Los Rollos del Mar Muerto | |
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Material | Papiro , pergamino y bronce |
Escritura | Mayormente hebreo ; Arameo , griego y nabateo-arameo |
Creado | Est. 408 a. C. hasta 318 d . C. |
Descubierto | 1946 / 47–1956 |
Ubicación actual | Varios |
Parte de una serie sobre |
Cultura judía |
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Portal del judaísmo |
Parte de una serie sobre el |
Biblia |
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Esquema de temas relacionados con la Biblia portal bíblico · |
Los Rollos del Mar Muerto (también los Rollos de las Cuevas de Qumrán ) son antiguos manuscritos religiosos judíos y hebreos que se encontraron en las Cuevas de Qumrán en el desierto de Judea , cerca de Ein Feshkha en la costa norte del Mar Muerto en Cisjordania , y el último descubierto pergaminos encontrados en la Cueva del Horror en Israel . [1] [2] En un sentido más amplio, los Rollos del Mar Muerto incluyen manuscritos de sitios adicionales del Desierto de Judea, fechados desde el siglo VIII a. C. y hasta el siglo XI d. C. [3]
La mayoría de los textos usan hebreo, algunos están escritos en arameo (por ejemplo, el texto del Hijo de Dios ; en diferentes dialectos regionales, incluido el nabateo ) y algunos en griego . [4] Los descubrimientos del desierto de Judea agregan textos en latín (de Masada ) y árabe (de Khirbet al-Mird ). [5] La mayoría de los textos están escritos en pergamino , algunos en papiro y uno en cobre . [6]
El consenso académico data estos pergaminos de los últimos tres siglos a . C. y del siglo I d . C. [7] [8] Los textos tienen un gran significado histórico, religioso y lingüístico porque incluyen los segundos manuscritos más antiguos que se conocen de obras que luego se incluyeron en el canon de la Biblia hebrea , junto con manuscritos deuterocanónicos y extrabíblicos que preservan la evidencia de la diversidad del pensamiento religioso en el judaísmo tardío del Segundo Templo . Casi todos los Rollos del Mar Muerto están en poder del estado de Israel en el Santuario del Libro en los terrenos del Museo de Israel., pero Jordania y Palestina disputan la propiedad de los rollos . [9]
Se han descubierto muchos miles de fragmentos escritos en la zona del Mar Muerto. Representan los restos de manuscritos más grandes dañados por causas naturales o por interferencia humana, y la gran mayoría contiene solo pequeños fragmentos de texto. Sin embargo, ha sobrevivido una pequeña cantidad de manuscritos bien conservados, casi intactos, menos de una docena entre los de las cuevas de Qumran. [7] Los investigadores han reunido una colección de 981 manuscritos diferentes , descubiertos en 1946/47 y en 1956, de 11 cuevas. [10] Las 11 cuevas de Qumran se encuentran en las inmediaciones del asentamiento judío del período helenístico en Khirbet Qumran en el desierto oriental de Judea, en Cisjordania. [11]Las cuevas están ubicadas aproximadamente a una milla (1.6 kilómetros) al oeste de la costa noroeste del Mar Muerto, de donde derivan su nombre. El consenso académico data de los Rollos de las Cuevas de Qumrán de los últimos tres siglos a. C. y el siglo I d. C. [7] monedas de bronce que se encuentran en los mismos sitios forman una serie que comienzan con Juan Hircano (135-104 aC en la oficina) y continuando hasta el período de la primera guerra judía-romana (66-73 dC), el apoyo a la radiocarbono y paleográfica citas de los pergaminos . [12]
Los textos bíblicos más antiguos que los Rollos del Mar Muerto se han descubierto solo en dos amuletos de plata en forma de rollo que contienen porciones de la Bendición Sacerdotal del Libro de los Números , excavados en Jerusalén en Ketef Hinnom y fechados c. 600 a. C.; algunos estudiosos también incluyen el controvertido Shapira Scroll .
Los arqueólogos han asociado durante mucho tiempo los rollos con la antigua secta judía llamada los esenios , aunque algunas interpretaciones recientes han desafiado esta conexión y argumentan que sacerdotes en Jerusalén , o Zadokitas , u otros grupos judíos desconocidos escribieron los rollos. [13] [14]
Debido al mal estado de algunos de los rollos, los eruditos no han identificado todos sus textos. Los textos identificados se dividen en tres grupos generales:
- Aproximadamente el 40% son copias de textos de las Escrituras hebreas .
- Aproximadamente otro 30% son textos del Período del Segundo Templo que finalmente no fueron canonizados en la Biblia hebrea , como el Libro de Enoc , el Libro de los Jubileos , el Libro de Tobit , la Sabiduría de Eclesiástico , Salmos 152-155 , etc.
- El resto (aproximadamente el 30%) son manuscritos sectarios de documentos previamente desconocidos que arrojan luz sobre las reglas y creencias de un grupo particular ( secta ) o grupos dentro del gran judaísmo , como la Regla de la Comunidad , el Pergamino de Guerra , el Pesher en Habacuc y La regla de la bendición . [15] [ necesita cotización para verificar ]
Descubrimiento
Los Rollos del Mar Muerto fueron descubiertos en una serie de doce cuevas alrededor del sitio originalmente conocido como las " Cuevas de Ein Feshkha " cerca del Mar Muerto en Cisjordania (entonces parte de Jordania ) entre 1946 y 1956 por pastores beduinos y un equipo de arqueólogos. . [16] La práctica de almacenar manuscritos sagrados gastados en vasijas de barro enterradas en la tierra o dentro de cuevas está relacionada con la antigua costumbre judía de Genizah .
