Dom Pedro I (en inglés: Peter I; 12 de octubre de 1798 - 24 de septiembre de 1834), apodado "el Libertador", fue el fundador y primer gobernante del Imperio de Brasil . Como rey Dom Pedro IV , reinó brevemente sobre Portugal , donde también se le conoció como "el Libertador" y también como "el Rey Soldado". [A] Nacido en Lisboa , Pedro I fue el cuarto hijo del Rey Don João VI de Portugal y la Reina Carlota Joaquina , y por lo tanto miembro de la Casa de Braganza.. Cuando el país fue invadido por tropas francesas en 1807, él y su familia huyeron a la colonia más grande y rica de Portugal, Brasil.
Pedro I de Brasil Pedro IV de Portugal | ||||
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Emperador de Brasil | ||||
Reinado | 12 de octubre de 1822-7 de abril de 1831 | |||
Coronación | 1 de diciembre de 1822 Capilla Imperial | |||
Sucesor | Pedro II | |||
Rey de portugal | ||||
Reinado | 10 de marzo de 1826-2 de mayo de 1826 | |||
Predecesor | João VI | |||
Sucesor | María II | |||
Nació | Palacio de Queluz , Queluz , Portugal | 12 de octubre de 1798 |||
Fallecido | 24 de septiembre de 1834 Palacio de Queluz, Queluz, Portugal | (35 años) |||
Entierro | ||||
Cónyuge | ||||
Problema entre otros ... | ||||
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casa | Braganza | |||
Padre | João VI de Portugal | |||
Mamá | Carlota Joaquina de España | |||
Religión | catolicismo romano | |||
Firma |
El estallido de la Revolución Liberal de 1820 en Lisboa obligó al padre de Pedro I a regresar a Portugal en abril de 1821, dejándolo gobernar Brasil como regente. Tuvo que lidiar con los desafíos de los revolucionarios y la insubordinación de las tropas portuguesas, todo lo cual sometió. La amenaza del gobierno portugués de revocar la autonomía política que había disfrutado Brasil desde 1808 fue recibida con un descontento generalizado en Brasil. Pedro I eligió el bando brasileño y declaró la independencia de Brasil de Portugal el 7 de septiembre de 1822. El 12 de octubre, fue aclamado emperador de Brasil y en marzo de 1824 había derrotado a todos los ejércitos leales a Portugal. Unos meses más tarde, Pedro I aplastó la efímera Confederación del Ecuador , un fallido intento de secesión de los rebeldes provinciales en el noreste de Brasil .
Una rebelión secesionista en la provincia sureña de Cisplatina a principios de 1825, y el posterior intento de las Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata de anexarlo, llevaron al Imperio a la Guerra Cisplatina . En marzo de 1826, Pedro I se convirtió brevemente en rey de Portugal antes de abdicar en favor de su hija mayor, Doña María II . La situación empeoró en 1828 cuando la guerra en el sur resultó en la pérdida de Cisplatina en Brasil. Durante el mismo año en Lisboa, el trono de María II fue usurpado por el príncipe Dom Miguel , hermano menor de Pedro I. La relación sexual simultánea y escandalosa del Emperador con una cortesana empañó su reputación. Otras dificultades surgieron en el parlamento brasileño, donde una lucha sobre si el gobierno sería elegido por el monarca o por la legislatura dominó los debates políticos de 1826 a 1831. Incapaz de abordar los problemas en Brasil y Portugal simultáneamente, el 7 de abril de 1831 Pedro Abdicé en favor de su hijo Dom Pedro II y navegué rumbo a Europa.
Pedro I invadió Portugal al frente de un ejército en julio de 1832. Ante lo que en un principio parecía una guerra civil nacional, pronto se vio envuelto en un conflicto más amplio que envolvió a la Península Ibérica en una lucha entre los defensores del liberalismo y los que buscaban un retorno. al absolutismo . Pedro I murió de tuberculosis el 24 de septiembre de 1834, pocos meses después de que él y los liberales salieran victoriosos. Fue aclamado tanto por los contemporáneos como por la posteridad como una figura clave que ayudó a difundir los ideales liberales que permitieron a Brasil y Portugal pasar de regímenes absolutistas a formas representativas de gobierno.
Primeros años
Nacimiento
Pedro nació a las 08:00 del 12 de octubre de 1798 en el Palacio Real de Queluz cerca de Lisboa , Portugal . [1] Fue nombrado en honor a San Pedro de Alcántara , y su nombre completo era Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. [2] [3] Se hizo referencia a él usando el honorífico " Dom " ( Señor ) desde su nacimiento. [4]
A través de su padre, el Príncipe Dom João (más tarde el Rey Dom João VI ), Pedro fue miembro de la Casa de Braganza (portugués: Bragança ) y nieto del Rey Dom Pedro III y la Reina Doña (Dama) María I de Portugal , quienes fueron tío y sobrina, así como marido y mujer. [5] [6] Su madre, Doña Carlota Joaquina , era hija del Rey Don Carlos IV de España. [7] Los padres de Pedro tuvieron un matrimonio infeliz. Carlota Joaquina fue una mujer ambiciosa, que siempre buscó promover los intereses de España, incluso en detrimento de los de Portugal. Reputadamente infiel a su marido, llegó a planear su derrocamiento en alianza con los nobles portugueses insatisfechos. [8] [9]
Como segundo hijo mayor (aunque el cuarto hijo), Pedro se convirtió en el heredero aparente de su padre y príncipe de Beira tras la muerte de su hermano mayor Francisco António en 1801. [10] El príncipe Dom João había estado actuando como regente en nombre de su madre. , La reina María I, después de que fuera declarada demente incurable en 1792. [11] [12] En 1802, los padres de Pedro se separaron; João vivió en el Palacio Nacional de Mafra y Carlota Joaquina en el Palacio de Ramalhão . [13] [14] Pedro y sus hermanos residían en el Palacio de Queluz con su abuela María I, lejos de sus padres, a quienes solo veían durante los actos de estado en Queluz. [13] [14]
Educación
A finales de noviembre de 1807, cuando Pedro tenía nueve años, la familia real escapó de Portugal cuando un ejército francés invasor enviado por Napoleón se acercó a Lisboa. Pedro y su familia llegaron a Río de Janeiro , entonces capital de Brasil , el mayor y más rica colonia de Portugal en marzo de 1808. [15] Durante el viaje, Pedro leer Virgilio 's Eneida y conversó con la tripulación del buque, recogiendo navegación habilidades. [16] [17] En Brasil, después de una breve estancia en el Palacio de la Ciudad , Pedro se instaló con su hermano menor Miguel y su padre en el Palacio de São Cristóvão (San Cristóbal). [18] Aunque nunca tuvo una relación íntima con su padre, Pedro lo amaba y estaba resentido por la constante humillación que sufría su padre a manos de Carlota Joaquina debido a sus aventuras extramaritales. [13] [19] De adulto, Pedro llamaba abiertamente a su madre, por quien sólo sentía desprecio, "perra". [20] Las primeras experiencias de traición, frialdad y abandono tuvieron un gran impacto en la formación del personaje de Pedro. [13]
Un mínimo de estabilidad durante su infancia fue proporcionada por su aia (institutriz), Maria Genoveva do Rêgo e Matos, a quien amaba como madre, y por su aio (supervisor) fray António de Arrábida, quien se convirtió en su mentor. [21] [22] Ambos estaban a cargo de la crianza de Pedro e intentaron proporcionarle una educación adecuada. Su instrucción abarcó una amplia gama de materias que incluían matemáticas, economía política , lógica, historia y geografía. [23] Aprendió a hablar y escribir no solo en portugués , sino también en latín y francés . [24] Sabía traducir del inglés y entendía el alemán . [25] Incluso más tarde, como emperador, Pedro dedicaría al menos dos horas diarias a estudiar y leer. [25] [26]
A pesar de la amplitud de la instrucción de Pedro, su educación resultó ser deficiente. El historiador Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa dijo que Pedro "era sin lugar a dudas inteligente, ingenioso [y] perspicaz". [27] Sin embargo, el historiador Roderick J. Barman relata que, por naturaleza, era "demasiado efervescente, demasiado errático y demasiado emocional". Se mantuvo impulsivo y nunca aprendió a ejercer el autocontrol ni a evaluar las consecuencias de sus decisiones y adaptar su perspectiva a los cambios en las situaciones. [28] Su padre nunca permitió que nadie lo disciplinara. [23] Si bien el horario de Pedro dictaba dos horas de estudio cada día, a veces eludía la rutina al despedir a sus instructores en favor de actividades que encontraba más interesantes. [23]
Primer matrimonio
