte con un ejecutivo que responde ante ellas, no la legislatura, también se pueden encontrar entre las monarquías absolutas , las monarquías parlamentarias y los regímenes de partido único (por ejemplo, comunistas ), pero en la mayoría de los casos de dictadura, sus modelos constitucionales declarados se aplican sólo de nombre y no en la teoría o la práctica políticas.
En la década de 1870 en los Estados Unidos, a raíz del juicio político del presidente Andrew Johnson y su casi destitución del cargo, se especuló que los Estados Unidos también pasarían de un sistema presidencial a uno semipresidencial o incluso parlamentario. uno, con el presidente de la Cámara de Representantes convirtiéndose en el verdadero centro del gobierno como un cuasi primer ministro. [ cita requerida ] Esto no sucedió y la presidencia, habiendo sido dañada por tres asesinatos de finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX ( Lincoln , Garfield y McKinley ) y un juicio político (Johnson), reafirmó su dominio político a principios del siglo XX a través de tales figuras como Theodore Roosevelt y Woodrow Wilson .
Estados de partido único
En ciertos estados bajo constituciones marxistas del tipo constitucionalmente socialista inspirado en la antigua Unión de Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas (URSS) y sus repúblicas soviéticas constitutivas , el poder político real pertenecía al único partido legal. En estos estados, no había un cargo formal de jefe de estado, sino que se consideraba que el líder del poder legislativo era el equivalente común más cercano de un jefe de estado como persona física . En la Unión Soviética, este puesto llevaba títulos como Presidente del Comité Ejecutivo Central de la URSS ; Presidente del Presidium del Soviet Supremo ; y en el caso de la Rusia soviética, presidente del Comité Ejecutivo Central del Congreso de los Soviets de toda Rusia (antes de 1922) y presidente del Buró del Comité Central de la RSFS de Rusia (1956-1966). Esta posición puede haber sido ocupada o no por el líder soviético de facto en este momento. Por ejemplo, Nikita Khrushchev nunca dirigió el Soviet Supremo, pero fue primer secretario del Comité Central del Partido Comunista (líder del partido) y presidente del Consejo de Ministros ( jefe de gobierno ).
Esto incluso puede conducir a una variabilidad institucional, como en Corea del Norte , donde, después de la presidencia del líder del partido, Kim Il-sung , el cargo estuvo vacante durante años. Al difunto presidente se le otorgó el título póstumo (similar a algunas tradiciones antiguas del Lejano Oriente para dar nombres y títulos póstumos a la realeza) de " Presidente Eterno " . Todo el poder sustantivo, como líder del partido, no creado formalmente durante cuatro años, fue heredado por su hijo Kim Jong-il . El cargo de presidente fue reemplazado formalmente el 5 de septiembre de 1998, con fines ceremoniales, por el cargo de presidente del Presidium de la Asamblea Popular Suprema , mientras que el cargo del líder del partido como presidente de la Comisión de Defensa Nacional fue declarado simultáneamente "el cargo más alto de el estado ", no muy diferente de Deng Xiaoping anteriormente en la República Popular de China .
En China , según la constitución del país actual , el presidente chino es una oficina en gran parte ceremonial con poder limitado. [18] [19] Sin embargo, desde 1993, como una cuestión de convención, la presidencia ha sido ocupada simultáneamente por el Secretario General del Partido Comunista de China , [20] el máximo líder en el sistema de partido único . [21] La presidencia se considera oficialmente como una institución del estado más que como un puesto administrativo; teóricamente, el presidente sirve a la voluntad del Congreso Nacional del Pueblo , la legislatura, y no está legalmente habilitado para tomar medidas ejecutivas por su propia prerrogativa. [nota 1]
Complicaciones con la categorización
Si bien existen categorías claras, a veces es difícil elegir a qué categoría pertenecen algunos jefes de estado individuales. En realidad, la categoría a la que pertenece cada jefe de Estado no se evalúa por la teoría sino por la práctica.