Descubrimiento inicial (1946-1947)
El descubrimiento inicial del pastor beduino Muhammed edh-Dhib, su primo Jum'a Muhammed, y Khalil Musa, tuvo lugar entre noviembre de 1946 y febrero de 1947. [17] [18] Los pastores descubrieron siete rollos (ver Rollos y fragmentos ) alojados en jarras en una cueva cerca de lo que ahora se conoce como el sitio de Qumran. John C. Trever reconstruyó la historia de los pergaminos a partir de varias entrevistas con los beduinos . El primo de Edh-Dhib notó las cuevas, pero el propio edh-Dhib fue el primero en caer en una (la cueva ahora llamada Cueva 1). Recuperó un puñado de pergaminos, que Trever identifica como el Pergamino de Isaías , el Comentario de Habacuc y la Regla de la Comunidad.y los llevó de regreso al campamento para mostrárselos a su familia. Ninguno de los rollos fue destruido en este proceso. [19] Los beduinos mantenían los rollos colgando de un poste de la tienda mientras pensaban qué hacer con ellos, sacándolos periódicamente para mostrárselos a su gente. En algún momento durante este tiempo, la Regla de la Comunidad se dividió en dos. Los beduinos primero llevaron los pergaminos a un comerciante llamado Ibrahim 'Ijha en Belén.. 'Ijha los devolvió, diciendo que no valían nada, después de ser advertido de que podrían haber sido robados de una sinagoga. Sin desanimarse, los beduinos fueron a un mercado cercano, donde un cristiano sirio se ofreció a comprarlos. Un jeque se unió a la conversación y sugirió que llevaran los pergaminos a Khalil Eskander Shahin, "Kando", un zapatero y comerciante de antigüedades a tiempo parcial. Los beduinos y los comerciantes regresaron al sitio, dejando un pergamino con Kando y vendiendo otros tres a un comerciante por 7 libras jordanas (aproximadamente $ 28, o $ 321 en dólares de 2019). [19] [20] Los pergaminos originales continuaron cambiando de manos después de que los beduinos los dejaran en posesión de un tercero hasta que se pudiera arreglar una venta. (Ver Propiedad ).
En 1947, los siete pergaminos originales llamaron la atención de John C. Trever, de las Escuelas Estadounidenses de Investigación Oriental (ASOR), quien comparó el guión de los pergaminos con el del Papiro de Nash , el manuscrito bíblico más antiguo conocido en ese momento, y encontró similitudes. entre ellos. En marzo de 1948, la guerra árabe-israelí provocó el traslado de algunos de los pergaminos a Beirut , Líbano , para su custodia. El 11 de abril de 1948, Millar Burrows , jefe de la ASOR, anunció el descubrimiento de los pergaminos en un comunicado de prensa general.
Búsqueda de las cuevas de Qumrán (1948-1949)
A principios de septiembre de 1948, el obispo metropolitano Mar Samuel llevó algunos fragmentos de pergaminos adicionales que había adquirido al profesor Ovid R. Sellers , el nuevo director de ASOR. A fines de 1948, casi dos años después de su descubrimiento, los estudiosos aún tenían que localizar la cueva original donde se habían encontrado los fragmentos. Con los disturbios en el país en ese momento, no se pudo realizar una búsqueda a gran escala de manera segura. Sellers intentó que los sirios ayudaran en la búsqueda de la cueva, pero no pudo pagar el precio. A principios de 1949, el gobierno de Jordania dio permiso a la Legión Árabe para registrar el área donde se pensaba que estaba la cueva original de Qumrán. En consecuencia, la cueva 1 fue redescubierta el 28 de enero de 1949, por belgasEl observador de las Naciones Unidas , el capitán Phillipe Lippens, y el capitán de la Legión Árabe, Akkash el-Zebn. [21]
Redescubrimiento de las cuevas de Qumrán y nuevos descubrimientos de pergaminos (1949-1951)
El redescubrimiento de lo que se conoció como "Cueva 1" en Qumran provocó la excavación inicial del sitio del 15 de febrero al 5 de marzo de 1949 por parte del Departamento de Antigüedades de Jordania dirigido por Gerald Lankester Harding y Roland de Vaux . [22] El sitio de la Cueva 1 arrojó descubrimientos de fragmentos adicionales de Rollos del Mar Muerto, lienzos, jarras y otros artefactos. [23]
Excavaciones de Qumrán y nuevos descubrimientos de cuevas (1951-1956, 2017, 2021)