El príncipe encontró satisfacción en actividades que requerían habilidades físicas, en lugar de en el aula. En la finca de Santa Cruz de su padre , Pedro entrenó caballos intactos y se convirtió en un buen jinete y un excelente herrador . [29] [30] Él y su hermano Miguel disfrutaban de cacerías montadas en terrenos desconocidos, a través de bosques e incluso de noche o con inclemencias del tiempo. [29] Mostró talento para el dibujo y la artesanía, aplicándose a la talla de madera y la fabricación de muebles. [31] Además, tenía gusto por la música y, bajo la dirección de Marcos Portugal, el príncipe se convirtió en un compositor capaz. Tenía una buena voz para cantar y era competente con varios instrumentos musicales (incluido el piano , la flauta y la guitarra ), tocando canciones y bailes populares. [32] Pedro era un hombre sencillo, tanto en hábitos como en el trato con los demás. Excepto en ocasiones solemnes en las que vestía traje de corte, su atuendo diario consistía en pantalones de algodón blanco, chaqueta de algodón a rayas y un sombrero de paja de ala ancha, o una levita y un sombrero de copa en situaciones más formales. [33] Con frecuencia se tomaba el tiempo para entablar una conversación con la gente en la calle, notando sus preocupaciones. [34]
El carácter de Pedro estuvo marcado por un impulso enérgico que rayaba en la hiperactividad. Era impetuoso con una tendencia a ser dominante y de mal genio. Fácilmente aburrido o distraído, en su vida personal se entretenía con coqueteos con mujeres además de sus actividades de caza y equitación. [35] Su espíritu inquieto lo impulsó a buscar aventuras y, a veces disfrazado de viajero, frecuentaba tabernas en los distritos de mala reputación de Río de Janeiro. [36] [37] Rara vez bebía alcohol, pero era un mujeriego incorregible. [38] [39] Su primera relación duradera conocida fue con una bailarina francesa llamada Noémi Thierry, quien tuvo un hijo muerto con él. El padre de Pedro, que había ascendido al trono como João VI, envió a Thierry para evitar poner en peligro el compromiso del príncipe con la archiduquesa María Leopoldina , hija del emperador Francisco I de Austria (antes Francisco II, emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico ). [40] [41]
El 13 de mayo de 1817, Pedro contrajo matrimonio por poder con María Leopoldina. [42] [43] Cuando llegó a Río de Janeiro el 5 de noviembre, se enamoró de inmediato de Pedro, que era mucho más encantador y atractivo de lo que había esperado. Después de "años bajo un sol tropical, su tez aún era clara, sus mejillas sonrosadas". El príncipe de 19 años era guapo y de estatura un poco por encima del promedio, con brillantes ojos oscuros y cabello castaño oscuro. [29] "Su buen aspecto", dijo el historiador Neill Macaulay , "se debía mucho a su porte, orgulloso y erguido incluso a una edad incómoda, y su aseo, que era impecable. Habitualmente pulcro y limpio, había adoptado la costumbre brasileña de bañarse con frecuencia ". [29] La Misa Nupcial, con la ratificación de los votos previamente tomados por poder, tuvo lugar al día siguiente. [44] Siete hijos resultaron de este matrimonio: María (más tarde Reina Doña María II de Portugal ), Miguel , João , Januária , Paula , Francisca y Pedro (más tarde Emperador Dom Pedro II de Brasil ). [45]
Independencia de Brasil
Revolución Liberal de 1820
El 17 de octubre de 1820 llegó la noticia de que las guarniciones militares en Portugal se habían amotinado, dando lugar a lo que se conoció como la Revolución Liberal de 1820 . Los militares formaron un gobierno provisional, suplantando la regencia nombrada por João VI, y convocaron las Cortes , el parlamento portugués centenario, esta vez elegido democráticamente con el objetivo de crear una Constitución nacional. [46] Pedro se sorprendió cuando su padre no solo le pidió consejo, sino que decidió enviarlo a Portugal para gobernar como regente en su nombre y aplacar a los revolucionarios. [47] El príncipe nunca fue educado para gobernar y anteriormente no se le había permitido participar en los asuntos estatales. El papel que le correspondía por derecho de nacimiento lo ocupó en cambio su hermana mayor, doña María Teresa : João VI había confiado en ella para que le aconsejara, y fue ella a quien se le dio la membresía en el Consejo de Estado . [48]
Pedro fue mirado con sospecha por su padre y por los consejeros cercanos del rey, todos los cuales se aferraron a los principios de la monarquía absoluta . Por el contrario, el príncipe era un conocido y acérrimo partidario del liberalismo y de la monarquía constitucional representativa. Había leído las obras de Voltaire , Benjamin Constant , Gaetano Filangieri y Edmund Burke . [49] Incluso su esposa María Leopoldina comentó: "Mi esposo, que Dios nos ayude, ama las nuevas ideas". [50] [51] João VI pospuso la partida de Pedro todo lo posible, temiendo que una vez que estuviera en Portugal, sería aclamado rey por los revolucionarios. [47]
El 26 de febrero de 1821, las tropas portuguesas estacionadas en Río de Janeiro se amotinaron. Ni João VI ni su gobierno hicieron ningún movimiento contra las unidades amotinadas. Pedro decidió actuar por su cuenta y cabalgó para encontrarse con los rebeldes. Negoció con ellos y convenció a su padre de que aceptara sus demandas, que incluían nombrar un nuevo gabinete y hacer un juramento de obediencia a la próxima Constitución portuguesa. [52] El 21 de abril, los electores parroquiales de Río de Janeiro se reunieron en la Bolsa de Comerciantes para elegir a sus representantes en las Cortes . Un pequeño grupo de agitadores se apoderó de la reunión y formó un gobierno revolucionario. Nuevamente, João VI y sus ministros permanecieron pasivos, y el monarca estaba a punto de aceptar las demandas de los revolucionarios cuando Pedro tomó la iniciativa y envió tropas del ejército para restablecer el orden. [53] Bajo la presión de las Cortes , João VI y su familia partieron hacia Portugal el 26 de abril, dejando atrás a Pedro y María Leopoldina. [54] Dos días antes de embarcarse, el rey advirtió a su hijo: "Pedro, si Brasil se rompe, que lo haga por ti, que me respetarás, que por uno de esos aventureros". [55]
Independencia o Muerte
Al inicio de su regencia, Pedro promulgó decretos que garantizaban los derechos personales y patrimoniales. También redujo el gasto público y los impuestos. [51] [56] Incluso los revolucionarios arrestados en el incidente de Merchants 'Exchange fueron puestos en libertad. [57] El 5 de junio de 1821, las tropas del ejército al mando del teniente general portugués Jorge Avilez (más tarde Conde de Avilez) se amotinaron, exigiendo que Pedro prestara juramento de respetar la Constitución portuguesa después de su promulgación. El príncipe salió solo para intervenir con los amotinados. Negoció con calma e ingenio, ganándose el respeto de las tropas y logrando reducir el impacto de sus demandas más inaceptables. [58] [59] El motín fue un golpe de Estado militar apenas velado que buscaba convertir a Pedro en una mera figura decorativa y transferir el poder a Avilez. [60] El príncipe aceptó el resultado insatisfactorio, pero también advirtió que sería la última vez que cedería bajo presión. [59] [61]
La crisis continua llegó a un punto sin retorno cuando las Cortes disolvieron el gobierno central en Río de Janeiro y ordenaron el regreso de Pedro. [62] [63] Esto fue percibido por los brasileños como un intento de subordinar su país nuevamente a Portugal — Brasil no había sido una colonia desde 1815 y tenía el estatus de un reino . [64] [65] El 9 de enero de 1822, a Pedro se le presentó una petición que contenía 8.000 firmas en la que le pedían que no se fuera. [66] [67] Él respondió: "Ya que es por el bien de todos y la felicidad general de la Nación, estoy dispuesto. Dígale a la gente que me quedo". [68] Avilez se amotinó de nuevo e intentó forzar el regreso de Pedro a Portugal. Esta vez el príncipe se defendió, reuniendo a las tropas brasileñas (que no se habían unido a las portuguesas en motines anteriores), [69] unidades de milicias y civiles armados. [70] [71] Superado en número, Avilez se rindió y fue expulsado de Brasil junto con sus tropas. [72] [73]
Durante los meses siguientes, Pedro intentó mantener una apariencia de unidad con Portugal, pero la ruptura final era inminente. Con la ayuda de un ministro capaz, José Bonifácio de Andrada , buscó apoyo fuera de Río de Janeiro. El príncipe viajó a Minas Gerais en abril y luego a São Paulo en agosto. Fue recibido calurosamente en ambas provincias brasileñas y las visitas reforzaron su autoridad. [74] [75] Al regresar de São Paulo, recibió noticias enviadas el 7 de septiembre de que las Cortes no aceptarían el autogobierno en Brasil y castigarían a todos los que desobedecieran sus órdenes. [76] "Nunca uno que evite la acción más dramática sobre el impulso inmediato", dijo Barman sobre el príncipe, "no requirió más tiempo para la decisión del que exigía la lectura de las cartas". [77] Pedro montó en su yegua castaña [B] y, frente a su séquito y su Guardia de Honor, dijo: "Amigos, las Cortes portuguesas quisieron esclavizarnos y perseguirnos. A partir de hoy se acaban nuestros lazos. Por mi sangre , por mi honor, por mi Dios, juro lograr la independencia de Brasil. Brasileños, que nuestra consigna de hoy en adelante sea 'Independencia o Muerte ' " [78].
