This is a list of the most massive stars so far discovered, in solar masses (M☉).
Uncertainties and caveats
Most of the masses listed below are contested and, being the subject of current research, remain under review and subject to constant revision of their masses and other characteristics. Indeed, many of the masses listed in the table below are inferred from theory, using difficult measurements of the stars' temperatures and absolute brightnesses. All the masses listed below are uncertain: Both the theory and the measurements are pushing the limits of current knowledge and technology. Either measurement or theory, or both, could be incorrect. For example, VV Cephei could be between 25–40 M☉, or 100 M☉, depending on which property of the star is examined.
Massive stars are rare; astronomers must look very far from the Earth to find one. All the listed stars are many thousands of light years away and that alone makes measurements difficult.
In addition to being far away, many stars of such extreme mass are surrounded by clouds of outflowing gas created by extremely powerful stellar winds; the surrounding gas interferes with the already difficult-to-obtain measurements of stellar temperatures and brightnesses and greatly complicates the issue of estimating internal chemical compositions and structures.[a] This obstruction leads to difficulties in calculating parameters.
Both the obscuring clouds and the great distances make it difficult to judge whether the star is just a single supermassive object or, instead, a multiple star system. A number of the "stars" listed below may actually be two or more companions orbiting too closely to distinguish by our telescopes, each star being massive in itself but not necessarily “supermassive” to either be on this list, or near the top of it. Other combinations are possible – for example a supermassive star with one or more smaller companions or more than one giant star – but without being able to see inside the surrounding cloud, it is difficult to know the truth of the matter. More globally, statistics on stellar populations seem to indicate that the upper mass limit is in the 100–200 solar mass range.[1]
Rare reliable estimates
Eclipsing binary stars are the only stars whose masses are estimated with some confidence. However note that almost all of the masses listed in the table below were inferred by indirect methods; only a few of the masses in the table were determined using eclipsing systems.
Amongst the most reliable listed masses are those for the eclipsing binaries NGC 3603-A1, WR 21a, and WR 20a. Masses for all three were obtained from orbital measurements.[b] This involves measuring their radial velocities and also their light curves. The radial velocities only yield minimum values for the masses, depending on inclination, but light curves of eclipsing binaries provide the missing information: inclination of the orbit to our line of sight.
Relevance of stellar evolution
Some stars may once have been heavier than they are today. It is likely that many have suffered significant mass loss, perhaps as much as several tens of solar masses, expelled by superwinds – high velocity winds that are driven by the hot photosphere into interstellar space. The process forms an enlarged extended envelope around the star that interacts with the nearby interstellar medium and infusing the region with elements heavier than Hydrogen or Helium.[c]
There are also – or rather were – stars that might have appeared on the list but no longer exist as stars, or are supernova impostors; today we see only the debris.[d] The masses of the precursor stars that fueled these cataclysms can be estimated from the type of explosion and the energy released, but those masses are not listed here (see § Black holes below).
Mass limits
There are two related theoretical limits on how massive a star can possibly be: the accretion limit and the Eddington mass limit. The accretion limit is related to star formation: After about 120 M☉ have accreted in a protostar, the combined mass should have become hot enough for its heat to drive away any further incoming matter. In effect, the protostar reaches a point where it evaporates away material as fast as it collects new material. The Eddington limit is based on light pressure from the core of an already-formed star: As mass increases past ~150 M☉, the intensity of light radiated from a Population I star's core will become sufficient for the light-pressure pushing outward to exceed the gravitational force pulling inward, and the surface material of the star will be free to float away into space.
Accretion limits
Astronomers have long hypothesized that as a protostar grows to a size beyond 120 M☉, something drastic must happen. Although the limit can be stretched for very early Population III stars, and although the exact value is uncertain, if any stars still exist above 150–200 M☉ they would challenge current theories of stellar evolution.
Studying the Arches Cluster, which is currently the densest known cluster of stars in our galaxy, astronomers have confirmed that stars in that cluster do not occur any larger than about 150 M☉.
Rare ultramassive stars that exceed this limit – for example in the R136 star cluster – might be explained by the following proposal: Some of the pairs of massive stars in close orbit in young, unstable multiple-star systems must occasionally collide and merge where certain unusual circumstances hold that make a collision possible.[2]
Eddington mass limit
A limit on stellar mass arises because of light-pressure: For a sufficiently massive star the outward pressure of radiant energy generated by nuclear fusion in the star's core exceeds the inward pull of its own gravity. The lowest mass for which this effect is active is the Eddington limit.
Stars of greater mass have a higher rate of core energy generation, and heavier stars' luminosities increase far out of proportion to the increase in their masses. The Eddington limit is the point beyond which a star ought to push itself apart, or at least shed enough mass to reduce its internal energy generation to a lower, maintainable rate. The actual limit-point mass depends on how opaque the gas in the star is, and metal-rich Population I stars have lower mass limits than metal-poor Population II stars, with the hypothetical metal-free Population III stars having the highest allowed mass, somewhere around 300 M☉.