En noviembre de 1951, Roland de Vaux y su equipo de la ASOR comenzaron una excavación completa de Qumran. [24] En febrero de 1952, los beduinos habían descubierto 30 fragmentos en lo que iba a ser designado Cueva 2. [25] El descubrimiento de una segunda cueva finalmente produjo 300 fragmentos de 33 manuscritos, incluidos fragmentos de Jubileos y la Sabiduría de Sirach escritos en Hebreo. [23] [24] El mes siguiente, el 14 de marzo de 1952, el equipo de ASOR descubrió una tercera cueva con fragmentos de Jubileos y el Rollo de Cobre . [25] Entre septiembre y diciembre de 1952, los equipos de ASOR descubrieron posteriormente los fragmentos y rollos de las Cuevas 4, 5 y 6. [24]
Con el valor monetario de los rollos aumentando a medida que su importancia histórica se hizo más pública, los beduinos y los arqueólogos de ASOR aceleraron su búsqueda de los rollos por separado en la misma área general de Qumran, que tenía más de 1 kilómetro de longitud. Entre 1953 y 1956, Roland de Vaux dirigió cuatro expediciones arqueológicas más en el área para descubrir pergaminos y artefactos. [23] La cueva 11 fue descubierta en 1956 y produjo los últimos fragmentos que se encontraron en las cercanías de Qumran. [26]
Las cuevas 4 a 10 están agrupadas en un área que se encuentra en una proximidad relativa de 160 yardas (aproximadamente 150 metros) de Khirbet Qumran, mientras que las cuevas 1, 2, 3 y 11 están ubicadas a 1 milla (1 a 2 kilómetros) al norte, siendo la cueva 3 el más remoto. [27] [28]
En febrero de 2017, los arqueólogos de la Universidad Hebrea anunciaron el descubrimiento de una nueva cueva número 12. [29] Se encontró un pergamino en blanco en un frasco; sin embargo, los frascos de pergaminos rotos y vacíos y los picos sugieren que la cueva fue saqueada en la década de 1950. [30]
En marzo de 2021, los arqueólogos israelíes anunciaron el descubrimiento de docenas de fragmentos con texto bíblico, escritos en griego de los libros de Zacarías y Nahum . Se cree que este grupo particular de hallazgos se escondió en una cueva entre 132 y 136 EC durante la revuelta de Bar Kokhba . [31] Sin embargo, también se descubrió una canasta de 10.500 años de antigüedad hecha de cañas tejidas en las cuevas de Muraba'at en la Reserva Nahal Darga. Otros descubrimientos fueron los restos de un niño envuelto en tela que data de hace unos 6.000 años y un alijo de monedas de los días de la revuelta de Bar Kojba. [32]
Rollos y fragmentos
Esta sección debe actualizarse . Mayo de 2012 ) ( |
Los 972 manuscritos encontrados en Qumrán se encontraron principalmente en dos formatos separados: como pergaminos y como fragmentos de pergaminos y textos anteriores. En la cuarta cueva, los fragmentos se rompieron en hasta 15.000 pedazos. Estos pequeños fragmentos crearon un problema para los estudiosos. GL Harding, director del Departamento de Antigüedades de Jordania , comenzó a trabajar en unir los fragmentos, pero no lo terminó antes de su muerte en 1979. [33]
Cueva 1
Los siete rollos originales de la Cueva 1 en Qumrán son el Gran Rollo de Isaías (1QIsa a ), una segunda copia de Isaías ( 1QIsa b ), el Rollo de la Regla de la Comunidad (1QS), el Pesher Habacuc (1QpHab), el Rollo de Guerra (1QM) , los Himnos de Acción de Gracias (1QH) y el Génesis Apocryphon (1QapGen). [34]
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 1 | |||||||
1QIsa a | Gran rollo de Isaías | Isaías 1 : 1–31; 2: 1-22; 3: 1–5: 30; 6: 1-13; 7: 1–25; 8: 1–23; 9: 1–20; 10: 1–34; 11: 1–45: 25; 46: 1–66: 24 | hebreo | 356-103 AEC / 150-100 AEC | Contiene los 66 capítulos con lagunas ocasionales y algunas palabras faltantes al final de algunas columnas | [35] [36] | |
1QIsa b | Isaías | cf. 1T8 | El libro de Isaias | hebreo | Hasmoneo / herodiano | Una segunda copia de porciones del libro de Isaías | [37] [38] |
1QS | Serekh ha-Yahad o " Regla de la comunidad " | hebreo | cf. 4QS a-j = 4Q255–64, 5T11 | [39] | |||
1QpHab | Pesher en Habacuc | Habacuc 1-2 | hebreo | La mitad posterior del siglo I a.C. | Comentario sobre Habacuc 1: 2-17; 2: 1–20 | [40] [41] | |
1QM | Milhamah o pergamino de guerra | hebreo | cf. 4Q491, 4Q493; 11Q14? | ||||
1QH a | Himnos de Acción de Gracias o Hodayot | hebreo | Algunas partes también se conservan en 1QH by 4QH a-f | [42] | |||