El cambio constitucional en Liechtenstein en 2003 otorgó a su jefe de estado, el príncipe reinante , poderes constitucionales que incluían un veto sobre la legislación y el poder de destituir al jefe de gobierno y al gabinete. [22] Se podría argumentar que el fortalecimiento de los poderes del Príncipe, frente al Landtag (legislatura), ha movido a Liechtenstein a la categoría semipresidencial. Del mismo modo los poderes originales dadas al presidente griego, bajo el 1974 República Helénica constitución trasladaron Grecia más cerca del modelo semipresidencial francés.
Existe otra complicación con Sudáfrica , en la que el presidente es de hecho elegido por la Asamblea Nacional ( legislatura ) y, por lo tanto, es similar, en principio, a un jefe de gobierno en un sistema parlamentario, pero también, además, es reconocido como jefe. de Estado. [23] Las oficinas de presidente de Nauru y presidente de Botswana son similares a este respecto a la presidencia de Sudáfrica. [11] [24] [25]
Panamá , durante las dictaduras militares de Omar Torrijos y Manuel Noriega , fue nominalmente una república presidencial. Sin embargo, los presidentes civiles electos fueron efectivamente testaferros con el poder político real ejercido por el jefe de las Fuerzas de Defensa de Panamá .
Históricamente, en la época de la Sociedad de Naciones (1920-1946) y la fundación de las Naciones Unidas (1945), el jefe de estado de la India era el monarca del Reino Unido, gobernando directa o indirectamente como Emperador de la India a través del Virrey y Gobernador general de la India .
Roles
Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.
Symbolic role
One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians".[26][27]
In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.
Other common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.
Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.
At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.
The Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.[28]
As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant.
For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.
Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:
- The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws.[29]
- Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:
- (1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.
- (2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand.[30]
- Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:
- The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.[12]
- Example 4 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:
- The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.[31]
- Example 5 (parliamentary republic): Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:
- The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.[32]
- Example 6 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:
- The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[33]
- Example 7 (presidential republic): Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:
- (1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states.
- (2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution.[34]
- Example 8 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:
- The President of the Republic shall be Head of State.
- He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws.[35]
- Example 9 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:
- 1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State.
- 2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms. In accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[36]
- Example 10 (presidential republic): Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:
- The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of "President of the Argentine Nation".[37]
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:
Executive role
In the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:
- Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.[38]
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:
- Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:
- The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.[39]
- Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:
- The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.[40]
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:
- Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:
- The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.[41]
- Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:
- Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:
- The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.[36]
- Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:
- Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:
- The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.[42]
- Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:
- Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:
- The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.[43]
- Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:
The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.[12][14]
Appointment of senior officials
The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.
In practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.
In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.[43]
The head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[16] In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority.[44] In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:
- The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.
The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.[45]
- The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:
- Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:
- The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.[16]
- Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:
- Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:
- The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.[34]
- Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:
- Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:
- The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:
- I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State:
- XIII -...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them;
- XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law;
- XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts;
- XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union;
- XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII
- XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law. [42]
- The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:
- Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:
Some countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.[14]
Diplomatic role
Although many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognised as such by other countries.[11][46] In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.[11][47][48] The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.[49][46] The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) his or her country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.[50] Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2017) 191 sovereign states has ratified.[46][51]
However, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).[46]
The head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature. The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.[52][53][54] However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g., between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.[52]
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:
- 1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.
- 2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.[22]
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:
- Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:
- The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys.. [55]
- Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:
- Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.[44]
- Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:
- The President of the Russian Federation:
- a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;
- b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;
- c) shall sign instruments of ratification;
- d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.[36]
- The President of the Russian Federation:
- Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:
- Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:
- The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.[56]
- Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:
In Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the royal prerogative,[57][58][59][60] but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.[60][61]
Military role
A head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.
In a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military manoeuvres is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.
In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:
- The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen.[62]
- Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:
- The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting.
- The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.[63]
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:
- The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy.
- Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees.[44]
- Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:
- The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.[36]
- Example 6 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:
- The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.[43]
- Example 7 (executive monarchy): Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:
- The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. He shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.[64]
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:
Some countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers.
- In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peacetime (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the federal chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.[55]
- In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the minister of defence on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the minister is the chief of general staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.[65]
The armed forces of the Communist states are under the absolute control of the Communist party.