In theory, a more massive star could not hold itself together because of the mass loss resulting from the outflow of stellar material. In practice the theoretical Eddington Limit must be modified for high luminosity stars and the empirical Humphreys–Davidson limit is used instead.[3]
List of the most massive stars
The following two lists show a few of the known stars with an estimated mass of 25 M☉ or greater, including the stars in open clusters, OB associations, and H II regions. Despite their high luminosity of these massive stars, many of these stars are nevertheless too distant to be observed with the naked eye. Stars that are at least sometimes visible to the unaided eye have their apparent magnitude (6.5 or brighter) highlighted in blue.
The first list gives stars that are estimated to be 100 M☉ or larger. The majority of stars thought to be more than 100 M☉ are shown, but the list is incomplete.
The second list gives examples of stars 25–100 M☉, but is far from a complete list. Note that all O-type stars have masses greater than 15 M☉ and catalogs of such stars (GOSS, Reed)[citation needed] list hundreds of cases.
In each list, the method used to determine the mass is included to give an idea of uncertainty: Binary stars being more securely determined than indirect methods such as conversion from luminosity, extrapolation from stellar atmosphere models, ... . The masses listed below are the stars' current (evolved) mass, not their initial (formation) mass.
Wolf–Rayet star |
Luminous blue variable |
O-type star |
B-type star |
Star name | Location | Mass (M☉, Sun = 1) | Approx. distance from Earth (in light-years) | Apparent visible magnitude | Effective temperature (K) | Estimation method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BAT99-98 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 226 | 165,000 | 13.38 | 45,000 | Spectroscopy | [4][5] |
R136a1 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 215 | 163,000 | 12.28 | 46,000 | Evolution | [6][5] |
R136a7 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 199 | 163,000 | 13.97 | 49,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
Melnick 42 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 189 | 163,000 | 12.78 | 47,300 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
R136a2 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 187 | 163,000 | 12.34 | 50,000 | Evolution | [6][5] |
VFTS 1022 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 178 | 164,000 | 13.47 | 42,200 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
R136a5 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 171 | 157,000 | 13.71 | 47,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
R136a4 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 167 | 157,000 | 13.41 | 48,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
HSH95-46 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 160 | 163,000 | 14.56 | 49,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
R136a3 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 154 | 163,000 | 12.97 | 50,000 | Evolution | [6][5] |
VFTS 682 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 153 | 164,000 | 16.08 | 52,200 | Spectroscopy | [8][5] |
HD 15558 A | in IC 1805 in the Heart Nebula | 152 | 24,400 | 7.87 (combined) | 39,500 | Binary | [9][10] |
HSH95-36 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 149 | 163,000 | 14.41 | 52,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
Melnick 34 A | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 147 | 163,000 | 13.09 (combined) | 53,000 | Binary | [11][5] |
VFTS 482 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 145 | 164,000 | 12.95 | 42,200 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
R136c | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 142 | 163,000 | 13.43 | 51,000 | Evolution | [12][5] |
VFTS 1021 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 141 | 164,000 | 13.35 | 39,800 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
LH 10-3209 A | in NGC 1763 of LMC | 140 | 160,000 | 11.859 | 42,500 | Spectroscopy | [13][14][e] |
VFTS 506 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 138 | 164,000 | 13.31 | 47,300 | Spectroscopy | [8][5] |
Melnick 34 B | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 136 | 163,000 | 13.09 (combined) | 53,000 | Binary | [11][5] |
VFTS 545 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 133 | 164,000 | 13.32 | 47,300 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
HD 97950 B, WR 43b | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 132 | 24,800 | 11.33 | 42,000 | Spectroscopy | [15][16] |