1QapGen | Génesis Apocryphon | Génesis 12: 18-15: 4 | arameo | 25 a. C. – 50 d. C. | [43] | ||
CTLevi | Cairo Geniza o Testamento de Levi | arameo | |||||
1QGen | Génesis | 1T1 | Génesis 1: 18-21; 3: 11-14; 22: 13-15; 23: 17-19; 24: 22-24 | hebreo | Herodiano | [44] | |
1Q Éxodo | éxodo | 1T2 | Éxodo 16: 12–16; 19: 24–20: 2, 20: 5–6; 20: 25–21: 1; 21: 4-5 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [45] | |
1QpaleoLev | Levítico - Números | 1T3 | Levítico 11: 10-11; 19: 30–34; 20: 20-24; 21: 24–22: 6; 23: 4–8 y Números 1: 48–50 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano; Escritura paleohebrea | [46] | |
1QDeut a | Deuteronomio | 1T4 | Deuteronomio 1: 22-25; 4: 47–49; 8: 18-19; 9: 27-28; 11: 27-30; 13: 1–6, 13–14; 14:21, 24-25; 16: 4, 6–7 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [48] | |
1QDeut b | 1T5 | Deuteronomio 1: 9-13; 8: 8–9; 9:10; 11: 30–31; 15: 14-15; 17:16; 21: 8–9; 24: 10–16; 25: 13-18; 28: 44–48; 29: 9-20; 30: 19-20; 31: 1-10, 12-13; 32: 17-29; 33: 12-24 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [49] | ||
1QJudg | Jueces | 1T6 | Jueces 6: 20–22; 8: 1 (?); 9: 2–6, 28–31, 40–43, 48–49 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [50] | |
1QSam | Samuel | 1T7 | 2 Samuel 18: 17-18; 2 Samuel 20: 6–10; 21: 16-18; 23: 9-12 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [51] | |
1QIsa b | Isaías | Partes de 1QIsa b como 1T8 | Isaías 7 : 22–25; 8: 1 ; 10 : 17-19; 12: 3-6; 13: 1–8, 16–19; 15: 3–9; 16: 1–2, 7–11; 19: 7–17, 20–25; 20: 1; 22: 11-18, 24-25; 23: 1–4; 24: 18–23; 25: 1–8; 26: 1–5; 28: 15-20; 29: 1–8; 30: 10-14, 21-26; 35: 4-5; 37: 8-12; 38: 12-22; 39: 1–8; 40: 2-3; 41: 3–23; 43: 1–13, 23–27; 44: 21-28; 45: 1-13; 46: 3-13; 47: 1-14; 48: 17-22; 49: 1-15; 50: 7–11; 51: 1-10; 52: 7-15; 53: 1–12; 54: 1–6; 55: 2-13; 56: 1–12; 57: 1–4, 17–21; 58: 1-14; 59: 1–8, 20–21; 60: 1-22; 61: 1-2; 62: 2-12; 63: 1–19; 64: 1, 6–8; 65: 17-25; 66: 1–24 | hebreo | Herodiano | [37] | |
1QEzek | Ezequiel | Partes de 1QIsa b como 1T9 | Ezequiel 4 : 16-17; 5: 1 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [52] [53] | |
1QPs a | Salmos | 1T10 | Salmo 86 : 5-8; 92 : 12-14; 94 : 16; 95 : 11– 96 : 2; 119 : 31–34, 43–48, 77–79 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [54] | |
1QPs b | 1T11 | Salmo 126 : 6; 127 : 1–5; 128 : 3 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [55] | ||
1QPs c | 1T12 | Salmo 44 : 3-5, 7, 9, 23-25 | hebreo | Herodiano | [56] | ||
1QPhyl | Filacteria | 1T13 | Deuteronomio 5: 23-27; 11: 8-11 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | 58 fragmentos de una filacteria | [47] [57] |
1QpMic | Pesher en Miqueas | 1T14 | hebreo | Herodiano | [58] | ||
1QpZeph | Pesher sobre Sofonías | 1T15 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [59] | ||
1QpPs | Pesher en los Salmos | 1T16 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [60] | ||
1QJub a | Jubileos | 1T17 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Jubileos | [61] | |
1QJub b | 1T18 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Jubileos | [62] | ||
1Q Noé | Libro de Noé | 1T19 | hebreo | Herodiano | Partes del Libro perdido de Noé | [63] | |
1QapGen | Fragmentos del " Génesis Apocryphon " | 1T20 | arameo | Herodiano | [64] | ||
1QTLevi / 1QALD | Testamento de Levi | 1T21 | arameo | Hasmoneo | Documento arameo de Levi | [sesenta y cinco] | |
1QDM | "Dibrê Moshe" o "Palabras de Moisés" | 1T22 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [66] | ||
1QEnGiants a | Libro de gigantes | 1T23 | arameo | Hasmoneo | Enoch | [67] | |
1QEnGiants b | Libro de gigantes | 1T24 | arameo | Helenístico-romano | Enoch | [68] | |
1Q Apocr. Profecía | "Profecía apócrifa" | 1T25 | hebreo | Herodiano | [69] | ||
Instrucción 1Q | "Instrucción" | 1T26 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [70] | ||
1QMyst | " El libro de los misterios " | 1T27 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [71] | ||
1QS o 1QS a | " Regla de la Congregación " | 1T28 (1T28a) | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmento de " Regla de la comunidad " | [72] | |