Emperador Constitucional
El príncipe fue aclamado emperador Dom Pedro I en su cumpleaños número 24, que coincidió con la inauguración del Imperio de Brasil el 12 de octubre. Fue coronado el 1 de diciembre en lo que hoy se conoce como la Catedral Vieja de Río de Janeiro . Su ascendencia no se extendió de inmediato a todos los territorios de Brasil. Tuvo que forzar la sumisión de varias provincias en las regiones norte , noreste y sur , y las últimas unidades de resistencia portuguesas solo se rindieron a principios de 1824. [79] [80] Mientras tanto, la relación de Pedro I con Bonifácio se deterioró. [81] La situación llegó a un punto crítico cuando Pedro I, por conducta inapropiada, destituyó a Bonifácio. Bonifácio había utilizado su cargo para hostigar, procesar, arrestar e incluso exiliar a sus enemigos políticos. [82] Durante meses, los enemigos de Bonifácio habían trabajado para ganarse al Emperador. Mientras Pedro I todavía era príncipe regente, le habían otorgado el título de "Defensor perpetuo de Brasil" el 13 de mayo de 1822. [83] También lo incorporaron a la masonería el 2 de agosto y luego lo nombraron gran maestro el 7 de octubre, reemplazando a Bonifácio en esa posición. [84]
La crisis entre el monarca y su exministro se sintió de inmediato en la Asamblea General Constituyente y Legislativa , que había sido elegida con el propósito de redactar una Constitución. [85] Miembro de la Asamblea Constituyente, Bonifácio recurrió a la demagogia, alegando la existencia de una importante conspiración portuguesa contra los intereses brasileños, insinuando que Pedro I, nacido en Portugal, estaba implicado. [86] [87] El emperador se indignó por la invectiva dirigida a la lealtad de los ciudadanos portugueses y las insinuaciones de que él mismo estaba en conflicto con su lealtad a Brasil. [88] El 12 de noviembre de 1823, Pedro I ordenó la disolución de la Asamblea Constituyente y convocó a nuevas elecciones. [89] Al día siguiente, puso a un Consejo de Estado nativo recién establecido a cargo de redactar un borrador constitucional. Se enviaron copias del borrador a todos los ayuntamientos y la gran mayoría votó a favor de su adopción inmediata como Constitución del Imperio. [90]
Como resultado del Estado altamente centralizado creado por la Constitución, elementos rebeldes en Ceará , Paraíba y Pernambuco intentaron separarse de Brasil y unirse en lo que se conoció como la Confederación del Ecuador . [91] [92] Pedro I intentó sin éxito evitar el derramamiento de sangre ofreciéndose a aplacar a los rebeldes. [91] [93] Enojado, dijo: "¿Qué exigían los insultos de Pernambuco? Seguramente un castigo, y tal castigo que servirá de ejemplo para el futuro". [91] Los rebeldes nunca pudieron asegurarse el control de sus provincias y fueron fácilmente reprimidos. A fines de 1824, la rebelión terminó. [92] [94] Dieciséis rebeldes fueron juzgados y ejecutados, [94] [95] mientras que todos los demás fueron indultados por el Emperador. [96]
Crisis dentro y fuera
Portuguese dynastic affair
After long negotiations, Portugal signed a treaty with Brazil on 29 August 1825 in which it recognized Brazilian independence.[97] Except for the recognition of independence, the treaty provisions were at Brazil's expense, including a demand for reparations to be paid to Portugal, with no other requirements of Portugal. Compensation was to be paid to all Portuguese citizens residing in Brazil for the losses they had experienced, such as properties which had been confiscated. João VI was also given the right to style himself emperor of Brazil.[98] More humiliating was that the treaty implied that independence had been granted as a beneficent act of João VI, rather than having been compelled by the Brazilians through force of arms.[99][100] Even worse, Great Britain was rewarded for its role in advancing the negotiations by the signing of a separate treaty in which its favorable commercial rights were renewed and by the signing of a convention in which Brazil agreed to abolish slave trade with Africa within four years. Both accords were severely harmful to Brazilian economic interests.[101][102]
A few months later, the Emperor received word that his father had died on 10 March 1826, and that he had succeeded his father on the Portuguese throne as King Dom Pedro IV.[103] Aware that a reunion of Brazil and Portugal would be unacceptable to the people of both nations, he hastily abdicated the crown of Portugal on 2 May in favor of his eldest daughter, who became Queen Dona Maria II.[104][105][C] His abdication was conditional: Portugal was required to accept the Constitution which he had drafted and Maria II was to marry his brother Miguel.[103] Regardless of the abdication, Pedro I continued to act as an absentee king of Portugal and interceded in its diplomatic matters, as well as in internal affairs, such as making appointments.[106] He found it difficult, at the very least, to keep his position as Brazilian emperor separate from his obligations to protect his daughter's interests in Portugal.[106]
Miguel feigned compliance with Pedro I's plans. As soon as he was declared regent in early 1828, and backed by Carlota Joaquina, he abrogated the Constitution and, supported by those Portuguese in favor of absolutism, was acclaimed King Dom Miguel I.[107] As painful as was his beloved brother's betrayal, Pedro I also endured the defection of his surviving sisters, Maria Teresa, Maria Francisca, Isabel Maria and Maria da Assunção, to Miguel I's faction.[108] Only his youngest sister, Ana de Jesus, remained faithful to him, and she later traveled to Rio de Janeiro to be close to him.[109] Consumed by hatred and beginning to believe rumors that Miguel I had murdered their father, Pedro I turned his focus on Portugal and tried in vain to garner international support for Maria II's rights.[110][111]
War and widowhood
Backed by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (present-day Argentina), a small band declared Brazil's southernmost province of Cisplatina to be independent in April 1825.[112] The Brazilian government at first perceived the secession attempt as a minor uprising. It took months before a greater threat posed by the involvement of the United Provinces, which expected to annex Cisplatina, caused serious concern. In retaliation, the Empire declared war in December, triggering the Cisplatine War.[113] The Emperor traveled to Bahia province (located in northeastern Brazil) in February 1826, taking along his wife and daughter Maria. The Emperor was warmly welcomed by the inhabitants of Bahia.[114] The trip was planned to generate support for the war-effort.[115]
The imperial entourage included Domitila de Castro (then-Viscountess and later Marchioness of Santos), who had been Pedro I's mistress since their first meeting in 1822. Although he had never been faithful to Maria Leopoldina, he had previously been careful to conceal his sexual escapades with other women.[116] However, his infatuation for his new lover "had become both blatant and limitless", while his wife endured slights and became the object of gossip.[117] Pedro I was increasingly rude and mean toward Maria Leopoldina, left her short of funds, prohibited her from leaving the palace and forced her to endure Domitila's presence as her lady-in-waiting.[118][119] In the meantime, his lover took advantage by advancing her interests, as well as those of her family and friends. Those seeking favors or to promote projects increasingly sought her help, bypassing the normal, legal channels.[120]
On 24 November 1826, Pedro I sailed from Rio de Janeiro to São José in the province of Santa Catarina. From there he rode to Porto Alegre, capital of the province of Rio Grande do Sul, where the main army was stationed.[121] Upon his arrival on 7 December, the Emperor found the military conditions to be much worse than previous reports had led him to expect. He "reacted with his customary energy: he passed a flurry of orders, fired reputed grafters and incompetents, fraternized with the troops, and generally shook up military and civilian administration."[122] He was already on his way back to Rio de Janeiro when he was told that Maria Leopoldina had died following a miscarriage.[123] Unfounded rumors soon spread that purported that she had died after being physically assaulted by Pedro I.[D] Meanwhile, the war continued on with no conclusion in sight. Pedro I relinquished Cisplatina in August 1828, and the province became the independent nation of Uruguay.[124][125]
Second marriage