HD 269810 | in NGC 2029 of LMC | 130 | 163,000 | 12.22 | 52,500 | Spectroscopy | [17][18] |
WR 42e | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 123 | 25,000 | 14.53 | 43,000 | Ejection[f] | [19] |
R136a6 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 121 | 157,000 | 13.35 | 53,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
HD 97950 A1a, WR 43a A | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 120 | 24,800 | 11.18 (combined) | 42,000 | Binary | [15][16] |
LSS 4067 | in HM 1 | 120 | 11,000 | 11.44 | 40,000 | Evolution | [20][21] |
R136b | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 120 | 163,000 | 13.24 | 37,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
WR 93 | in Pismis 24 of NGC 6357 | 120 | 5,900 | 10.68 | 71,000 | Evolution | [20][10] |
Sk -69° 212 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 119 | 160,000 | 12.416 | 45,400 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Sk -69° 249 A | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 119 | 160,000 | 12.02 | 38,900 | Binary | [22][23] |
ST5-31 | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 119 | 160,000 | 12.273 | 50,700 | Evolution | [22][24] |
MSP 183 | in Westerlund 2 | 115 | 20,000 | 13.878 | 46,300 | Spectroscopy | [25][26] |
WR 24 | in Collinder 228 of Carina Nebula | 114 | 14,000 | 6.48 | 50,100 | Evolution | [27][28] |
HD 97950 C1, WR 43c A | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 113 | 24,800 | 11.89 (combined) | 44,000 | Spectroscopy | [15][16][e] |
WR 102ae | in Arches Cluster | 111.3 | 25,000 | 16.1 (J band) | 36,600 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
Cygnus OB2 #12 A | in Cygnus OB2 | 110 | 5,200 | 11.702 (combined) | 13,700 | Spectroscopy | [31][32][e] |
HD 93129 Aa | in Trumpler 14 of Carina Nebula | 110 | 7,500 | 6.9 (combined) | 42,500 | Trinary | [33][10] |
R146 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 109 | 164,000 | 13.11 | 63,000 | Spectroscopy | [4][5] |
VFTS 621 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 107 | 164,000 | 15.39 | 54,000 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
WR 21a A | Runaway star from Westerlund 2 | 103.6 | 26,100 | 12.661 (combined) | 45,000 | Binary | [34][18] |
R99 | in N44 of LMC | 103 | 164,000 | 11.52 | 28,000 | Spectroscopy | [4][10][g] |
HSH95-47 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 102 | 163,000 | 14.72 | 47,000 | Spectroscopy | [6][5] |
Sk -65° 47 | in NGC 1923 of LMC | 101 | 160,000 | 12.466 | 47,800 | Evolution | [22][14] |
WR 102ah | in Arches Cluster | 101 | 25,000 | 15.75 (J band) | 33,900 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
WR 102ad | in Arches Cluster | 100.9 | 25,000 | 16.3 (J band) | 33,200 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
Peony Star, WR 102ka | near Galactic Center | 100 | 26,000 | 12.978 (J band) | 25,100 | Spectroscopy | [35][36] |
VFTS 457 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 100 | 164,000 | 13.74 | 39,800 | Spectroscopy | [7][5] |
η Carinae A | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 100 | 7,500 | 4.3 (combined) | 9,400-35,200 | Spectroscopy | [37][38] |
A few examples of mass less than 100 M☉.
Star name | Location | Mass (M☉, Sun = 1) | Approx. distance from Earth (in light-years) | Apparent visible magnitude | Effective temperature (K) | Estimation method | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sk -68° 137 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 99 | 160,000 | 13.346 | 50,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][14] |
WR 25 A | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 98 | 6,500 | 8.8 (combined) | 50,100 | Evolution | [27][10][e] |
R136a8 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 96 | 157,000 | 14.42 | 51,000 | Spectroscopy | [39][5] |
HD 38282 B | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 95 | 163,000 | 11.11 (combined) | 47,000 | Binary | [40][18] |
HM 1-6 | in HM 1 | 95 | 11,000 | 11.64 | 44,700 | Evolution | [20][41] |
NGC 3603-42 | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 95 | 25,000 | 12.86 | 50,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][16] |
Sk -66° 172 | in N64 of LMC | 94 | 160,000 | 13.1 | 46,300 | Spectroscopy | [13][14] |
ST2-22 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 94 | 160,000 | 14.3 | 51,300 | Evolution | [22][42] |
HD 97950 A1b, WR 43a B | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 92 | 24,800 | 11.18 (combined) | 40,000 | Binary | [15][16] |
HD 97950 A3 | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 91 | 24,800 | 12.95 | 50,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][16] |