1QS b | " Regla de la Bendición " o " Regla de las Bendiciones " | 1T28b | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [73] | ||
1Qapocr Moisés B | Apócrifo de Moisés | 1T29 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | "Liturgia de las Tres Lenguas de Fuego" | [74] | |
Texto litúrgico 1Q (?) A | "Texto litúrgico 1" | 1T30 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [75] | ||
1Q Texto litúrgico (?) B | "Texto litúrgico 2" | 1T31 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [76] | ||
1QNJ (?) | "Nueva Jerusalén" | 1T32 | arameo | Herodiano | cf. 11T18 | [77] | |
1QM | Fragmento del 1QM o " Pergamino de guerra " o "Milhamah" | 1T33 | Deuteronomio 20: 2-5; Números 10: 9, 24: 17-19; Isaías 31 : 8 | hebreo | 30-1 a. C. Herodes temprano | [47] | |
1QPrFetes / 1QLitPr | "Oraciones litúrgicas" o "Oraciones festivas" | 1T34 | hebreo | Herodiano | [78] | ||
1QH b | " Hodayot " o " Himnos de Acción de Gracias " | 1T35 | hebreo | Herodiano | [79] | ||
Himnos 1Q | "Himnos" | 1T36 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [80] | ||
Composición de himnos 1Q (?) | "Composición de himnos" | 1T37 | hebreo | Herodiano | [81] | ||
Composición de himnos 1Q (?) | "Composición de himnos" | 1T38 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [82] | ||
Composición de himnos 1Q (?) | "Composición de himnos" | 1T39 | hebreo | Herodiano | [83] | ||
Composición de himnos 1Q (?) | "Composición de himnos" | 1T40 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [84] | ||
1T41–70 | 1T41–70 | hebreo | Fragmentos sin clasificar | [85] | |||
1QDan a | Daniel | 1T71 | Daniel 1 : 10–17; 2: 2-6 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [86] | |
1QDan b | 1T72 | Daniel 3 : 22–30 | arameo | Helenístico-romano | [87] |
Cueva 2
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 2 | |||||||
2QGen | Génesis | 2T1 | Génesis 19: 27-28; 36: 6, 35–37 | hebreo | Herodiano | [88] [89] | |
2Q Éxodo a | éxodo | 2T2 | Éxodo 1: 11-14; 7: 1–4; 9: 27-29; 11: 3-7; 12: 32–41; 21: 18-20 (?); 26: 11-13; 30:21 (?), 23-25; 32: 32–34 | [88] [90] | |||
2Q Éxodo b | 2T3 | Éxodo 4:31; 12: 26-27 (?); 18: 21-22; 21: 37–22: 2, 15–19; 27: 17-19; 31: 16-17; 19: 9; 34:10 | [88] [91] | ||||
2Q Éxodo c | 2T4 | Éxodo 5: 3-5 | Helenístico-romano | [88] [92] | |||
2QpaleoLev | Levíticio | 2T5 | Levítico 11: 22-29 | Hasmoneo; Escritura paleohebrea | [88] [93] | ||
2QNum a | Números | 2T6 | Números 3: 38–41, 51– 4: 3 | hebreo | Herodiano | [88] [94] | |
2QNum b | 2T7 | Números 33: 47–53 | [88] [95] | ||||
2QNum c | 2T8 | Números 7:88 | [88] [96] | ||||
2QNum d? | 2T9 | Números 18: 8–9 | Helenístico-romano | Este fragmento puede pertenecer al 2T7; posiblemente = Levítico 23: 1-3 | [88] [97] | ||
2QDeut a | Deuteronomio | 2T10 | Deuteronomio 1: 7–9 | hebreo | 50-25 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío o herodiano temprano | [88] [47] | |
2QDeut b | 2T11 | Deuteronomio 17: 12-15 | hebreo | 30 a. C. - 68 d. C. Herodiano | [88] [47] | ||
2QDeut c | 2T12 | Deuteronomio 10: 8-12 | hebreo | 1-68 d. C. Herodes tardío | [88] [47] | ||
2QJer | Jeremías | 2T13 | Jeremías 42: 7-11, 14; 43: 8-11; 44: 1-3, 12-14; 46: 27–47: 7; 48: 7, 25–39, 43–45; 49:10 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos dudosamente identificados: 13:22; 32: 24-25; 48: 2–4, 41–42 | [98] [99] |
2QP | Salmos | 2T14 | Salmo 103 : 2-11; 104: 6-11 | [98] [100] | |||
2QJob | Trabajo | 2T15 | Job 33: 28–30 | [98] [101] | |||
2QRuth a | Piedad | 2T16 | Rut 2 : 13-23; 3 : 1–8; 4 : 3-4 | hebreo | Herodiano | [98] [102] | |
2QRuth b | 2T17 | Rut 3 : 13-18 | Hasmoneo | [98] [103] | |||
2QSir | " Sabiduría de Eclesiástico " o " Eclesiástico " | 2T18 | Sir 6: 14-15 (o 1: 19-20); 6: 20–31 | hebreo | Herodiano | Ben Sira | [98] [104] |
2QJub a | Libro de los jubileos | 2T19 | Génesis 25: 7–9 | hebreo | Herodiano | Jub 23: 7–8 | [98] [105] |
2QJub b | Libro de los jubileos | 2T20 | Éxodo 1: 7; Génesis 50:26, 22 (orden diferente) | Jub 46: 1–3 | [106] | ||
2QapMoses / 2QapocrMoses (?) | " Apócrifo de Moisés " | 2T21 | hebreo | Herodiano | Escritura apócrifa sobre Moisés | [98] [107] | |
