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En 1882, Egipto fue ocupado por el Reino Unido , tras la revuelta de Orabi contra el jedive egipcio . El Reino de Egipto estuvo esencialmente bajo control británico a partir de entonces, incluso después del reconocimiento formal de la independencia egipcia en 1922, con las tropas británicas que permanecieron alrededor de la zona del Canal de Suez . El autogobierno egipcio completo no se realizó hasta la Revolución egipcia de 1952 .
Antecedentes [ editar ]
Historia de la influencia británica [ editar ]
Los británicos habían considerado durante mucho tiempo a Egipto como un vínculo estratégico con la India . La invasión de Egipto por Napoleón en 1798 desestabilizó gravemente a la dinastía mameluca local y los turcos otomanos invitaron a los británicos a desempeñar un papel más directo en Egipto. En 1875, el gobierno británico compró las acciones restantes del canal de Suez del gobierno egipcio local .
En 1882 Ahmed Urabi encabezó una revuelta de oficiales militares egipcios y plebeyos contra la dominación europea y otomana de Egipto. Una fuerza expedicionaria británica aplastó esta revuelta. Si bien esto estaba destinado a ser una intervención temporal, las tropas británicas se quedaron en Egipto, lo que marcó el comienzo de la ocupación británica y la inclusión de Egipto dentro del Imperio Británico , nominalmente como un reino gobernado por la dinastía Muhammad Ali . En deferencia al creciente nacionalismo después de la Primera Guerra Mundial , el Reino Unido declaró unilateralmente a Egipto independiente en 1922. Sin embargo, la influencia británica continuó dominando la vida política de Egipto y fomentó reformas fiscales, administrativas, militares y gubernamentales.
Rey Farouk de Egipto [ editar ]
Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Egipto fue gobernado por el rey Farouk I , que había ascendido al trono en 1936 y permanecería en el poder hasta 1952. Durante las dificultades de la guerra, Faruk recibió críticas por su lujoso estilo de vida. Su decisión de mantener todas las luces encendidas en su palacio en Alejandría , durante un momento en que la ciudad estaba bajo un apagón por temor a un bombardeo italiano , enfureció particularmente a algunos. [1] Los sirvientes reales italianos de Farouk no fueron internados y hay una historia no confirmada que Farouk le había contado al embajador británico , Sir Miles Lampson., "Me deshaceré de mis italianos, cuando tú te deshagas de los tuyos". Este comentario fue una referencia a la esposa italiana del embajador. [2] Egipto había roto relaciones con las potencias del Eje poco después del estallido de la guerra, pero permaneció técnicamente neutral hasta cerca del final de la guerra.
Tras una crisis ministerial en febrero de 1942, el gobierno británico, a través de su embajador, Sir Miles Lampson, presionó a Farouk para que un gobierno de coalición Wafd o Wafd reemplazara al gobierno de Hussein Serry Pasha . En la noche del 4 de febrero de 1942, las tropas y los tanques británicos rodearon el Palacio Abdeen en El Cairo y Lampson presentó a Farouk un ultimátum. Farouk capituló y Mostafa El-Nahas formó un gobierno poco después. [3]
Después de la guerra, el rey Farouk trajo a Egipto a un gran número de ex militares alemanes y personal de inteligencia y ex-nazis de rango como "asesores". Este movimiento enfureció a los británicos, que habían estado entrenando y ayudando al ejército egipcio desde la creación del Reino de Egipto en 1922. [4]
Invasión italiana [ editar ]
La invasión italiana de Egipto (13-18 de septiembre), comenzó como una operación táctica limitada hacia Mersa Matruh , más que por los objetivos estratégicos esbozados en Roma , debido a la falta crónica de transporte, combustible y equipos inalámbricos, incluso con transferencias desde el 5to Ejército. Musaid fue sometido a un bombardeo de artillería "espectacular" al amanecer y ocupado. Los británicos se retiraron más allá de Buq Buq el 14 de septiembre, pero continuaron hostigando el avance italiano. Los británicos continuaron retrocediendo, yendo a Alam Hamid el día 15 y Alam el Dab el día 16. Una fuerza italiana de cincuenta tanques intentó un movimiento de flanqueo, lo que llevó a la retaguardia británica a retirarse al este de Sidi Barrani .Graziani detuvo el avance.
A pesar de la insistencia de Mussolini , los italianos excavaron alrededor de Sidi Barrani y Sofafi, a unas 80 millas (130 km) al oeste de las defensas británicas en Mersa Matruh. Los británicos anticiparon que el avance italiano se detendría en Sidi Barrani y Sofafi y comenzaron a observar las posiciones. Las operaciones navales y aéreas británicas continuaron hostigando al ejército italiano mientras la 7ª División Blindada se preparaba para enfrentar un avance sobre Matruh .
Derrota italiana [ editar ]
Selby Force protegió los accesos orientales a Sidi Barrani, mientras el resto de la WDF atacaba los campamentos fortificados más hacia el interior. El 10 de diciembre, la Cuarta Brigada Blindada , que había estado protegiendo a los atacantes de un posible contraataque italiano desde el oeste, avanzó hacia el norte, cortó la carretera de la costa entre Sidi Barrani y Buq Buq y envió patrullas de vehículos blindados hacia el oeste. La Séptima Brigada Blindada permaneció en reserva y el Séptimo Grupo de Apoyo bloqueó un acercamiento desde Rabia y Sofafi hacia el sur.