NGC 346-W1 | in NGC 346 of SMC | 91 | 200,000 | 12.57 | 43,400 | Evolution | [22][43] |
R127 | in NGC 2055 of LMC | 90 | 160,000 | 10.15 | 10,000-27,000 | Evolution | [44][18] |
BAT99-80 A | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 87 | 165,000 | 13 | 45,000 | Spectroscopy | [22][42] |
WR 89 | in HM 1 | 87 | 11,000 | 11.02 | 39,800 | Evolution | [27][18] |
WR 102aj | in Arches Cluster | 86.3 | 25,000 | 15.74 (J band) | 32,900 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
Sk -69° 104 | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 86 | 160,000 | 12.1 | 39,900 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Brey 21 A | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 85 | 160,000 | 11.29 (combined) | 71,000 | Evolution | [22][18] |
LH 10-3061 | in NGC 1763 of LMC | 85 | 160,000 | 13.491 | 52,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][14] |
Sk 80 | in NGC 346 of SMC | 85 | 200,000 | 12.31 | 38,900 | Evolution | [22][45] |
BI 253 | Runaway star from Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 84 | 164,000 | 13.76 | 54,000 | Spectroscopy | [7][46] |
HD 93250 A | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 83.3 | 7,500 | 7.5 (combined) | 46,000 | Evolution | [47][10][e] |
WR 20a A | in Westerlund 2 | 82.7 | 20,000 | 13.28 (combined) | 43,000 | Binary | [48] |
TIC 276934932 A | in NGC 2048 of LMC | 82 | 160,000 | 14.05 (combined) | 45,000 | Binary | [13][14] |
WR 20a B | in Westerlund 2 | 81.9 | 20,000 | 13.28 (combined) | 43,000 | Binary | [48] |
Trumpler 27-27 | in Trumpler 27 | 81 | 3,900 | 13.31 | 37,000 | Evolution | [20][18] |
HD 38282 A | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 80 | 163,000 | 11.11 (combined) | 47,000 | Binary | [40][18] |
Arches-F15 | in Arches Cluster | 79.7 | 25,000 | 16.12 (J band) | 35,600 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
LH 41-32 | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 78 | 160,000 | 13.086 | 48,200 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Pismis 24-17 | in Pismis 24 of NGC 6357 | 78 | 5,900 | 11.84 | 42,700 | Spectroscopy | [49][41] |
HD 93632 | in Collinder 228 of Carina Nebula | 76 | 10,000 | 8.23 | 45,400 | Evolution | [20][10] |
NGC 346-W3 | in NGC 346 of SMC | 76 | 200,000 | 12.8 | 52,500 | Evolution | [22][43] |
WR 22 A | in Bochum 10 of Carina Nebula | 75 | 8,300 | 6.42 (combined) | 44,700 | Evolution | [27][10][h] |
Pismis 24-1 NE | in Pismis 24 of NGC 6357 | 74 | 6,500 | 11 | 42,500 | Binary | [49][50] |
LH 64-16 | in NGC 2001 of LMC | 72 | 160,000 | 13.666 | 50,900 | Evolution | [22][24] |
NGC 2044-W35 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 72 | 160,000 | 14.1 | 48,200 | Evolution | [22][14] |
ST2-1 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 71 | 160,000 | 14.3 | 44,100 | Evolution | [22][42] |
Brey 50 | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 70 | 165,000 | 13.25 | 117,000 | Evolution | [22][18] |
HD 37974 | in N135 of LMC | 70 | 163,000 | 10.99 | 22,500 | Spectroscopy | [51][18][i] |
HD 93129 Ab | in Trumpler 14 of Carina Nebula | 70 | 7,500 | 7.31 (combined) | 44,000 | Trinary | [33][52] |
M33 X-7 B | in Triangulum Galaxy | 70 | 2,700,000 | 18.7 | 35,000 | Binary | [53][54] |
Sk -69° 194 A | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 70 | 160,000 | 12.131 (combined) | 45,000 | Binary | [22][55] |
WR 102af | in Arches Cluster | 70 | 25,000 | 16.4 (J band) | 36,900 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
HD 229059 | in Berkeley 87 | 69 | 3,000 | 8.7 | 26,300 | Evolution | [20][10] |
HD 46150 | in NGC 2244 of Rosette Nebula | 69 | 5,200 | 6.73 | 44,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][10] |
ST2-3 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 69 | 160,000 | 14.264 | 44,900 | Evolution | [22][14] |
ST2-32 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 69 | 160,000 | 13.903 | 45,400 | Evolution | [22][14] |
W28-23 | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 69 | 160,000 | 13.702 | 51,300 | Evolution | [22][24] |
HD 93403 A | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 68.5 | 10,400 | 8.27 (combined) | 39,300 | Binary | [56][18] |
HM 1-8 | in HM 1 | 68 | 11,000 | 12.52 | 46,100 | Evolution | [20][41] |
V661 Carinae | in Collinder 228 of Carina Nebula | 68 | 10,000 | 8.04 | 39,900 | Evolution | [20][10] |
Sk -69° 200 | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 67 | 160,000 | 11.18 | 26,300 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Arches-F18 | in Arches Cluster | 66.9 | 25,000 | 16.7 (J band) | 36,900 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