- In China, the command-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army is the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but not the President of China, however, in practice, these offices are held by the same person, who is also General Secretary of the Communist Party of China.
Legislative roles
It is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America, or the State of the Nation Address in South Africa.
Most countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure royal assent.
- Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:
- The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.[66]
- Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:
- Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:
- Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.[22]
- Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:
- The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.[67]
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:
- Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:
- The President of the Russian Federation:
- a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;
- c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;
- d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;
- e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;
- f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.[36]
- The President of the Russian Federation:
- Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:
- Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:
- Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated... [43]
- Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:
- Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:
- The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:
- III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;
- IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;
- V - veto bills, wholly or in part;
- XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary;
- XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution;
- XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session. [42]
- The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to:
- Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:
- Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:
- 1. Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.
- 2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.
- 3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[64]
- Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:
In some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.
If he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.
Summoning and dissolving the legislature
A head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g., Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution[43]). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.
- Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:
- The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.[16]
- Example 2 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.[44]
- Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:
- The President of the Russian Federation:
- b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;[36]
- The President of the Russian Federation:
- Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:
Other prerogatives
Granting titles and honours
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:
- The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.[45]
- Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:
- The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honourably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.
No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.[63]
- The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honourably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:
- The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.[31]
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:
Immunity
- Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:
- The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State.[14]
- Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:
- The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council.[63]
- Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:
- (1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offence or other administrative delict.
- (2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.
- (3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offences committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever.[68]
- Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:
- 1. The President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions.
- 2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office.
- 3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election.
- 4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended.[33]
- Example 5 (executive monarchy): Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:
- The Emir is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.[64]
- Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:
Reserve powers
- Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.
He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.
The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties. The Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.
Parliament shall sit as of right.
The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.
After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.[44]
- Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.
- Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:
- Article 69
- The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.
- Article 70
- The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.[64]
- Article 69
- Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:
Right of pardon
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:
- The King can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament.[38]
- Example 2 (parliamentary republic): According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:
- He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation.[55]
- Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:
- The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons.[44]
- Example 4 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:
- ...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.[43]
- Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic): Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:
- The President may-
- (a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;
- (b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;
- (c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or
- (d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.[25]
- The President may-
- Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:
Título oficial
In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or had had other titles.[11][47] Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g., Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.
Though president and various monarchical titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning leader in the national language, e.g., Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the Führer between 1934 and 1945.
In 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means "head of state" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first president.
In 1959 after the resignation of Vice President Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; "panglima" meaning "commander or martial figurehead", "tertinggi" meaning "highest"; roughly translated to English as "Supreme Commander of the Revolution"). He was praised as "Paduka Yang Mulia", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.
There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was State Chairman (Chinese President), no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the President of the People's Republic of China. Although the presidency is a largely ceremonial office with limited power, the symbolic role of a Head of State is now generally performed by Xi Jinping, who is also General Secretary of the Communist Party (Communist Party leader) and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (Supreme Military Command), making him the most powerful person in China.
In North Korea, the late Kim Il-sung was named "Eternal President" 4 years after his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the president are constitutionally delegated to the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by Kim Jong-un, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.
There is debate as to whether Samoa was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.
In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (until his overthrow in 2011 referred to as "Guide of the Revolution"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya ("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both were his creatures.
Sometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first president, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as chef d'état - (French 'head of state') until 5 May 1960. In Uganda, Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled military head of state till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) president.
In certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g., the title Sadr-i-Riyasat was used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and the Palestine Liberation Organization leader, Yasser Arafat, was styled the first "President of the Palestinian National Authority" in 1994. In 2008, the same office was restyled as "President of the State of Palestine".[69]
Perspectivas históricas europeas
- The polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanised regions throughout the world in the Maya civilisation, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate.
- Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but "reigned" as sovereign dukes.
- The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine "republican" and "monarchic" characteristics.
- The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning "lieutenant" or "governor", originally for the Habsburg monarchs.