La 16ª Brigada, apoyada por un escuadrón de tanques Matilda II , aviones de la RAF , barcos de la Royal Navy y fuego de artillería, inició su avance a las 9:00 am . La lucha continuó durante muchas horas, sin ganancias sustanciales, hasta la 1:30 pm, cuando los Camisas Negras que tenían dos fortalezas en el lado occidental se rindieron repentinamente. La brigada siguió avanzando con el último de los tanques de Infantería, un batallón de infantería extra y el apoyo del 2º Regimiento Real de Tanques .
El segundo ataque comenzó poco después de las 4:00 pm . La artillería italiana abrió fuego contra la infantería mientras desmontaba. Las últimas diez Matildas se adentraron en la cara occidental de las defensas de Sidi Barrani y, aunque fueron recibidas por la artillería italiana, fue ineficaz. A las 6 de la tarde, se rindieron aproximadamente 2.000 camisas negras . En dos horas se habían capturado los primeros objetivos, solo un sector a 2 millas (4 km) al este del puerto, en manos de una legión de Camisas Negras y los restos de la 1ª División de Libia , aún resistía. Los británicos continuaron avanzando hasta que llegaron a Mersa Brega en febrero de 1941.
Intervención alemana [ editar ]
Adolf Hitler sent his army to North Africa starting in February 1941 (see Operation Sonnenblume). Nazi Germany's General Erwin Rommel's Deutsches Afrikakorps coming from victories at Tobruk in Libya, and in a classic blitzkrieg, comprehensively outfought British forces. Within weeks the British had been pushed back into Egypt.
German defeat[edit]
Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway halt of El Alamein, just 150 miles from Cairo. In July 1942 the First Battle of El Alamein was lost by Rommel because he was suffering from the eternal curse of the desert war, and long supply lines. The British, with their backs against the wall, were very close to their supplies, and had fresh troops on hand. In early September 1942 Rommel tried again to break through the British lines during the Battle of Alam el Halfa. He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived British commander, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery.
With British forces from Malta interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert, Rommel could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle from late October to early November 1942, the Second Battle of El Alamein, to defeat the Germans forcing them to retreat westwards towards Libya and Tunisia.
Egyptian participation[edit]
Although Egypt was part of the British Military Operations zone and British forces were stationed there, many Egyptian Army units also fought alongside them. Some units like 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Infantry Regiments, 16th and 12th Cavalry Regiments, 17th Horse Artillery Regiment and 22nd King's Own Artillery Regiment. Some other units also fought but its names are unknown. Beside these units, the Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiments all over Egypt played a vital role in destroying Luftwaffe attacks on Alexandria, Cairo, Suez and Northern Delta.
Allied victory[edit]
The leadership of the United Kingdom's General Bernard Montgomery at the Second Battle of El Alamein, or the Battle of Alamein, marked a significant turning point of World War II and was the first major victory by British Commonwealth forces over the German Army. The battle lasted from 23 October to 3 November 1942. Following the First Battle of El Alamein, which had stalled the Axis advance, British general Bernard Montgomery took command of the Eighth Army from Claude Auchinleck in August 1942. Success in the battle turned the tide in the North African Campaign. Some historians believe that the battle, along with the Battle of Stalingrad, were the two major Allied victories that contributed to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.
By July 1942 the German Afrika Korps under General Rommel had struck deep into Egypt, threatening the vital Allied supply line across the Suez Canal. Faced with overextended supply lines and lack of reinforcements and yet well aware of massive Allied reinforcements arriving, Rommel decided to strike at the Allies while their build-up was still not complete. This attack on 30 August 1942 at Alam Halfa failed, and expecting a counterattack by Montgomery's Eighth Army, the Afrika Korps dug in. After six more weeks of building up forces the Eighth Army was ready to strike. 200,000 men and 1,000 tanks under Montgomery made their move against the 100,000 men and 500 tanks of the Afrika Korps.
The Allied plan[edit]
With Operation Lightfoot, Montgomery hoped to cut two corridors through the Axis minefields in the north. Armour would then pass through and defeat the German armour. Diversionary attacks in the south would keep the rest of the Axis forces from moving northwards. Montgomery expected a twelve-day battle in three stages — "The break-in, the dog-fight and the final break of the enemy."
The Commonwealth forces practised a number of deceptions in the months prior to the battle to wrong-foot the Axis command, not only as to the exact whereabouts of the forthcoming battle, but as to when the battle was likely to occur. This operation was codenamed Operation Bertram. A dummy pipeline was built, stage by stage, the construction of which would lead the Axis to believe the attack would occur much later than it in fact did, and much further south. To further the illusion, dummy tanks made of plywood frames placed over jeeps were constructed and deployed in the south. In a reverse feint, the tanks for battle in the north were disguised as supply lorries by placing a removable plywood superstructure over them.