After his wife's death, Pedro I realized how miserably he had treated her, and his relationship with Domitila began to crumble. Maria Leopoldina, unlike his mistress, was popular, honest and loved him without expecting anything in return. The Emperor greatly missed her, and even his obsession with Domitila failed to overcome his sense of loss and regret.[126] One day Domitila found him weeping on the floor and embracing a portrait of his deceased wife, whose sad-looking ghost Pedro I claimed to have seen.[127] Later on, the Emperor left the bed he shared with Domitila and shouted: "Get off of me! I know I live an unworthy life of a sovereign. The thought of the Empress does not leave me."[128][129] He did not forget his children, orphaned of their mother, and was observed on more than one occasion holding his son, the young Pedro, in his arms and saying: "Poor boy, you are the most unhappy prince in the world."[130]
At the insistence of Pedro I, Domitila departed from Rio de Janeiro on 27 June 1828.[131] He had resolved to marry again and to become a better person. He even tried to persuade his father-in-law of his sincerity, by claiming in a letter "that all my wickedness is over, that I shall not again fall into those errors into which I have fallen, which I regret and have asked God for forgiveness".[132] Franz I was less than convinced. The Austrian emperor, deeply offended by the conduct his daughter endured, withdrew his support for Brazilian concerns and frustrated Pedro I's Portuguese interests.[133] Because of Pedro I's bad reputation in Europe, owing to his past behavior, princesses from several nations declined his proposals of marriage one after another.[107] His pride thus wounded, he allowed his mistress to return, which she did on 29 April 1829 after having been away nearly a year.[132][134]
However, once he learned that a betrothal had finally been arranged, the Emperor ended his relationship to Domitila. She returned to her native province of São Paulo on 27 August, where she remained.[135] Days earlier, on 2 August, the Emperor had been married by proxy to Amélie of Leuchtenberg.[136][137] He was stunned by her beauty after meeting her in person.[138][139] The vows previously made by proxy were ratified in a Nuptial Mass on 17 October.[140][141] Amélie was kind and loving to his children and provided a much needed sense of normality to both his family and the general public.[142] After Domitila's banishment from court, the vow the Emperor made to alter his behavior proved to be sincere. He had no more affairs and remained faithful to his spouse.[143] In an attempt to mitigate and move beyond other past misdeeds, he made peace with José Bonifácio, his former minister and mentor.[144][145]
Entre portugal y brasil
Endless crises
Since the days of the Constituent Assembly in 1823, and with renewed vigor in 1826 with the opening of the General Assembly (the Brazilian parliament), there had been an ideological struggle over the balance of powers wielded by the emperor and legislature in governance. On one side were those who shared Pedro I's views, politicians who believed that the monarch should be free to choose ministers, national policies and the direction of government. In opposition were those, then known as the Liberal Party, who believed that cabinets should have the power to set the government's course and should consist of deputies drawn from the majority party who were accountable to the parliament.[146] Strictly speaking, both the party that supported Pedro I's government and the Liberal Party advocated Liberalism, and thus constitutional monarchy.[147]
Regardless of Pedro I's failures as a ruler, he respected the Constitution: he did not tamper with elections or countenance vote rigging, refuse to sign acts ratified by the government, or impose any restrictions on freedom of speech.[148][149] Although within his prerogative, he did not dissolve the Chamber of Deputies and call for new elections when it disagreed with his aims or postpone seating the legislature.[150] Liberal newspapers and pamphlets seized on Pedro I's Portuguese birth in support of both valid accusations (e.g., that much of his energy was directed toward affairs concerning Portugal)[151] and false charges (e.g., that he was involved in plots to suppress the Constitution and to reunite Brazil and Portugal).[152] To the Liberals, the Emperor's Portuguese-born friends who were part of the Imperial court, including Francisco Gomes da Silva who was nicknamed "the Buffoon", were part of these conspiracies and formed a "secret cabinet".[153][154] None of these figures exhibited interest in such issues, and whatever interests they may have shared, there was no palace cabal plotting to abrogate the Constitution or to bring Brazil back under Portugal's control.[155]
Another source of criticism by the Liberals involved Pedro I's abolitionist views.[156] The Emperor had indeed conceived a gradual process for eliminating slavery. However, the constitutional power to enact legislation was in the hands of the Assembly, which was dominated by slave-owning landholders who could thus thwart any attempt at abolition.[157][158] The Emperor opted to try persuasion by moral example, setting up his estate at Santa Cruz as a model by granting land to his freed slaves there.[159][160] Pedro I also professed other advanced ideas. When he declared his intention to remain in Brazil on 9 January 1822 and the populace sought to accord him the honor of unhitching the horses and pulling his carriage themselves, the then-Prince Regent refused. His reply was a simultaneous denunciation of the divine right of kings, of nobility's supposedly superior blood and of racism: "It grieves me to see my fellow humans giving a man tributes appropriate for the divinity, I know that my blood is the same color as that of the Negroes."[161][162]
Abdication
The Emperor's efforts to appease the Liberal Party resulted in very important changes. He supported an 1827 law that established ministerial responsibility.[163] On 19 March 1831, he named a cabinet formed by politicians drawn from the opposition, allowing a greater role for the parliament in the government.[164] Lastly, he offered positions in Europe to Francisco Gomes and another Portuguese-born friend to extinguish rumors of a "secret cabinet".[142][165] To his dismay, his palliative measures did not stop the continuous attacks from the Liberal side upon his government and his foreign birth. Frustrated by their intransigence, he became unwilling to deal with his deteriorating political situation.[142]
Meanwhile, Portuguese exiles campaigned to convince him to give up on Brazil and instead devote his energies to the fight for his daughter's claim to Portugal's crown.[166] According to Roderick J. Barman, "[in] an emergency the Emperor's abilities shone forth—he became cool in nerve, resourceful and steadfast in action. Life as a constitutional monarch, full of tedium, caution, and conciliation, ran against the essence of his character."[167] On the other hand, the historian remarked, he "found in his daughter's case everything that appealed most to his character. By going to Portugal he could champion the oppressed, display his chivalry and self-denial, uphold constitutional rule, and enjoy the freedom of action he craved."[166]
The idea of abdicating and returning to Portugal took root in his mind, and, beginning in early 1829, he talked about it frequently.[168] An opportunity soon appeared to act upon the notion. Radicals within the Liberal Party rallied street gangs to harass the Portuguese community in Rio de Janeiro. On 11 March 1831, in what became known as the "noite das garrafadas" (night of the broken bottles), the Portuguese retaliated and turmoil gripped the streets of the national capital.[169][170] On 5 April, Pedro I fired the Liberal cabinet, which had only been in power since 19 March, for its incompetence in restoring order.[164][171] A large crowd, incited by the radicals, gathered in Rio de Janeiro downtown on the afternoon of 6 April and demanded the immediate restoration of the fallen cabinet.[172] The Emperor's reply was: "I will do everything for the people and nothing [compelled] by the people."[173] Sometime after nightfall, army troops, including his guard, deserted him and joined the protests. Only then did he realize how isolated and detached from Brazilian affairs he had become, and to everyone's surprise, he abdicated at approximately 03:00 on 7 April.[174] Upon delivering the abdication document to a messenger, he said: "Here you have my act of abdication, I'm returning to Europe and leaving a country that I loved very much, and still love."[175][176]
Regreso a Europa
War of restoration