WR 102al | in Arches Cluster | 66.4 | 25,000 | 15.63 (J band) | 36,800 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
HD 5980 B | in NGC 346 of SMC | 66 | 200,000 | 11.31 (combined) | 45,000 | Binary | [57][52] |
LH 114-7 | in N70 of LMC | 66 | 160,000 | 13.66 | 50,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][14] |
LH 31-1003 | in NGC 1858 of LMC | 66 | 160,000 | 13.186 | 41,900 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Pismis 24-1 SW | in Pismis 24 of NGC 6357 | 66 | 6,500 | 11.1 | 40,000 | Binary | [49][50] |
BAT99-126 | in NGC 2081 of LMC | 65 | 165,000 | 13.166 | 71,000 | Spectroscopy | [4][14] |
BD+43° 3654 | Runaway star from Cygnus OB2 | 64.6 | 5,400 | 10.06 | 40,400 | Evolution | [58][52] |
Sk -69° 25 | in NGC 1748 of LMC | 64 | 160,000 | 11.886 | 43,600 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Trumpler 27-23 | in Trumpler 27 | 64 | 3,900 | 10.09 | 27,500 | Evolution | [20][18] |
HD 303308 | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 63 | 9,200 | 8.17 | 51,300 | Evolution | [20][18] |
HD 46223 | in NGC 2244 of Rosette Nebula | 63 | 5,200 | 7.28 | 46,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][10] |
HD 64568 | in NGC 2467 of Puppis OB2 | 63 | 16,000 | 9.39 | 54,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][18] |
LH 10-3058 | in NGC 1763 of LMC | 63 | 160,000 | 14.089 | 54,000 | Spectroscopy | [13][14] |
ST5-71 | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 63 | 160,000 | 13.266 | 45,400 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Brey 32 B | in NGC 1966 of LMC | 62 | 165,000 | 12.32 (combined) | 43,600 | Evolution | [22][18] |
HD 93160 | in Trumpler 14 of Carina Nebula | 62 | 8,000 | 7.6 | 42,700 | Evolution | [20][10] |
LH 41-1017 | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 62 | 160,000 | 12.266 | 42,700 | Evolution | [22][14] |
ST4-18 | in NGC 2081 of LMC | 62 | 160,000 | 13.639 | 44,800 | Evolution | [22][14] |
V2245 Cygni | in Cygnus OB9 | 61.6 | 5,000 | 8.59 | 40,900 | Evolution | [58][41] |
AB8 B | in NGC 602 of SMC | 61 | 197,000 | 12.83 (combined) | 45,000 | Binary | [57][59] |
HD 5980 A | in NGC 346 of SMC | 61 | 200,000 | 11.31 (combined) | 21,000-53,000 | Binary | [57][52] |
LH 41-18 | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 61 | 160,000 | 12.586 | 38,500 | Evolution | [22][14] |
ST5-25 | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 61 | 160,000 | 13.551 | 48,600 | Evolution | [22][24] |
WR 102hb | in Quintuplet cluster | 61 | 26,000 | 13.9 (J band) | 25,100 | Evolution | [60][61] |
Brey 10 | in NGC 1770 of LMC | 60 | 165,000 | 12.69 | 117,000 | Evolution | [22][18] |
Brey 94 A | in NGC 2081 of LMC | 60 | 165,000 | 12.996 (combined) | 83,000 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Brey 95a A | in NGC 2081 of LMC | 60 | 165,000 | 12.2 | 83,000 | Evolution | [22][62] |
MWC 112 | in NGC 1983 of LMC | 60 | 160,000 | 11.45 | 8,000-24,000 | Evolution | [44][14] |
R143 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 60 | 160,000 | 12.014 | 18,000-36,000 | Evolution | [44][14] |
Sk -69° 142a | in NGC 1983 of LMC | 60 | 160,000 | 11.093 | 34,000 | Evolution | [44][55] |
Sk -69° 259 | in NGC 2081 of LMC | 60 | 160,000 | 11.93 | 23,000 | Evolution | [22][18] |
Var 83 | in Triangulum Galaxy | 60 | 3,000,000 | 16.027 | 18,000-37,000 | Evolution | [63][64] |
LH 12-30 | in NGC 1770 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 13.67 | 48,600 | Evolution | [22][14] |
LH 31-1011 | in NGC 1858 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 14.24 | 50,100 | Evolution | [22][14] |
LH 41-34 | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 13.236 | 42,700 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Sk -68° 14 | in NGC 1770 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 11.159 | 21,900 | Evolution | [22][55] |
ST2-33 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 14.5 | 44,100 | Evolution | [22][42] |
ST5-52 | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 13.4 | 44,900 | Evolution | [22][62] |
ST5-58 | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 59 | 160,000 | 13.1 | 40,400 | Evolution | [22][62] |
WR 87 | in HM 1 | 59 | 11,000 | 11.83 | 44,700 | Evolution | [27][18] |
WR 21a B | Runaway star from Westerlund 2 | 58.3 | 26,000 | 12.661 (combined) | 50,680 | Binary | [34][18] |
HD 305525 | in Collinder 228 of Carina Nebula | 58 | 10,000 | 10 | 43,600 | Evolution | [20][10] |
LH 31-1005 | in NGC 1858 of LMC | 58 | 160,000 | 13.44 | 46,100 | Evolution | [22][14] |
LH 64-4 | in NGC 2001 of LMC | 58 | 160,000 | 13.656 | 46,200 | Evolution | [22][24] |