2QapDavid / 2QapocrDavid | " Apócrifo de David " | 2T22 | hebreo | Herodiano | Escritura apócrifa sobre David | [108] [109] | |
2QapProph /2Qapocr.Prophecy | "Profecía apócrifa" | 2T23 | hebreo | Herodiano | Texto profético apócrifo en seis pequeños fragmentos. | [110] [111] | |
2QNJ | "Nueva Jerusalén" | 2T24 | arameo | Herodiano | Descripción de la Nueva Jerusalén. cf. 1T32 ar, 11T18 ar | [110] [112] | |
Texto Jurídico 2Q | "Texto Jurídico" | 2T25 | hebreo | Herodiano | Un texto jurídico | [110] [113] | |
2QEnGiants | " Libro de los gigantes " de " Enoch " | 2T26 | arameo | Herodiano | Ahora conocido como parte del "Libro de los gigantes". cf. 6T8 | [114] | |
2T27 2T28 2T29 2T30 2T31 2T32 2T33 | 2T27 2T28 2T29 2T30 2T31 2T32 2T33 | Textos no identificados | [85] [110] | ||||
2QX1 | 2QX1 | Escombros en una caja | [110] |
Cueva 3
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 3 | |||||||
3QEzek | Ezequiel | 3T1 | Ezequiel 16 : 31–33 | hebreo | Herodiano | [110] [115] | |
3QP | Salmos | 3T2 | Salmo 2 : 6–7 | hebreo | [116] [117] | ||
3QLam | Lamentaciones | 3T3 | Lamentaciones 1 : 10-12; 3: 53–62 | hebreo | [116] [118] | ||
3QpIsa | Pesher sobre Isaías | 3T4 | Isaías 1: 1 | hebreo | Herodiano | [116] [119] | |
3QJub | Jubileos | 3T5 | hebreo | Herodiano | Jubileos 23: 6–7, 12–13, 23 | [116] [120] | |
3QHymn | Himno no identificado | 3T6 | hebreo | Herodiano | Himno de alabanza | [116] [121] | |
3QTJud (?) | Testamento de Judá (?) | 3T7 | hebreo | Herodiano | cf. 4Q484, 4Q538 | [116] [122] | |
3Q Texto que menciona al ángel de la paz | 3T8 | hebreo | Herodiano | Texto sobre un ángel de la paz | [116] [123] | ||
3Q Texto sectario | 3T9 | hebreo | Herodiano | Posible texto sectario no identificado | [116] [124] | ||
3QUnc | No identificado | 3T10 3T11 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos sin clasificar | [116] | |
3QUncA-B | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 3T12 3T13 | arameo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos sin clasificar | [125] | |
3QUncC | No identificado | 3T14 | ¿Hebreo? | Helenístico-romano | 21 fragmentos sin clasificar | [126] [127] | |
3QCopScr | El pergamino de cobre | 3T15 | hebreo | romano | Placa de cobre que menciona tesoros enterrados | [126] [128] |
Cuevas 4a y 4b
La cueva 4 fue descubierta en agosto de 1952 y excavada el 22 y 29 de septiembre de 1952 por Gerald Lankester Harding , Roland de Vaux y Józef Milik . [25] [129] La cueva 4 son en realidad dos cuevas cortadas a mano (4a y 4b), pero como los fragmentos se mezclaron, están etiquetados como 4Q. La cueva 4 es la más famosa de las cuevas de Qumran tanto por su visibilidad desde la meseta de Qumran como por su productividad. Es visible desde la meseta al sur del asentamiento de Qumrán. Es, con mucho, la más productiva de todas las cuevas de Qumrán, ya que produce el noventa por ciento de los Rollos del Mar Muerto y fragmentos de rollos (aproximadamente 15.000 fragmentos de 500 textos diferentes), incluidas 9-10 copias de Jubileos, junto con 21 tefilín y 7mezuzot .
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 4 | |||||||
4QGen-Éxodo a | Génesis - Éxodo | 4T1 | Génesis 8: 20-21; Éxodo 1–4; 5: 3-17; 6: 4–21,25; 7: 5–13,15–20; 8: 20-22; 9: 8; 22:14; 27: 38–39,42–43; 34: 17-21 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Génesis a Números | [126] [130] |
4QGen b | Génesis | 4T2 | Génesis 1: 1-27; 2: 14-19; 4: 2-4; 5:13 | hebreo | romano | Fragmento de Génesis | [126] [131] |
4QGen c | 4T3 | Génesis 40–41 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Génesis | [126] [132] | |
4QGen d | 4T4 | Génesis 1: 18-27 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos del Génesis sobre el comienzo de la creación | [126] [133] | |
4QGen e | 4T5 | Génesis 36–37; 40–43; 49 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Génesis | [126] [134] | |
4QGen f | 4T6 | Génesis 48: 1–11 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Génesis | [126] [135] | |
4QGen g | 4T7 | Génesis 1: 1 –11,13–22; 2: 6–7 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Génesis sobre la creación | [126] [136] | |