At dawn on the morning of 7 April, Pedro, his wife, and others, including his daughter Maria II and his sister Ana de Jesus, were taken on board the British warship HMS Warspite. The vessel remained at anchor off Rio de Janeiro, and, on 13 April, the former emperor transferred to and departed for Europe aboard HMS Volage.[178][179] He arrived in Cherbourg-Octeville, France, on 10 June.[180][181] During the next few months, he shuttled between France and Great Britain. He was warmly welcomed, but received no actual support from either government to restore his daughter's throne.[182] Finding himself in an awkward situation because he held no official status in either the Brazilian Imperial House or in the Portuguese Royal House, Pedro assumed the title of Duke of Braganza on 15 June, a position that once had been his as heir to Portugal's crown. Although the title should have belonged to Maria II's heir, which he certainly was not, his claim was met with general recognition.[183][184] On 1 December, his only daughter by Amélie, Maria Amélia, was born in Paris.[185]
He did not forget his children left in Brazil. He wrote poignant letters to each of them, conveying how greatly he missed them and repeatedly asking them to seriously attend to their educations. Shortly before his abdication, Pedro had told his son and successor: "I intend that my brother Miguel and I will be the last badly educated of the Braganza family".[186][187] Charles Napier, a naval commander who fought under Pedro's banner in the 1830s, remarked that "his good qualities were his own; his bad owing to want of education; and no man was more sensible of that defect than himself."[188][189] His letters to Pedro II were often couched in language beyond the boy's reading level, and historians have assumed such passages were chiefly intended as advice that the young monarch might eventually consult upon reaching adulthood.[180][E]
While in Paris, the Duke of Braganza met and befriended Gilbert du Motier, Marquis of Lafayette, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War who became one of his staunchest supporters.[184][191] With limited funds, Pedro organized a small army composed of Portuguese liberals, like Almeida Garrett and Alexandre Herculano, foreign mercenaries and volunteers such as Lafayette's grandson, Adrien Jules de Lasteyrie.[192] On 25 January 1832, Pedro bade farewell to his family, Lafayette and around two hundred well-wishers. He knelt before Maria II and said: "My lady, here is a Portuguese general who will uphold your rights and restore your crown." In tears, his daughter embraced him.[193] Pedro and his army sailed to the Atlantic archipelago of the Azores, the only Portuguese territory that had remained loyal to his daughter. After a few months of final preparations they embarked for mainland Portugal, entering the city of Porto unopposed on 9 July. His brother's troops moved to encircle the city, beginning a siege that lasted for more than a year.[194]
Death
In early 1833, while besieged in Porto, Pedro received news from Brazil of his daughter Paula's impending death.[F] Months later, in September, he met with Antônio Carlos de Andrada, a brother of Bonifácio who had come from Brazil. As a representative of the Restorationist Party, Antônio Carlos asked the Duke of Braganza to return to Brazil and rule his former empire as regent during his son's minority. Pedro realized that the Restorationists wanted to use him as a tool to facilitate their own rise to power, and frustrated Antônio Carlos by making several demands, to ascertain whether the Brazilian people, and not merely a faction, truly wanted him back. He insisted that any request to return as regent be constitutionally valid. The people's will would have to be conveyed through their local representatives and his appointment approved by the General Assembly. Only then, and "upon the presentation of a petition to him in Portugal by an official delegation of the Brazilian parliament" would he consider accepting.[195][196]
During the war, the Duke of Braganza mounted cannons, dug trenches, tended the wounded, ate among the rank and file and fought under heavy fire as men next to him were shot or blown to pieces.[197] His cause was nearly lost until he took the risky step of dividing his forces and sending a portion to launch an amphibious attack on southern Portugal. The Algarve region fell to the expedition, which then marched north straight for Lisbon, which capitulated on 24 July.[198] Pedro proceeded to subdue the remainder of the country, but just when the conflict looked to be winding down to a conclusion, his Spanish uncle Don Carlos, who was attempting to seize the crown of his niece Doña Isabel II, intervened. In this wider conflict that engulfed the entire Iberian Peninsula, the First Carlist War, the Duke of Braganza allied with liberal Spanish armies loyal to Isabel II and defeated both Miguel I and Carlos. A peace accord was reached on 26 May 1834.[199][200]
Except for bouts of epilepsy that manifested in seizures every few years, Pedro had always enjoyed robust health.[31][201] The war, however, undermined his constitution and by 1834 he was dying of tuberculosis.[202] He was confined to his bed in Queluz Royal Palace from 10 September.[203][204] Pedro dictated an open letter to the Brazilians, in which he begged that a gradual abolition of slavery be adopted. He warned them: "Slavery is an evil, and an attack against the rights and dignity of the human species, but its consequences are less harmful to those who suffer in captivity than to the Nation whose laws allow slavery. It is a cancer that devours its morality."[205] After a long and painful illness, Pedro died at 14:30 on 24 September 1834.[206] As he had requested, his heart was placed in Porto's Lapa Church and his body was interred in the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza.[207][208] The news of his death arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 20 November, but his children were informed only after 2 December.[209] Bonifácio, who had been removed from his position as their guardian, wrote to Pedro II and his sisters: "Dom Pedro did not die. Only ordinary men die, not heroes."[210][211]
Legacy
Upon the death of Pedro I, the then-powerful Restorationist Party vanished overnight.[212] A fair assessment of the former monarch became possible once the threat of his return to power was removed. Evaristo da Veiga, one of his worst critics as well as a leader in the Liberal Party, left a statement which, according to historian Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa, became the prevailing view thereafter:[208] "the former emperor of Brazil was not a prince of ordinary measure ... and Providence has made him a powerful instrument of liberation, both in Brazil and in Portugal. If we [Brazilians] exist as a body in a free Nation, if our land was not ripped apart into small enemy republics, where only anarchy and military spirit predominated, we owe much to the resolution he took in remaining among us, in making the first shout for our Independence." He continued: "Portugal, if it was freed from the darkest and demeaning tyranny ... if it enjoys the benefits brought by representative government to learned peoples, it owes it to D[om]. Pedro de Alcântara, whose fatigues, sufferings and sacrifices for the Portuguese cause has earned him in high degree the tribute of national gratitude."[213][214]
John Armitage, who lived in Brazil during the latter half of Pedro I's reign, remarked that "even the errors of the Monarch have been attended with great benefit through their influence on the affairs of the mother country. Had he governed with more wisdom it would have been well for the land of his adoption, yet, perhaps, unfortunate for humanity." Armitage added that like "the late Emperor of the French, he was also a child of destiny, or rather, an instrument in the hands of an all-seeing and beneficent Providence for the furtherance of great and inscrutable ends. In the old as in the new world he was henceforth fated to become the instrument of further revolutions, and ere the close of his brilliant but ephemeral career in the land of his fathers, to atone amply for the errors and follies of his former life, by his chivalrous and heroic devotion in the cause of civil and religious freedom."[215]
In 1972, on the 150th anniversary of Brazilian independence, Pedro I's remains (though not his heart) were brought to Brazil—as he had requested in his will—accompanied by much fanfare and with honors due to a head of state. His remains were reinterred in the Monument to the Independence of Brazil, along with those of Maria Leopoldina and Amélie, in the city of São Paulo.[207][216] Years later, Neill Macaulay said that "[c]riticism of Dom Pedro was freely expressed and often vehement; it prompted him to abdicate two thrones. His tolerance of public criticism and his willingness to relinquish power set Dom Pedro apart from his absolutist predecessors and from the rulers of today's coercive states, whose lifetime tenure is as secure as that of the kings of old." Macaulay affirmed that "[s]uccessful liberal leaders like Dom Pedro may be honored with an occasional stone or bronze monument, but their portraits, four stories high, do not shape public buildings; their pictures are not borne in parades of hundreds of thousands of uniformed marchers; no '-isms' attach to their names."[217]