In medieval Europe, it was universally accepted that the Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the Holy Roman Emperor.[70] The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.[70][71] This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the Congress of Westphalia.[70] Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the Quadruple Alliance in 1718.[70][note 2] However, it was not until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.[73] On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the lingua franca of diplomacy) or by date of accession.[73] Contemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).[74]
Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's The Prince
Bodin named on title page of Discorsi politici (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle
Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)
Niccolò Machiavelli used Prince (Italian: Principe) as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage of head of state, in his classical treatise The Prince, originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is known as Mirrors for princes. Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan (1651) used the term Sovereign. In Europe the role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign ruler—in the sense of Divine Right of Kings as articulated by Jean Bodin, Absolutism and the "L'etat c'est moi"—to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution of sovereignty from merely the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian sovereignty (Peace of Westphalia ending both the Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War) and popular sovereignty as in consent of the governed; as shown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England & Scotland, the French Revolution in 1789, and the German Revolution of 1918–1919. The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations.
Casos provisionales y excepcionales
Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the vice-president acts when the president is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the queen's powers may be delegated to counselors of state when she is abroad or unavailable. Neither of the two co-princes of Andorra is resident in Andorra; each is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.
There are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.
In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favour of an emergency office (such as the original Roman dictator) or eliminated by a new "provisionary" regime, such as a collective of the junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost).[citation needed]
In early modern Europe, a single person was often monarch simultaneously of separate states. A composite monarchy is a retrospective label for those cases where the states were governed entirely separately. Of contemporary terms, a personal union had less government co-ordination than a real union. One of the two co-princes of Andorra is the president of France.
Commonwealth realms
The Commonwealth realms share a monarch, currently Elizabeth II. In the realms other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor general in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, usually on the advice of the relevant prime minister (although sometimes it is based on the result of a vote in the relevant parliament, which is the case for Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands), as a representative and to exercise almost all the Royal Prerogative according to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her "representatives".[75] However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand,[30] Papua New Guinea,[76] and Tuvalu[77] explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that "references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the governor-general"[78]). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.[11]
An example of a governor-general departing from constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when Canada's governor general refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: "I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision."
Another example occurred when, in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the governor-general unexpectedly dismissed the prime minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The governor-general issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general.[79] A letter from the queen's private secretary at the time, Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.[80]
Other Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as the viceregal representative of Elizabeth II are: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
Jefes de estado religiosos
Since antiquity, various dynasties or individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as the Mandate of Heaven and the divine right of kings. Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as Egyptian pharaohs and Sapa Incas, who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practising incestuous marriage. In Ancient Rome, during the Principate, the title divus ('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.
Christianity
In Roman Catholicism, the pope was once sovereign pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically important Papal States. After Italian unification, the pope remains head of state of Vatican City. Furthermore, the bishop of Urgell is ex officio one of the two co-princes of Andorra. In the Church of England, the reigning monarch holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as supreme governor of the Church of England, although this is purely a symbolic role.
Islam
During the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of the prophet Mohammed. Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as imamates have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.
In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state. The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading the Nizari offshoot of Shia Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continue to the present day.
Hinduism
In Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as "servant" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a viceroy under an absentee god-king, ruling "in the name of" the patron god(ess), such as Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore.
Buddhism
From the time of the 5th Dalai Lama until the political retirement of the 14th Dalai Lama in 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders ("god-king") of Tibet.
Outer Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles, such as tulku. The establishment of the Communist Mongolian People's Republic replaced this regime in 1924.
Jefes de Estado múltiples o colectivos
A collective head of state can exist in republics (internal complexity), e.g., nominal triumvirates, the Directoire, the seven-member Swiss Federal Council (where each member acts in turn as president for one year), Bosnia and Herzegovina with a three-member presidency from three nations, San Marino with two "captains-regent" which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics that had always had an even number of consuls. A diarchy, in two rulers was the constitutional norm, may be distinguished from a coregency, in which a monarchy experiences an exceptional period of multiple rulers.