4QGen h / 4QGen h1 | 4T8 | Génesis 1: 8-10 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Génesis sobre el comienzo de la humanidad primitiva. | [137] [138] | |
4QGen h2 | 4T8a | Génesis 2: 17-18 | [137] [139] | ||||
4QGen h-para | 4T8b | Génesis 12: 4–5 | Una paráfrasis del Génesis | [137] [140] | |||
4QGen h-title | 4T8c | Génesis | El título de un manuscrito de Génesis | [137] [141] | |||
4QGen j | 4T9 | Génesis 41–43; 45 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Génesis | [137] [142] | |
4QGen k | 4T10 | Génesis 1: 9,14–16,27–28; 2: 1-3; 3: 1–2 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Génesis | [137] [143] | |
4QpaleoGen-Exod l | Paleo- Génesis / Éxodo | 4T11 | Génesis 50:26; Éxodo 1: 1–5; 2: 10,22-25; 3: 1–4,17–21; 8: 13-15, 19-21; 9: 25-29, 33-35; 10: 1–5; 11: 4-10; 12: 1–11, 42–46; 14: 15-24; 16: 2–7, 13–14,18–20,23–25,26–31,33–35; 17: 1–3,5–11; 18: 17-24; 19: 24-25; 20: 1-2; 22: 23-24; 23: 5–16; 25: 7-20; 26: 29–37; 27: 1, 6–14; 28: 33–35,40–42; 36: 34–36 | hebreo | Hasmoneo; Escritura paleohebrea | Fragmentos de Génesis y Éxodo | [137] [144] |
4QpaleoGen m | Paleo-Génesis | 4T12 | Génesis 26: 21–28; Éxodo 6: 25-30; 7: 1–19,29; 8: 1, 5, 12-26; 9: 5–16,19–21,35; 10: 1–12,19–28; 11: 8-10; 12: 1–2,6–8,13–15,17–22,31–32,34–39; 13: 3–7,12–13; 14: 3–5,8–9,25–26; 15: 23-27; 16: 1, 4–5, 7–8, 31–35; 17: 1-16; 18: 1–27; 19: 1, 7–17, 23–25; 20: 1, 18-19; 21: 5–6, 13–14,22–32; 22: 3–4,6–7,11–13,16–30; 23: 15–16,19–31; 24: 1–4,6–11; 25: 11–12,20–29,31–34; 26: 8, 15, 21–30; 27: 1–3,9–14,18–19; 28: 3–4,8–12,22–24,26–28,30–43; 29: 1–5,20,22–25,31–41; 30: 10,12–18,29–31,34–38; 31: 1–8,13–15; 32: 2–19,25–30; 33: 12-23; 34: 1–3,10–13,15–18,20–24,27–28; 35: 1; 36: 21-24; 37: 9-16 | hebreo | Hasmoneo; Escritura paleohebrea | Fragmento de Génesis | [137] [145] |
4Q Éxodo b | éxodo | 4T13 | Éxodo 1: 1–6,16–12; 2: 2-18; 3:13 - 4: 8; 5: 3-14 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos del Éxodo sobre la esclavitud en Egipto | [137] [146] |
4Q Éxodo c | 4T14 | Éxodo 7: 17–19,20–23; 7:26 - 8: 1; 8: 5–14,16–18,22; 9: 10-11,15-20,22-25,27-35; 10: 1–5,7–9,12–19,23–24; 11: 9-10; 12: 12–16,31–48; 13:18 - 14: 3; 14: 3-13; 17: 1 - 18:12 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos del Éxodo | [137] [147] | |
4Q Éxodo d | 4T15 | Éxodo 13: 15–16 seguido directamente por 15: 1 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos del Éxodo sobre la Pascua y un himno | [137] [148] [149] | |
4Q Éxodo e | 4T16 | Éxodo 13: 3–5,15–16 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos del Éxodo sobre la Pascua y un himno | [137] [150] | |
4Q Éxodo-Lev f | Éxodo - Levítico | 4T17 | Éxodo 38: 18–22; 39: 3–19, 20–24; 40: 8-27; Levítico 1: 13-15, 17-2: 1 | hebreo | Helenístico temprano | Fragmentos de Éxodo y Levítico | [151] [152] |
4Q Éxodo g | éxodo | 4T18 | Éxodo 14: 21-27 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos del Éxodo | [151] [153] |
4Q Éxodo h | 4T19 | Éxodo 6: 3–6 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos del Éxodo | [151] [154] | |
4Q Éxodo j | 4T20 | Éxodo 7: 28–8: 2 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos del Éxodo | [151] [155] | |
4Q Éxodo k | 4T21 | Éxodo 36: 9-10 | hebreo | romano | Fragmentos del Éxodo | [151] [156] | |
4QpaleoExod m (olim 4QExα) | Paleo-Éxodo | 4T22 | Éxodo 6: 25–7: 19,29–8: 1, [5], 12–22; 9: 5–16, 19–21, 35–10: 12, 19–28; 11: 8–12: 2, 6–8, 13–15, 17–22, 31–32, 34–39; 13: 3–8, 12–13; ... 37: 9–16 | hebreo | Hasmoneo; Escritura paleohebrea | Fragmentos del Éxodo; | [157] [151] |
4QLev-Num a | Levítico - Números | 4T23 | Levítico 13: 32–33; 14: 22–34, 40–54; 15: 10-11, 19-24; 16: 15-29; ... 27: 5-13; ... 35: 4-5 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Levítico | [151] [158] |
4QLev b | Levíticio | 4T24 | Levítico 1: 11-17; 2: 1-15; 3: 1, 8–14; 21: 17-20, 24; 22: 1–33; 23: 1–25, 40; 24: 2–23; 25: 28–29, 45–49, 51–52 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Levítico | [159] [160] |
4QLev c | 4T25 | Levítico 1: 1–7; 3: 16–4: 6, 12–14, 23–28; 5: 12-13; 8: 26-28 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos de Levítico | [161] [162] | |
4QLev d | 4T26 | Levítico 14: 27-29, 33-36; 15: 20-24; 17: 2-11 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos de Levítico | [161] [163] | |