Títulos y honores
Titles and styles
Styles ofPedro I, Emperor of Brazil | |
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Reference style | His Imperial Majesty |
Spoken style | Your Imperial Majesty |
Royal styles ofPedro IV, King of Portugal | |
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Reference style | His Most Faithful Majesty |
Spoken style | Your Most Faithful Majesty |
- 12 October 1798 – 11 June 1801: His Highness The Most Serene Infante Dom Pedro, Grand Prior of Crato[105]
- 11 June 1801 – 20 March 1816: His Royal Highness The Prince of Beira[105]
- 20 March 1816 – 9 January 1817: His Royal Highness The Prince of Brazil[105]
- 9 January 1817 – 10 March 1826: His Royal Highness The Prince Royal[105]
- 12 October 1822 – 7 April 1831: His Imperial Majesty The Emperor[105]
- 10 March 1826 – 2 May 1826: His Most Faithful Majesty The King[105]
- 15 June 1831 – 24 September 1834: His Imperial Majesty The Duke of Braganza[183]
As Brazilian emperor his full style and title were: "His Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro I, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil".[218]
As Portuguese king his full style and title were: "His Most Faithful Majesty Dom Pedro IV, King of Portugal and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc."[219]
Nobility
As heir to the Portuguese crown:[220]
- Duke of Braganza[2]
- Duke of Barcelos[2]
- Duke of Guimarães[2]
- Marquis of Vila Viçosa[2]
- Count of Ourém[2]
- Count of Barcelos[2]
- Count of Faria and Neiva[2]
- Count of Arraiolos[2]
- Count of Guimarães[2]
Honors
Emperor Pedro I was Grand Master of the following Brazilian Orders:[221]
- Order of Christ
- Order of Aviz
- Order of Saint James of the Sword
- Order of the Southern Cross
- Order of Pedro I
- Order of the Rose
As King Pedro IV, he was Grand Master of the following Portuguese Orders:[2]
- Order of Christ
- Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz
- Order of Saint James of the Sword
- Order of the Tower and Sword
- Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
After having abdicated the Portuguese crown:
- Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valor, Loyalty and Merit on 20 September 1834[105]
He was a recipient of the following foreign honors:[222]
- Knight of the Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece
- Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Charles III
- Grand Cross of the Spanish Order of Isabella the Catholic
- Grand Cross of the French Order of Saint Louis
- Knight of the French Order of the Holy Spirit
- Knight of the French Order of Saint Michael
- Grand Cross of the Austro-Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen
Genealogía
Ancestry
The ancestry of Emperor Pedro I:[223]
Ancestors of Pedro I of Brazil | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Issue
Name | Portrait | Lifespan | Notes |
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By Maria Leopoldina of Austria (22 January 1797 – 11 December 1826; married by proxy on 13 May 1817) | |||
Maria II of Portugal | 4 April 1819 – 15 November 1853 | Queen of Portugal from 1826 until 1853. Maria II's first husband, Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg, died a few months after the marriage. Her second husband was Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who became King Dom Fernando II after the birth of their first child. She had eleven children from this marriage. Maria II was heir to her brother Pedro II as Princess Imperial until her exclusion from the Brazilian line of succession by law no. 91 of 30 October 1835.[224] | |
Miguel, Prince of Beira | 26 April 1820 | Prince of Beira from birth to his death. | |
João Carlos, Prince of Beira | 6 March 1821 – 4 February 1822 | Prince of Beira from birth to his death. | |
Princess Januária of Brazil | 11 March 1822 – 13 March 1901 | Married Prince Luigi, Count of Aquila, son of Don Francesco I, King of the Two Sicilies. She had four children from this marriage. Officially recognized as an Infanta of Portugal on 4 June 1822,[225] she was later considered excluded from the Portuguese line of succession after Brazil became independent.[226] | |
Princess Paula of Brazil | 17 February 1823 – 16 January 1833 | She died age 9, probably of meningitis.[227] Born in Brazil after its independence, Paula was excluded from the Portuguese line of succession.[228] | |
Princess Francisca of Brazil | 2 August 1824 – 27 March 1898 | Married Prince François, Prince of Joinville, son of Louis Philippe I, King of the French. She had three children from this marriage. Born in Brazil after its independence, Francisca was excluded from the Portuguese line of succession.[229] | |
Pedro II of Brazil | 2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891 | Emperor of Brazil from 1831 until 1889. He was married to Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies, daughter of Don Francesco I, King of the Two Sicilies. He had four children from this marriage. Born in Brazil after its independence, Pedro II was excluded from the Portuguese line of succession and did not become King Dom Pedro V of Portugal upon his father's abdication.[211] | |
By Amélie of Leuchtenberg (31 July 1812 – 26 January 1873; married by proxy on 2 August 1829) | |||
Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil | 1 December 1831 – 4 February 1853 | She lived her entire life in Europe and never visited Brazil. Maria Amélia was betrothed to Archduke Maximilian, later Emperor Don Maximiliano I of Mexico, but died before her marriage. Born years after her father abdicated the Portuguese crown, Maria Amélia was never in the line of succession to the Portuguese throne.[230] | |
By Domitila de Castro, Marchioness of Santos (27 December 1797 – 3 November 1867) | |||
Isabel Maria de Alcântara Brasileira | 23 May 1824 – 3 November 1898 | She was the only child of Pedro I born out of wedlock who was officially legitimized by him.[231] On 24 May 1826, Isabel Maria was given the title of "Duchess of Goiás", the style of Highness and the right to use the honorific "Dona" (Lady).[231] She was the first person to hold the rank of duke in the Empire of Brazil.[232] These honors did not confer on her the status of Brazilian princess or place her in the line of succession. In his will, Pedro I gave her a share of his estate.[233] She later lost her Brazilian title and honors upon her 17 April 1843 marriage to a foreigner, Ernst Fischler von Treuberg, Count of Treuberg.[234][235] | |
Pedro de Alcântara Brasileiro | 7 December 1825 – 27 December 1825 | Pedro I seems to have considered giving him the title of "Duke of São Paulo", which was never realized due to the child's early death.[236] | |
Maria Isabel de Alcântara Brasileira | 13 August 1827 – 25 October 1828 | Pedro I considered giving her the title of "Duchess of Ceará", the style of Highness and the right to use the honorific "Dona" (Lady).[237] This was never put into effect due to her early death. Nonetheless, it is quite common to see many sources calling her "Duchess of Ceará", even though "there is no record of the registry of her title in official books, which is also not mentioned in papers related to her funeral".[237] | |
Maria Isabel de Alcântara Brasileira | 28 February 1830 – 13 September 1896 | Countess of Iguaçu through marriage in 1848 to Pedro Caldeira Brant, son of Felisberto Caldeira Brant, Marquis of Barbacena.[236] She was never given any titles by her father due to his marriage to Amélie. However, Pedro I acknowledged her as his daughter in his will, but gave her no share of his estate, except for a request that his widow aid in her education and upbringing.[233] | |
By Maria Benedita, Baroness of Sorocaba (18 December 1792 – 5 March 1857) | |||
Rodrigo Delfim Pereira | 4 November 1823 – 31 January 1891 | In his will, Pedro I acknowledged him as his son and gave him a share of his estate.[233] Rodrigo Delfim Pereira became a Brazilian diplomat and lived most of his life in Europe.[238] | |
By Henriette Josephine Clemence Saisset | |||
Pedro de Alcântara Brasileiro | 28 August 1829 – 1902 | In his will, Pedro I acknowledged him as his son and gave him a share of his estate.[233] He was married to Maria Palomares, with whom he had four children, among them Ernest de Saisset, a Californian painter and founder of the De Saisset Museum.[239][240] He worked in several business ventures in the United States, where he served as a consular agent for France for more than three decades.[241] |
Ver también
- Hino da Independência and Hino da Carta, both composed by Pedro I.