Sk -68° 16 | in NGC 1770 of LMC | 58 | 160,000 | 12.906 | 39,900 | Evolution | [22][14] |
W28-5 | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 58 | 160,000 | 13.774 | 48,600 | Evolution | [22][14] |
WR 102ea | in Quintuplet cluster | 58 | 26,000 | 13.18 (J band) | 25,100 | Evolution | [60][61] |
CD Crucis B | in Hogg 15 | 57 | 14,000 | 10.81 (combined) | 47,000 | Binary | [65][10] |
Sk -69° 213 | in NGC 2044 of LMC | 57 | 160,000 | 12.16 | 23,600 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Sk -69° 249 B | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 57 | 160,000 | 12.23 | 28,800 | Evolution | [22][23] |
V1827 Cygni | in Cygnus OB2 | 57 | 5,100 | 13.053 | 45,400 | Evolution | [58][32] |
Arches-F28 | in Arches Cluster | 56.8 | 25,000 | 17.26 (J band) | 39,800 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
ζ Puppis | Naos in Vela R2 of Vela Molecular Ridge | 56.1 | 1,080 | 2.25 | 40,000 | Spectroscopy | [10][66][j] |
Arches-F21 | in Arches Cluster | 56 | 25,000 | 16.85 (J band) | 35,800 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
HD 93128 | in Trumpler 14 of Carina Nebula | 56 | 8,000 | 8.77 | 51,300 | Evolution | [20][18] |
R86a | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 56 | 160,000 | 11.66 | 28,200 | Evolution | [22][52] |
ST5-27 | in NGC 2074 of LMC | 56 | 160,000 | 14.6 | 51,300 | Evolution | [22][62] |
Plaskett's Star, BV640 Monocerotis | in Monoceros OB2 | 56 | 5,250 | 6.06 (combined) | 33,000 | Binary | [67][68] |
WR 102ab | in Arches Cluster | 55.3 | 25,000 | 17.37 (J band) | 32,200 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
9 Sagittarii A | in NGC 6530 of Lagoon Nebula | 55 | 5,800 | 5.97 (combined) | 43,500 | Binary | [69][10] |
AG Carinae | in Wray 15-693 | 55 | 15,200 | 6.96 | 8,000-26,000 | Evolution | [70][10] |
HD 93204 | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 55 | 9,200 | 8.42 | 46,100 | Evolution | [20][10] |
LH 12-1004 | in NGC 1770 of LMC | 55 | 160,000 | 12.93 | 38,500 | Evolution | [22][55] |
LH 41-27 | in NGC 1910 of LMC | 55 | 160,000 | 12.936 | 37,400 | Evolution | [22][14] |
BD+40° 4210 | in Cygnus OB2 | 54.1 | 5,000 | 10.45 | 21,400 | Evolution | [58][52] |
LH 31-1015 | in NGC 1858 of LMC | 54 | 160,000 | 14.41 | 49,900 | Evolution | [22][14] |
LH 47-154 | in NGC 1935 of LMC | 54 | 160,000 | 13.031 | 41,000 | Evolution | [22][18] |
NGC 346-W6 | in NGC 346 of SMC | 54 | 200,000 | 14.13 | 48,600 | Evolution | [22][43] |
Plaskett's Star A, V640 Monocerotis | in Monoceros OB2 | 54 | 5,250 | 6.06 (combined) | 33,500 | Binary | [67][68] |
R145 B | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 54 | 163,000 | 12.04 (combined) | 43,000 | Binary | [71][5] |
WR 102ba | in Arches Cluster | 54 | 25,000 | 16.38 (J band) | 34,500 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
Hodge 53-207 | in NGC 371 of SMC | 53 | 200,000 | 14.5 | 50,100 | Evolution | [22][72] |
LH 5-1008 | in NGC 1748 of LMC | 53 | 160,000 | 14.1 | 50,100 | Evolution | [22][14] |
LH 81-47 | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 53 | 160,000 | 14.61 | 50,100 | Evolution | [22][14] |
NGC 346-W4 | in NGC 346 of SMC | 53 | 200,000 | 13.13 | 44,900 | Evolution | [22][43] |
R145 A | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 53 | 163,000 | 12.04 (combined) | 50,000 | Binary | [71][5] |
WR 139 B | in Berkeley 86 of Cygnus OB1 | 53 | 4,270 | 8 (combined) | 42,700 | Binary | [20][10] |
WR 102bb | in Arches Cluster | 52.4 | 25,000 | 16.06 (J band) | 29,600 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
HD 93129 B | in Trumpler 14 of Carina Nebula | 52 | 7,500 | 8.84 | 44,000 | Trinary | [73][74] |
LH 58-496 | in NGC 1966 of LMC | 52 | 160,000 | 13.73 | 46,100 | Evolution | [22][14] |
Sk -69° 279 | in NGC 2102 of LMC | 52 | 160,000 | 12.842 | 32,000 | Evolution | [44][14] |
Cygnus OB2-516 | in Cygnus OB2 | 51.6 | 5,100 | 11.83 | 46,000 | Spectroscopy | [75][18] |
λ Cephei | Runaway star from Cepheus OB3 | 51.4 | 3,100 | 5.05 | 36,000 | Spectroscopy | [66][76] |
HD 303311 | in Trumpler 14 of Carina Nebula | 51 | 8,000 | 8.979 | 46,100 | Evolution | [20][52] |
LH 58-694 | in NGC 1966 of LMC | 51 | 160,000 | 12.4 | 33,000 | Evolution | [22][14] |
W28-6 | in NGC 2033 of LMC | 51 | 160,000 | 14.41 | 50,100 | Evolution | [22][14] |
WR 147 S | in Cygnus OB2 | 51 | 2,100 | 13.86 | 39,800 | Evolution | [27][77] |
Brey 32 A | in NGC 1966 of LMC | 50 | 165,000 | 12.32 (combined) | 117,000 | Evolution | [22][18] |
Brey 34 A | in NGC 1966 of LMC | 50 | 160,000 | 9.86 (combined) | 71,000 | Evolution | [22][10] |
CX Circinus | in Pismis 20 of Circinus OB1 | 50 | 10,000 | 8.1 | 20,900 | Evolution | [20][10] |