In the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age. In the Athenian Republic there were nine supreme magistrates, styled archons. In Carthage there were two supreme magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (judges). In ancient Sparta there were two hereditary kings, belonging to two dynasties. In the Soviet Union the Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets (between 1922 and 1938) and later the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (between 1938 and 1989) served as the collective head of state.[81] After World War II the Soviet model was subsequently adopted by almost all countries belonged to its sphere of influence. Czechoslovakia remained the only country among them that retained an office of president as a form of a single head of state throughout this period, followed by Romania through the creation of that country's presidency by dictator Nicolae Ceausescu in 1974.[82] A modern example of a collective head of state is the Sovereignty Council of Sudan, the interim ruling council of Sudan. The Sovereignty Council comprises 11 ministers, who together have exercised all governmental functions for Sudan since the fall of President Omar Al-Bashir. Decisions are made either by consensus or by a super majority vote (8 members).
Such arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g., Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).
The National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.
Legitimidad
The position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.
By fiction or fiat
Power can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous dynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by orders of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with self-determination granted after nationalist revolts. This occurred with the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.
By divine appointment
Under a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under divine law. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a priesthood. In this way, the Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor in the investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitimacy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction during coronation.
By social contract
The notion of a social contract holds that the nation—either the whole people or the electorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation or election.
By constitution
Individual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a constitution. An example is the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, as the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, article 333, stated that Federal Assembly can appoint namely Josip Broz Tito as the president of Republic without time limitation.[83]
By hereditary succession
The position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to wars of succession.
Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and male-line males inheriting before females of the male line.[84] This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law (see Terra salica).
Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.
Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden, by rewriting its 1810 Act of Succession, became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne.[85] Other European monarchies (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990 and Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms were proposed in 2011 for the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, which came into effect in 2015 after having been approved by all of the affected nations. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.
In some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after his or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by state religion, residency, equal marriage or even permission from the legislature.
Other hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).
By election
Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors (such as the Electoral College in the United States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave.
By appointment
A head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son Richard.
By force or revolution
A head of state may seize power by force or revolution. This is not the same as the use of force to maintain power, as is practised by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon I of France and King Zog of Albania. In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life.
By foreign imposition
A foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was the outcome of the Russo-Swedish War from 1741 to 1743 where the Russian Empress made the imposition of her relative Adolf Frederick as the heir to the Swedish Throne, to succeed Frederick I who lacked legitimate issue, as a peace condition.
Loss
Apart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King Edward VIII. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.
Heads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.
Ex jefes de estado
Effigies, memorials and monuments of former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture of Kaiser Wilhelm I, first Emperor of a unified Germany[86] erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century; or the Victoria Memorial erected in front of Buckingham Palace London, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837–1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, King George V; or the monument, placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign as Empress of India from 1876.[87] Another, twentieth century, example is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927–1941) on a conspicuous skyline in the Black Hills of South Dakota (40th state of the Union, 1889), in the midwestern United States, representing the territorial expansion of the United States in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the "Shrine of Democracy".[88][89]
Personal influence or privileges
Former presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.
A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.
By tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their lives. Hence, even after Constantine II ceased to be King of the Hellenes, it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if Constantine II were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as in Sweden in 2010, Britain in 2011 and Luxembourg in 2012.[90][91][92] The Republic of Greece oppose the right of their deposed monarch and former royal family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinder acquisition of Greek citizenship unless those terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before the European Court of Human Rights for alleged violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, but lost with respect to the name issue.[93][94]
However, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport.
The Italian constitution provides that a former president of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic and he or she is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges.
Ver también
- 21-gun salute
- Aide-de-camp
- Air transports of heads of state and government
- Bodyguard
- Cult of personality
- Directorial system
- Head of government
- Honors music
- Leadership
- Mirrors for princes
- National day of mourning
- Oath of allegiance
- Oath of office
- Official residence
- Official state car
- Power behind the throne
- President
- Sacred king
- State funeral
- State visit
- Strongman (politics)
Lists
- List of current heads of state and government
- List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence
- List of longest reigning current monarchs
- List of state leaders by year
- Records of heads of state
- World Leaders
Notas
- ^ It is listed as such in the current Constitution; it is thus equivalent to organs such as the State Council, rather than to offices such as that of the Premier.