- Dom Pedro aquamarine, named after the Emperor and his son Pedro II, is the world's largest cut aquamarine gem.
Notas finales
- ^ Pedro I became known as "the Liberator" in Brazil for his role in the country's independence.(Viana 1994, p. 252) He also became known as "the Liberator" in Portugal, as well as "the Soldier King". Both epithets resulted from his part in the war against his brother, Dom Miguel I.(Saraiva 2001, p. 378)
- ^ Of the two eyewitness accounts of 7 September 1822 that mention Prince Dom Pedro's mount, that of Father Belquior Pinheiro de Oliveira on 7 September 1826 and that of Manuel Marcondes de Oliveira e Melo (later Baron of Pindamonhangaba) on 14 April 1862, both say that it was a besta baia (bay beast) (Costa 1972, Vol 295, pp. 74, 80). In a work published in 1853 and based on an interview with another eyewitness, Colonel Antônio Leite Pereira da Gama Lobo, historian Paulo Antônio do Vale said that it was a "zaino" (bay horse) (Costa 1972, Vol 295, pp. 75, 80). The words used, "bay beast" and "bay horse", are at first glance, both similar and confusingly vague. In Portuguese, as in English, a beast is any non-human animal especially a large four-footed mammal. However, formerly in Brazil beast also meant "mare" (a female horse) as may be seen in dictionaries published in 1946 (Freira 1946, p. 1022) and 1968 (Carvalho 1968, p. 158), although this usage has since been discontinued except in Brazil's northeast and northern regions (Houaiss & Villar 2009, p. 281). The use of besta to refer to a mare is still in use in Portugal (Dicionários Editora 1997, p. 205). Thus, the description of a "bay horse" with non-defined sex and "bay beast (mare)" do in fact coincide. Two of Pedro's biographers, Pedro Calmon (Calmon 1975, p. 97) and Neill Macaulay (Macaulay 1986, p. 125) have identified his horse as a bay mare. Pedro, who was an outstanding horseman and making an average of 108 kilometers per day, was able to ride this animal from the city of São Paulo back to the capital of Rio de Janeiro in just five days, leaving his guard and his entourage far behind (Costa 1972, Vol 295, p. 131). Francisco Gomes da Silva, "the Buffoon", the second person to arrive, lagged behind the Prince by some eight hours (Costa 1972, Vol 295, p. 133).
- ^ Pedro I gave up more than just the crowns of Portugal and Brazil. Less known is that he was also offered the crown of Greece in April 1822 (while he was still prince regent) by the Greek government which was embroiled in a fight for national independence. Pedro I declined, and eventually Otto of Bavaria became King of Greece (Costa 1995, pp. 172–173). Pedro I also declined offers of the Spanish crown made in 1826 and 1829 by liberals who rebelled against the absolutist rule of his uncle, Don Fernando VII. The liberals in Portugal and Spain agreed in 1830 to make Pedro I the "Emperor of Iberia". He seems to have declined this offer also, since nothing came of it (Costa 1995, pp. 195–197). Brazilian historian Sérgio Corrêa da Costa and Portuguese historian Antônio Sardinha have argued, however, with little supporting evidence, that one of the inducements which prompted Pedro I to abdicate the Brazilian crown was to dethrone his brother and his uncle and rule the entire Iberian Peninsula as its emperor (Costa 1995, pp. 197, 199).
- ^ Rumors circulated at the time purporting that Pedro I had kicked Maria Leopoldina in the womb during a heated discussion. The quarrel was witnessed by Domitila de Castro and Wenzel Philipp Leopold, Baron von Mareschal. Then serving Maria Leopoldina's father as the Austrian minister in Brazil and thus inclined to reflect her interests, Mareschal was the sole eyewitness who left an account of what actually happened. According to him, the couple had a bitter argument in which they exchanged insults, but there is no mention of physical violence (Rangel 1928, pp. 162–163; Calmon 1975, pp. 14–15; Costa 1995, p. 86). Historians Alberto Rangel (Rangel 1928, p. 163), Pedro Calmon (Calmon 1950, p. 137; Calmon 1975, p. 14), Otávio Tarquínio de Sousa (Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 242), Sérgio Corrêa da Costa (Costa 1995, p. 86) and Roderick J. Barman (Barman 1999, p. 17) have rejected the possibility that Pedro I physically harmed his wife and all affirmed that the altercation was limited to harsh language. A later exhumation confirmed that Maria Leopoldina had died of natural causes.(Tavares 2013) As late as 1831, however, aspersions on Pedro's conduct at the time of his wife's death were still being whispered, serving as a lasting reminder of what people actually believed, regardless of the unfounded nature of the allegations (Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 242). Barman was categorical when he noted that Maria Leopoldina's death stripped Pedro I of "any remaining aura of sanctity, either at home or abroad" (Barman 1988, p. 147).
- ^ A notable passage in a missive to Pedro II gives an insight into the Duke of Braganza's political philosophy: "The era in which princes were respected solely because they are simply princes has ended; in the century in which we live, in which the peoples are quite well informed of their rights, it is necessary that princes should be and also should know that they are men and not divinities, that for them knowledge and good sense are indispensable so that they are the more quickly loved than respected. The respect of a free people for their ruler ought to be born of the conviction which they hold that their ruler is capable of making them achieve that level of happiness they aspire to; and if such is not the case, unhappy ruler, unhappy people"[190]
- ^ Pedro made two requests to José Bonifácio, his children's guardian: "the first is to keep for me a bit of her beautiful hair; the second is to place her in the convent of Nossa Senhora da Ajuda [Our Lady of Good Aid] and in the same spot where her good mother, my Leopoldina for whom even today I still shed tears of longing, is located ... I ask you as a father, as a pitiful desolate father, to do me a favor and go in person to deposit next to the body of her mother this fruit of her womb and on this occasion pray for one and other" (Santos 2011, p. 29).
Referencias
- ^ See:
- Calmon 1950, p. 14,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 10–11,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 6,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 36.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Branco 1838, p. XXXVI.
- ^ Calmon 1975, p. 3.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 424.
- ^ Calmon 1950, pp. 5, 9, 11.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 5, 9–10.
- ^ Calmon 1950, p. 12.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 4, 8, 10, 28.
- ^ Calmon 1950, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 6.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 3.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d Macaulay 1986, p. 7.
- ^ a b Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 12.
- ^ See:
- Costa 1972, pp. 12–13,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 43,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 34, 47.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 39,41.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 22.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 29.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 125, 128.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 189.
- ^ Calmon 1950, p. 33.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 22, 33.
- ^ a b c Macaulay 1986, p. 32.