GCIRS 16SW A, WR101k A | in Galactic Center | 50 | 26,000 | 14.75 (combined) | 24,400 | Binary | [78][79] |
GCIRS 16SW B, WR101k B | in Galactic Center) | 50 | 26,000 | 14.75 (combined) | 24,400 | Binary | [78][79] |
HM 1-12 | in HM 1 | 50 | 11,000 | 12.57 | 41,900 | Evolution | [20][41] |
Hodge 53-47a | in NGC 371 of SMC | 50 | 200,000 | 13.36 (combined) | 48,600 | Binary | [22][43] |
LH 47-182 | in NGC 1935 of LMC | 50 | 160,000 | 14.56 | 43,600 | Evolution | [22][80] |
LH 47-192 | in NGC 1935 of LMC | 50 | 160,000 | 14.14 | 45,400 | Evolution | [22][80] |
Sk -69° 271 | in NGC 2102 of LMC | 50 | 160,000 | 11.79 | 17,000 | Evolution | [44][24] |
V432 Carinae | in Wray 15-693 | 50 | 19,600 | 10.2 | 8,000-25,000 | Evolution | [44][18] |
WR 102bc | in Arches Cluster | 50 | 25,000 | 16.74 (J band) | 31,700 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
τ Canis Majoris Aa | in NGC 2362 | 50 | 5,120 | 4.89 | 32,000 | Trinary | [81][82] |
CD Crucis A | in Hogg 15 | 48 | 14,000 | 10.81 (combined) | 56,000 | Binary | [65][10] |
LH 54-425 A | in NGC 1955 of LMC | 47 | 165,000 | 13.13 (combined) | 45,000 | Binary | [83][84][k] |
HD 15558 B | in IC 1805 of Heart Nebula | 46 | 7,500 | 7.87 (combined) | 45,600 | Binary | [9][10] |
V4650 Sagittarii | in Quintuplet cluster | 46 | 26,000 | 12.31 (J band) | 11,300 | Evolution | [85][61] |
WR 102ak | in Arches Cluster | 45.9 | 25,000 | 16.62 (J band) | 32,200 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
WR 102c | in Sickle Nebula of Galactic Center | 45 | 26,000 | 16.03 (J band) | 65,000-75,000 | Evolution | [86][87][l] |
GCIRS 8* | in Galactic Center | 44.5 | 26,000 | 17.37 (J band) | 46,000 | Evolution | [88][79] |
AB7 B | in NGC 371 of SMC | 44 | 197,000 | 13.016 (combined) | 36,000 | Binary | [57][43] |
WR 102df | in Quintuplet cluster | 44 | 25,000 | 13.87 (J band) | 25,100 | Evolution | [60][61] |
WR 148 A | Runaway star from Galactic plane | 44 | 27,000 | 10.3 (combined) | 39,800 | Evolution | [27][28] |
WR 102ag | in Arches Cluster | 43.3 | 25,000 | 16.31 (J band) | 32,900 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
WR 102i | in Quintuplet cluster | 43 | 26,000 | 14.31 (J band) | 31,600 | Evolution | [60][61] |
WR 102aa | in Arches Cluster | 41.6 | 25,000 | 17.84 (J band) | 33,500 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
AB6 B | in NGC 371 of SMC | 41 | 200,000 | 12.3 (combined) | 37,000 | Binary | [57][43] |
HD 93205 A | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 40 | 7,500 | 7.75 (combined) | 51,300 | Binary | [89][10] |
Romano's Star, GR 290 | in Triangulum Galaxy | 40 | 2,760,000 | 18.04 | 23,500 | Evolution | [90][91] |
Sher 25 | in HD 97950 of NGC 3603 | 40 | 25,000 | 12.23 | 22,000 | Evolution | [92][16] |
HD 93403 B | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 37.3 | 10,400 | 8.27 (combined) | 40,100 | Binary | [56][18] |
P Cygni | in IC 4996 of Cygnus OB1 | 37 | 5,100 | 4.82 | 18,700 | Evolution | [93][10][m] |
WR 148 B | Runaway star from Galactic plane | 37 | 27,000 | 10.3 (combined) | 47,000 | Binary | [94][28] |
9 Sagittarii B | in NGC 6530 of Lagoon Nebula | 36 | 5,800 | 5.97 (combined) | 40,900 | Binary | [69][10] |
LBV 1806-20 | in G10.0-0.3 of Galactic Center | 36 | 28,000 | 13.66 (J band) | 18,000-32,000 | Evolution | [95][36][n] |
WR 102d | in Quintuplet cluster | 36 | 26,000 | 13.87 (J band) | 35,100 | Evolution | [60][61] |
ζ1 Scorpii | in NGC 6321 of Scorpius OB1 | 36 | 8,220 | 4.705 | 17,200 | Spectroscopy | [31][96] |
WR 140 B | in Cygnus OB1 | 35.9 | 5,600 | 6.85 (combined) | 35,000 | Binary | [97][10] |
ζ Orionis Aa, Alnitak | in Orion OB1 of Orion Complex | 33 | 1,260 | 2.08 | 29,500 | Trinary | [98] |
θ1 Orionis C1 | in Trapezium Cluster of Orion Nebula | 33 | 1,350 | 5.13 (combined) | 39,000 | Binary | [99][10] |
κ Cassiopeiae | in Cassiopeia OB14 | 33 | 4,000 | 4.16 | 23,500 | Evolution | [100][10] |
μ Normae | in NGC 6169 | 33 | 3,260 | 4.91 | 28,000 | Spectroscopy | [101][102] |
WR 9 B | in Puppis b | 32 | 15,000 | 10.5 (combined) | 45,600 | Binary | [103][10][o] |
WR 102ai | in Arches Cluster | 31.1 | 25,000 | 16.69 (J band) | 32,100 | Spectroscopy | [29][30] |
α Camelopardalis | Runaway star from NGC 1502 | 30.9 | 6,000 | 4.29 | 30,000 | Evolution | [104][10] |
WR 12 A | in Bochum 7 | 30 | 18,600 | 10.78 (combined) | 44,700 | Evolution | [105][p] |
ε Orionis, Alnilam | in Orion OB1 of Orion Complex | 30 | 2,000 | 1.69 | 27,500 | Spectroscopy | [106][10] |
η Carinae B | in Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula | 30 | 7,500 | 4.3 (combined) | 37,200 | Binary | [107][38] |