- ^ On the occasion of a royal marriage in 1760, the premier of Portugal, the Marquis of Pombal, tried to maintain that the host, the King of Portugal, should as a crowned head have the sovereign right to determine the precedence of how ambassadors (apart from the papal nuncio and the imperial ambassador) would rank, based on the date of their credentials. The pragmatic suggestions of Pombal was not successful, and as the pretensions among the great powers were so deep-rooted, it would take the Napoleonic Wars for the great powers to have a fresh look at the issue.[72]
Referencias
- ^ a b Foakes, pp. 110–11 "[The head of state] being an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona."
- ^ Foakes, p. 62
- ^ Kubicek, Paul (2015). European Politics. Routledge. pp. 154–56, 163. ISBN 978-1-317-34853-5.
- ^ Nicolaidis and Weatherill (ed.) (2003). "Whose Europe? National Models and the Constitution of the European Union" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2014.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- ^ Gouvea, C. P. (2013). "The Managerial Constitution: The Convergence of Constitutional and Corporate Governance Models". SSRN 2288315. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ Belavusau, U. (2013). Freedom of speech: importing European and US constitutional models in transitional democracies. Routledge. ISBN 9781135071981. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
- ^ Klug, Heinz (March 2003). "Postcolonial Collages: Distributions of Power and Constitutional Models, With Special Reference to South Africa". International Sociology. 18 (1): 114–131. doi:10.1177/0268580903018001007. S2CID 144612269.
- ^ Watts.
- ^ "Belgian King, Unable to Sign Abortion Law, Takes Day Off". The New York Times. 5 April 1990. Archived from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
- ^ Art. 93. "Should the King find himself unable to reign, the ministers, having observed this inability, immediately summon the Chambers. Regency and guardianship are to be provided by the united Chambers." The Constitution of Belgium, Coordinated text of 14 February 1994 (last updated 8 May 2007)"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
- ^ a b c d e f HEADS OF STATE, HEADS OF GOVERNMENT, MINISTERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS Archived 25 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations (8 April 2016). Retrieved on 15 April 2016.
- ^ a b c The Constitution of Japan Archived 14 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Office of the Prime Minister. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ Japan in The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d The Instrument of Government Archived 20 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Riksdag of Sweden. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ Duties of the Monarch Archived 16 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Royal Court of Sweden. Retrieved on 1 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d Constitution of Ireland Archived 20 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Office of the Attorney General (December 2013). Retrieved 3 August 2014.
- ^ Lifetime portrait (1796), known as the "Lansdowne portrait", includes spines of two books titled "American Revolution" and "Constitution and Laws of the United States".
- ^ Chris Buckley and Adam Wu (10 March 2018). "Ending Term Limits for China's Xi Is a Big Deal. Here's Why. - Is the presidency powerful in China?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
In China, the political job that matters most is the General Secretary of the Communist Party. The party controls the military and domestic security forces, and sets the policies that the government carries out. China’s presidency lacks the authority of the American and French presidencies.
CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) - ^ Krishna Kanta Handique State Open University Archived 2 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine, EXECUTIVE: THE PRESIDENT OF THE CHINESE REPUBLIC.
- ^ "A simple guide to the Chinese government". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
Xi Jinping is the most powerful figure in the Chinese political system. He is the President of China, but his real influence comes from his position as the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party.
- ^ "China sets stage for Xi to stay in office indefinitely". Reuters. 25 February 2018. Archived from the original on 26 February 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
However, the role of party chief is more senior than that of president. At some point, Xi could be given a party position that also enables him to stay on as long as he likes.
- ^ a b c Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein (LR 101) Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine (2009). Retrieved on 3 August 2014.
- ^ Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 Archived 25 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Department of Justice and Constitutional Development (2009). Retrieved on 3 August 2014.
- ^ Constitution of Botswana Archived 23 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Embassy of the Republic of Botswana in Washington DC. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b THE CONSTITUTION OF NAURU Archived 1 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Parliament of Nauru. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ "The Crown in Canada" (PDF). Department of Canadian Heritage. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2014.
- ^ The Queen's role in Canada Archived 20 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Royal Household. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ Olympic Charter: in force as of 2 August 2016 Archived 19 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine, International Olympic Committee (August 2016). Retrieved on 13 September 2016.