The Axis were dug-in along two lines, called by the Allies the Oxalic Line and the Pierson Line. They had laid around half a million mines, mainly anti-tank, in what was called the Devil's gardens.
The battle[edit]
The battle opened at 2140 hours on 23 October with a sustained artillery barrage. The initial objective was the Oxalic Line with the armour intending to advance over this and on to the Pierson Line. However the minefields were not yet fully cleared when the assault began.
On the first night, the assault to create the northern corridor fell three miles short of the Pierson line. Further south they had made better progress but were stalled at Miteirya Ridge.
On 24 October the Axis commander, General Stumme (Rommel was on sick leave in Austria), died of a heart-attack while under fire. After a period of confusion while Stumme's body was missing, General Ritter von Thoma took command of the Axis forces. Hitler initially instructed Rommel to remain at home and continue his convalescence but then became alarmed at the deteriorating situation and asked Rommel to return to Africa if he felt able. Rommel left at once and arrived on 25 October.
For the Allies in the south, after another abortive assault on the Miteirya Ridge, the attack was abandoned. Montgomery switched the focus of the attack to the north. There was a successful night attack over the 25-26th. Rommel's immediate counter-attack was without success. The Allies had lost 6,200 men against Axis losses of 2,500, but while Rommel had only 370 tanks fit for action Montgomery still had over 900.
Montgomery felt that the offensive was losing momentum and decided to regroup. There were a number of small actions but, by 29 October the Axis line was still intact. Montgomery was still confident and prepared his forces for Operation Supercharge. The endless small operations and the attrition by the Allied airforce had by then reduced Rommel's effective tank strength to only 102.
The second major Allied offensive of the battle was along the coast, initially to capture the Rahman Track and then take the high ground at Tel el Aqqaqir. The attack began on 2 November 1942. By the 3rd Rommel had only 35 tanks fit for action. Despite containing the Allied advance, the pressure on his forces made a retreat necessary. However the same day Rommel received a "victory or death" message from Hitler, halting the withdrawal. But the Allied pressure was too great, and the German forces had to withdraw on the night of 3–4 November. By 6 November the Axis forces were in full retreat and over 30,000 soldiers had surrendered.
Aftermath[edit]
Churchill's summation[edit]
Winston Churchill famously summed up the battle on 10 November 1942 with the words "now this is not the end, it is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning."
The battle was Montgomery's greatest triumph. He took the title "Viscount Montgomery of Alamein" when he was raised to the peerage.
The Torch landings in Morocco later that month marked the effective end of the Axis threat in North Africa.
Egyptian fleet damages[edit]
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to Army of Egypt during World War II. |
In total, 14 Egyptian ships were sunk during the war by U-boats, those included: one ship sunk by German submarine U-83, three ships sunk and one survived with damage by German submarine U-77, nine ships sunk by German submarine U-81.
| Date | Ship | sunk/damaged by | Tonnage | Fate |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 April 1942 | Bab el Farag | U-81 | 105 | Sunk |
| 16 April 1942 | Fatouhel el Rahman | 97 | Sunk | |
| 19 April 1942 | Hefz el Rahman | 90 | Sunk | |
| 22 April 1942 | Aziza | 100 | Sunk | |
| 11 February 1943 | Al Kasbanah | 110 | Sunk | |
| 11 February 1943 | Sabah al Kheir | 36 | Sunk | |
| 20 March 1943 | Bourgheih | 244 | Sunk | |
| 28 March 1943 | Rouisdi | 133 | Sunk | |
| 25 June 1943 | Nisr | 80 | Sunk | |
| 8 June 1942 | Said | U-83 | 231 | Sunk |
| 30 July 1942 | Fany | U-77 | 43 | Sunk |
| 1 August 1942 | St. Simon | 100 | Sunk | |
| 6 August 1942 | Adnan | 155 | Damaged | |
| 6 August 1942 | Ezzet | 158 | Sunk |
See also[edit]
- Military history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War
External links[edit]
- El Alamein at the Wayback Machine (archived March 22, 2008)
- Text of Cairo Declaration
References[edit]
- ^ Hughes, Andy (November 19, 2011). The Pocket Guide to Royal Scandals. Remember When. p. 89. ISBN 978-1844680900.
- ^ Smith, Colin; John, Bierman (September 26, 2002). Alamein: War Without Hate. Viking. ISBN 0670911097.
- ^ Smith, Charles (1979). "4 February 1942: Its Causes and Its Influence on Egyptian Politics and on the Future of Anglo-Egyptian Relations, 1937-1945". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 10 (4): 453–479. doi:10.1017/S0020743800051291. JSTOR 162213.
- ^ Walters, Guy (7 December 2014). "Hitler's Henchmen in Arabia". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- MacGregor, Andrew (2006). A military history of modern Egypt: from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Praeger Security International General Interest. ISBN 0-275-98601-2.
- Alamein by C E Lucas Phillips ISBN 0-330-30011-3
- Rothwell, Steve (1998). "Military Ally or Liability: The Egyptian Army 1936–1942". Army Quarterly and Defence Journal. 128 (2).
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