VFTS 352 B | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 28.85 | 164,000 | 14.38 (combined) | 41,100 | Binary | [108][5] |
VFTS 352 A | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 28.63 | 164,000 | 14.38 (combined) | 42,500 | Binary | [108][5] |
WR 142 | in Berkeley 87 | 28.6 | 5,400 | 12.99 | 200,000 | Evolution | [109][18] |
γ Velorum B, Regor | in Vela OB2 | 28.5 | 1,230 | 1.83 (combined) | 35,000 | Binary | [10][110] |
LH 54-425 B | in NGC 1955 of LMC | 28 | 165,000 | 13.13 (combined) | 41,000 | Binary | [83][84][k] |
λ Orionis A, Meissa | in Collinder 69 of Orion Complex | 27.9 | 1,100 | 3.54 | 37,700 | Binary | [10][111] |
Pistol Star, V4647 Sagittarii | in Quintuplet cluster | 27.5 | 25,000 | 11.79 (J band) | 11,800-12,000 | Evolution | [85][61] |
QZ Carinae A1 | in Collinder 228 of Carina Nebula | 27.4 | 7,500 | 6.24 (combined) | 30,500 | Quaternary | [10][112] |
WR 1 | in Cassiopeia OB7 | 27 | 10,200 | 10.54 | 112,200 | Evolution | [27][28] |
10 Lacertae | in Lacerta OB1 | 26.9 | 2,330 | 4.88 | 36,000 | Spectroscopy | [10][113] |
ξ Persei, Menkib | in California Nebula of Perseus OB2 | 26.1 | 1,200 | 4.04 | 35,000 | Spectroscopy | [10][114] |
WR 22 B | in Bochum 10 of Carina Nebula | 25.7 | 8,300 | 6.42 (combined) | 33,000 | Binary | [10][115][h] |
QZ Carinae B1 | in Collinder 228 of Carina Nebula | 25.4 | 7,500 | 6.24 (combined) | 34,000 | Quaternary | [112][10] |
VFTS 102 | in Tarantula Nebula of LMC | 25 | 164,000 | 15.806 | 36,000 | Evolution | [116][14] |
Sun | on the Ecliptic | 1 | 0.0000158 | -26.744 | 5,772 | Planetary orbital measurement | [117][118][119] |
- ^ For some methods, different determinations of chemical composition lead to different estimates of mass.
- ^ For a binary star, it is possible to measure the individual masses of the two stars by studying their orbital motions, using Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
- ^ The superwinds from massive stars are similar to the superwinds generated by asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars – red giants – that form planetary nebulae. These stars' later remnants become the (technically non-stellar) white dwarf cores of planetary nebulae.
- ^ For examples of stellar debris see hypernovae and supernova remnant.
- ^ a b c d e This is a binary system but the secondary is much less massive than the primary.
- ^ This unusual estimate of WR 42e’s mass was made by assuming the star was ejected from a three-body encounter within NGC 3603. This assumption is effectively the same as presuming that the current massive star is the result of a merger between the two originally closest binary components of what was a tripple-star system. The estimated mass is consistent with evolutionary mass for a star with the observed parameters.
- ^ N44 is an emission nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
- ^ a b Bochum 10 is an open cluster in the Carina Nebula.
- ^ N135 is an emission nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
- ^ Vela R2 is a OB association in the Vela Molecular Ridge.
- ^ a b LH 54 is an OB association in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
- ^ The Sickle Nebula is a Wolf–Rayet nebula near the Quintuplet cluster.
- ^ IC 4996 is an open cluster in Cygnus OB1.
- ^ G10.0-0.3 is a radio nebula in the Galactic Center.
- ^ Puppis b is an open cluster.
- ^ Bochum 7 is an OB association.
Black holes
Black holes are the end point evolution of massive stars. Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores. Some black holes may have cosmological origins, and would then never have been stars. This is thought to be especially likely in the cases of the most massive black holes.
- Stellar black holes are objects with approximately 4–15 M☉.
- Intermediate-mass black holes range from 100 to 10 000 M☉.
- Supermassive black holes are in the range of millions or billions M☉.
See also
- Hypergiant
- List of brightest stars
- List of brown dwarfs
- List of galaxies
- List of hottest stars
- List of largest cosmic structures
- List of largest nebulae
- List of largest stars
- List of most luminous stars
- List of most massive black holes
- List of most massive neutron stars
- Lists of stars
- Luminous blue variable
- Supergiant star
- Wolf–Rayet star
External links
- "Statistics in Arches cluster". HubbleSite. May 2005.
- "Most Massive Star Discovered". Space.com.
- "Arches cluster". ScienceDaily. March 2005.
- "How heavy can a star get?". 3towers. Archived from the original on 2007-10-28.
- "Hubble Unveils Monster Stars". NASA. March 2016.
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