- ^ See:
- Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 116,
- Costa 1995, pp. 99–101,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 70.
- ^ a b Costa 1995, p. 101.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 121.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 101.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d Macaulay 1986, p. 46.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 58.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 36.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 37.
- ^ See:
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 175, 255
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- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 177.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 134.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 252.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 51.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 71.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 76.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 78–80.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 53.
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- ^ Calmon 1950, p. 44.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 96.
- ^ Calmon 1950, p. 49.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 64.
- ^ a b Barman 1988, p. 68.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 47–48.
- ^ See:
- Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 121–122,
- Costa 1995, p. 101,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 70.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 123.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 93.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 70,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 158–164,
- Calmon 1950, pp. 59–62,
- Viana 1994, p. 395.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 72,
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- Calmon 1950, pp. 66–67,
- Viana 1994, p. 396.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 72.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 72,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 227,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 86,
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- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 96.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 74.
- ^ a b Lustosa 2006, p. 114.
- ^ See:
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- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 242.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 264.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 81.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 1, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 82.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 83.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 107.
- ^ See:
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- ^ Barman 1988, p. 78.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 84.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 109–110.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 116.
- ^ Calmon 1950, p. 85.
- ^ Barman 1988, pp. 90–91, 96.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 119, 122–123.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 124.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 96.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 96,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 31,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 125.
- ^ Viana 1994, pp. 420–422.
- ^ Barman 1988, pp. 104–106.
- ^ See: Sousa 1972, Vol 1, p. 307, Lustosa 2006, p. 139, Barman 1988, p. 110.
- ^ See:
- Macaulay 1986, p. 148,
- Barman 1988, p. 101,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 71.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 92.
- ^ See:
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 121, 129–130,
- Barman 1988, pp. 100, 272,
- Calmon 1950, p. 93.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 120.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 116.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 117.
- ^ See:
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- Viana 1994, p. 429.
- ^ See:
- Macaulay 1986, p. 162,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 174,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 2, pp. 166, 168,
- Viana 1994, p. 430,
- Barman 1988, p. 123.
- ^ a b c Macaulay 1986, p. 165.
- ^ a b Barman 1988, p. 122.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 121.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 166.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 278.
- ^ Viana 1994, p. 435.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 128,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 193,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 184.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, pp. 140–141,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 2, pp. 195–197,
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 140.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 195.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 141.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 186.
- ^ a b Barman 1988, p. 142.
- ^ Morato 1835, p. 26.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Branco 1838, p. XXXVII.
- ^ a b Barman 1988, p. 148.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 226.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 295.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 255, 295.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 239.
- ^ Barman 1988, pp. 147–148.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 125.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 128.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 206.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 190.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 168, 190.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 146.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, pp. 192, 231, 236.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 16.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 136.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 201–202.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 202.
- ^ See:
- Rangel 1928, pp. 178–179,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 202,
- Costa 1972, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 211.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 151.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 24.
- ^ See:
- Rangel 1928, p. 193,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 250,
- Costa 1995, p. 88,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 260.
- ^ Costa 1995, p. 88.
- ^ Rangel 1928, p. 195.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 250.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 262.
- ^ a b Lustosa 2006, p. 252.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 147.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 320.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 326.
- ^ Costa 1995, p. 94.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 8.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 285.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 15.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 235.
- ^ Rangel 1928, p. 274.
- ^ a b c Barman 1988, p. 156.
- ^ See:
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 10, 16–17,
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 231, 241,
- Costa 1995, p. 94.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 236.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 283.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, pp. 114, 131, 134, 137–139, 143–146, 150,
- Needell 2006, pp. 34–35, 39,
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 195, 234.
- ^ See:
- Macaulay 1986, p. 229,
- Needell 2006, p. 42,
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- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. x, 193, 195, 219, 229, 221.
- ^ Viana 1994, p. 445.
- ^ Viana 1994, p. 476.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 229.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 244.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 243.
- ^ Calmon 1950, pp. 155–158.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 174.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 216–217, 246.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 215.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, pp. 129, 131.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 214.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 131.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 108.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 195.
- ^ a b Barman 1988, p. 159.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 44.
- ^ a b Barman 1988, p. 157.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 138.
- ^ See:
- Viana 1966, p. 24,
- Barman 1988, p. 154,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 127.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 246–247.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 158.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 250.
- ^ See:
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 108,
- Barman 1988, p. 159,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 251.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 159,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 251,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 110.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1988, p. 159,
- Calmon 1950, pp. 192–193,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 252.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 252.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 114.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 323.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 254–257.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 117, 119, 142–143.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 257.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 149, 151.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 257–260, 262.
- ^ a b Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 158.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 259.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 267.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 281.
- ^ Calmon 1975, p. 36.
- ^ Costa 1995, p. 117.
- ^ Jorge 1972, p. 203.
- ^ See:
- Barman 1999, p. 40,
- Calmon 1950, p. 214,
- Lustosa 2006, p. 318.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, p. 306.
- ^ See:
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 268–269,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 201, 204,
- Costa 1995, pp. 222, 224.
- ^ See:
- Lustosa 2006, p. 320,
- Calmon 1950, p. 207,
- Costa 1995, p. 222.
- ^ See:
- Costa 1972, pp. 174–179,
- Macaulay 1986, pp. 269–271, 274,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 221–223.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 293.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 287.
- ^ See:
- Calmon 1950, pp. 222–223,
- Costa 1995, pp. 311–317,
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- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 241–244, 247
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 290.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, pp. 295, 297–298.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 291, 293–294.
- ^ Lustosa 2006, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 302.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 304.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 302.
- ^ Jorge 1972, pp. 198–199.
- ^ See:
- Costa 1995, p. 312,
- Macaulay 1986, p. 305,
- Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 309.
- ^ a b Macaulay 1986, p. 305.
- ^ a b Sousa 1972, Vol 3, p. 309.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 433.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. 299.
- ^ a b Calmon 1975, p. 81.
- ^ Barman 1988, p. 178.
- ^ Jorge 1972, p. 204.
- ^ Sousa 1972, Vol 3, pp. 309, 312.
- ^ Armitage 1836, Vol 2, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Calmon 1975, p. 900.
- ^ Macaulay 1986, p. x.
- ^ Rodrigues 1863, p. 71.
- ^ Palácio de Queluz 1986, p. 24.
- ^ Branco 1838, p. XXIV.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 11.
- ^ Branco 1838, pp. XXXVI–XXXVII.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 8.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 438.
- ^ Morato 1835, p. 17.
- ^ Morato 1835, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 42.
- ^ Morato 1835, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Morato 1835, pp. 18–19, 34.
- ^ Morato 1835, pp. 31–32, 35–36.
- ^ a b Sousa 1972, Vol 2, p. 229.
- ^ Viana 1968, p. 204.
- ^ a b c d Rangel 1928, p. 447.
- ^ Rodrigues 1975, Vol 4, p. 22.
- ^ Lira 1977, Vol 1, p. 276.
- ^ a b Viana 1968, p. 206.
- ^ a b Viana 1968, p. 205.
- ^ Barman 1999, p. 148.
- ^ Pen Pictures From The Garden of the World or Santa Clara County, California, Illustrated. H. S. Foote (editor). Chicago, IL.: The Lewis Publishing Company. 1888 – via The Valley of Heart's Delight, Santa Clara Research.CS1 maint: others (link)
- ^ Besouchet 1993, p. 385.
- ^ Rezzutti 2015, pp. 369, 432.
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enlaces externos
Media related to Pedro I of Brazil at Wikimedia Commons
Pedro I of Brazil House of Braganza Cadet branch of the House of Aviz Born: 12 October 1798 Died: 24 September 1834 | ||
Regnal titles | ||
---|---|---|
New title Independence of Brazil | Emperor of Brazil 12 October 1822 – 7 April 1831 | Succeeded by Pedro II |
Preceded by João VI | King of Portugal 10 March 1826 – 2 May 1826 | Succeeded by Maria II |