- ^ SPANISH CONSTITUTION Archived 21 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Senate of Spain. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ a b Constitution Act 1986 Archived 17 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. Retrieved on 28 August 2013.
- ^ a b Constitution of the Italian Republic Archived 20 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Senate of the Republic. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ Constitution of Iraq Archived 28 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
- ^ a b CONSTITUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE REPUBLIC: SEVENTH REVISION (2005) Archived 23 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Portuguese Constitutional Court. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ a b THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA Archived 10 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Constitutional Court of Korea. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania Archived 18 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Seimas. Retrieved on 2 November 2012
- ^ a b c d e f Constitution of the Russian Federation Archived 4 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Government of the Russian Federation. Retrieved on 2 November 2012.
- ^ CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE NATION Archived 4 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Argentine Senate. Retrieved on 16 November 2012.
- ^ a b My Constitutional Act with explanations, 9th edition Archived 18 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, The Communications Section, Danish Parliament (August 2012). Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ The Constitution as in force on 1 June 2003 together with proclamation declaring the establishment of the Commonwealth, letters patent relating to the Office of Governor-General, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Australia Act 1986. Archived 2 February 2012 at WebCite, ComLaw, Government of Australia (2003) ISBN 0 642 78285 7. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ The Constitution Archived 14 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Publications Department, Hellenic Parliament (2008) ISBN 960 560 073 0. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ Constitution of India, Part V Archived 24 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b c Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil: 3rd Edition, Chamber of Deputies (2010) ISBN 978-85-736-5737-1. Retrieved on 13 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f Constitution of the United States Archived 23 August 2011 at WebCite, National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f Constitution of October 4, 1958 Archived 1 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine, The French National Assembly. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b THE BELGIAN CONSTITUTION Archived 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Department, Belgian House of Representatives (August 2012). Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 Archived 17 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine, International Law Commission, United Nations. Retrieved on 15 October 2012.
- ^ a b Robertson: p. 221.
- ^ Roberts: pp. 35-44.
- ^ Roberts: pp. 71-79.
- ^ Roberts: pp. 61-68.
- ^ "Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations". United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations. Archived from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
- ^ a b Roberts: pp. 542-543.
- ^ Treaty of Lisbon (OJ C 306, 17.12.2007) Archived 16 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Official Journal of the European Union through EUR-Lex. Retrieved on 1 November 2012.
- ^ TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION (92/C 191/01) aka Maastricht Treaty Archived 1 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Official Journal of the European Union through EUR-Lex. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b c Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany Archived 19 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Bundestag (Print version. As at: October 2010). Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ Constitution of China Archived 26 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Chinese Government's Official Web portal. Retrieved 2 November 2012.
- ^ Alston, Philip (1995). Treaty-making and Australia: globalization versus sovereignty?. Annandale: Federation Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-1-86287-195-3.
- ^ Bayefsky, Anne F. (1993), "International Human Rights Law in Canadian Courts", in Kaplan, William; McRae, Donald Malcolm; Cohen, Maxwell (eds.), Law, policy and international justice: essays in honour of Maxwell Cohen, Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, p. 112, ISBN 978-0-7735-1114-9, retrieved 16 January 2011
- ^ Flemming, Brian (1965). "Canadian Practice in International Law". The Canadian Yearbook of International Law. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. III: 337. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ^ a b George VI (1 October 1947), Letters Patent Constituting the Office of Governor General of Canada, I, Ottawa: King's Printer for Canada, archived from the original on 24 September 2015, retrieved 29 May 2009
- ^ Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Governor General - the evolution of Canada's oldest public institution". Queen's Printer for Canada. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
- ^ "The Constitution Act, 1867". Archived from the original on 3 February 2010. Retrieved 29 November 2007.
- ^ a b c The Constitution, as laid down on 17 May 1814 by the Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll and subsequently amended. Archived 15 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Information Service, Parliament of Norway. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ a b c d Constitution of the State of Qatar Archived 24 October 2004 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 17 November 2012.
- ^ Basic Law of Israel: The Military Archived 27 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Knesset. Retrieved on 11 November 2011.
- ^ The Riksdag Act Archived 1 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Riksdag of Sweden. Retrieved on 16 November 2012.
- ^ Basic Law of Israel: The President of the State Archived 20 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Knesset. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ Constitution of the Czech Republic Archived 16 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Prague Castle Administration. Retrieved on 11 November 2012.
- ^ "PLO body elects Abbas 'President of Palestine'", Khaleej Times Online, 24 November 2008, archived from the original on 8 June 2011
- ^ a b c d Roberts: p. 39.
- ^ Roberts: pp. 37-38.
- ^ Roberts: pp. 41-42.
- ^ a b Roberts: pp. 42-43.
- ^ Roberts: p. 43.
- ^ Constitution, s 2; Australia Act 1986 (Cth and UK), s 7.
- ^ Elizabeth II (1975), Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby: World Intellectual Property Organization, Part 5, Division 1, (1)(a), archived from the original on 26 May 2015, retrieved 25 May 2015
- ^ Elizabeth II (1978), Constitution of Tuvalu, Funafuti: Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute, 48(1), archived from the original on 28 August 2015, retrieved 25 May 2015
- ^ Elizabeth II 1978, 51(2)
- ^ "Kerr's Statement Of Reasons". Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
- ^ Kerr, John (1978), Matters for Judgment, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-25212-3
- ^ John Alexander Armstrong (1978). Ideology, Politics, and Government in the Soviet Union: An Introduction. University Press of America. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8191-5405-7.
- ^ F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge (1987). The distinctiveness of Soviet law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 23. ISBN 90-247-3576-9. Archived from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
- ^ "Ustav Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije (1974.) – Wikizvor". hr.wikisource.org. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
- ^ Murphy, Michael Dean. "A Kinship Glossary: Symbols, Terms, and Concepts". Archived from the original on 5 October 2006. Retrieved 5 October 2006.
- ^ Swedish Act of Succession (English Translation as of 2012) Archived 8 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine, The Riksdag. Retrieved on 28 August 2013.
- ^ a b "Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin - Reinhold Begas - Monuments for the German Empire - Exhibition". Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
- ^ Frampton's Jubilee Monument for Queen Victoria, image with dog to show scale.[1] Archived 9 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Mount Rushmore National Memorial". TravelSouthDakota.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
- ^ "Mount Rushmore". HISTORY.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
- ^ Guests at the wedding ceremony: Wedding between Crown Princess Victoria and Mr Daniel Westling on Saturday 19 June 2010, 3.30 p.m., at Stockholm Cathedral Archived 29 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Royal Court of Sweden. Retrieved on 12 November 2012.
- ^ Selected Guest List for the Wedding Service at Westminster Abbey Archived 12 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, The Royal Household (2011). Retrieved on 12 November 2012.
- ^ Selected guest list for the wedding service at Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Luxembourg on October 20, 2012 at 11:00 a.m. Archived 5 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Government of Luxembourg. Retrieved on 12 November 2012.
- ^ THE FORMER KING CONSTANTINOS OF GREECE AND 8 MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY v. GREECE Archived 31 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, (25701/94 | DECISION | COMMISSION (Plenary) | 21 April 1998) European Commission of Human Rights. Retrieved on 12 November 2012.
- ^ CASE OF THE FORMER KING OF GREECE AND OTHERS v. GREECE Archived 31 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, (25701/94 | Judgment (Merits) | Court (Grand Chamber) | 23 November 2000), European Court of Human Rights. Retrieved on 12 November 2012.
Bibliografía
- Foakes, Joanne (2014). The Position of Heads of State and Senior Officials in International Law. Oxford International Law Library. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-964028-7.
- Markwell, Donald (2016). Constitutional Conventions and the Headship of State: Australian Experience. Connor Court. ISBN 9781925501155.
- Roberts, Sir Ivor, ed. (2009). Satow's Diplomatic Practice (Sixth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969355-9.
- Robertson, David (2002). A Dictionary of Modern Politics: Third Edition. London: Europa Publications. p. 221. ISBN 1-85743-093-X.
head of state.
- Watts, Sir Arthur (2010). "Heads of State". In Wolfrum, Rüdiger (ed.). Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford International Public Law. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 October 2015.