4QLev e | 4T26a | Levítico 2: 4–6, 11–18; 3: 2–4,5–8; 19: 34–37; 20: 1–3, 27–21: 4, 9–12, 21–24; 22: 4–6, 11–17 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos de Levítico | [85] [161] | |
4QLev g | 4T26b | Levítico 7: 19-26 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos de Levítico | [85] [161] | |
4QNum b | Números | 4T27 | Números 11: 31-12: 11; 13: 7-24; 15: 41-16: 11, 14-16; 17: 12-17; 18: 25-19: 6; 20: 12-13,16-17,19-29; 21: 1–2,12–13; 22: 5–21, 31–34, 37–38, 41–23: 6,13–15,21–22, 27–24: 10; 25: 4–8,16–18; 26: 1–5,7–10,12,14–34,62–27: 5,7–8,10,18–19,21–23; 28: 13–17,28,30–31; 29: 10–13,16–18,26–30; 30: 1–3,5–9,15–16; 31: 2–6, 21–25, 30–33,35–36,38,43–44,46–32: 1,7–10,13–17,19,23–30,35,37–39, 41; 33: 1–4,23,25,28,31,45,47–48,50–52; 34: 4–9,19–21,23; 35: 3–5,12,14–15,18–25,27–28, 33–36: 2,4–7 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de números. Algunas líneas están escritas con tinta roja. | [161] [164] |
4QDeut a | Deuteronomio | 4T28 | Deuteronomio 23: 26-24: 8 | hebreo | 175-150 a. C. Transicional: arcaico a hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [161] [165] |
4QDeut b | 4T29 | Deuteronomio 29: 24-27; 30: 3-14; 31: 9–17,24–30, 32: 1–3 | hebreo | 150-100 a. C. Hasmoneo temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [161] [166] | |
4QDeut c | 4T30 | Deuteronomio 3: 25-26; 4: 13–17,31–32; 7: 3-4; 8: 1–5; 9: 11-12, 17-19,29; 10: 1–2,5–8; 11: 2–4,9–13,18–19; 12: 18–19,26,30–31; 13: 5–7,11–12,16; 15: 1–5,15–19; 16: 2–3,5–11,20–17: 7,15–18: 1; 26: 19-27: 2,24-28: 14,18-20,22-25,29-30,48-50,61; 29: 17-19; 31: 16-19; 32: 3 | hebreo | 150-100 a. C. Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [167] | |
4QDeut d | 4T31 | Deuteronomio 2: 24–33; 3: 14-29; 4: 1 | hebreo | 124–75 a. C. Hasmoneo medio | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut e | 4T32 | Deuteronomio 3:24; 7: 12–16,21–26; 8: 1–16 | hebreo | 50-25 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut f | 4T33 | Deuteronomio 4: 23-27; 7: 22-26; 8: 2-14; 9: 6–7; 17: 17-18; 18: 6–10,18–22; 19: 17-21; 20: 1–6; 21: 4–12; 22: 12-19; 23: 21-26; 24: 2-7; 25: 3-9; 26: 18–27: 10 | hebreo | 75–50 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut g | 4T34 | Deuteronomio 9: 12-14; 23: 18-20; 24: 16–22; 25: 1–5,14–19; 26: 1–5; 28: 21-25,27-29 | hebreo | 1–25 d. C. Herodiano medio | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut h | 4T35 | Deuteronomio 1: 1–17,22–23,29–41,43–2: 6,28–30; 19:21; 31: 9-11; 33: 9-22 | hebreo | 50-1 a. C. Transicional: asmoneo a herodiano temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut i | 4T36 | Deuteronomio 20: 9-13; 21:23; 22: 1–9; 23: 6–8, 12–16, 22–26; 24: 1 | hebreo | 100–50 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut j | 4T37 | Éxodo 12: 43–44, 46–51; 13: 1–5; Deuteronomio 5: 1–11, 13–15, 21–33; 6: 1-3; 8: 5-10; 11: 6-10, 12-13; 30: 17-18; 32: 7–8 | hebreo | 50 d.C. Herodes tardío | Fragmentos de Éxodo y Deuteronomio | [47] [168] | |
4QDeut k1 | 4T38 | Deuteronomio 5: 28–31; 11: 6–13; 32: 17-18, 22-23, 25-27 | hebreo | 30-1 a. C. Herodes temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] [169] | |
4QDeut k2 | 4Q38a | Deuteronomio 19: 8–16; 20: 6-19; 21:16; 23: 22-26; 24: 1-3; 25:19; 26: 1–5, 18–19; 27: 1 | hebreo | 30-1 a. C. Herodes temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [168] [169] | |
4QDeut k3 | 4T38b | Deuteronomio 30: 16-18 | hebreo | 50 d.C. Herodes tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [170] [169] | |
4QDeut l | 4T39 | Deuteronomio 10: 1, 14-15; 28: 67–68; 29: 2-5; 31:12; 33: 1-2; 34: 4–6,8 | hebreo | 50 d.C. Hasmoneo tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio sobre la elección de la vida o la muerte | [47] [170] | |
4QDeut m | 4T40 | Deuteronomio 3: 18-22; 4: 32–33; 7: 18-22 | hebreo | 50-1 a. C. Transicional: asmoneo a herodiano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [170] | |
4QDeut n | Deuteronomio de todas las almas | 4T41 | Deuteronomio 5: 1–33; 6: 1; 8: 5-10 | hebreo | 30-1 a. C. Herodes temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [170] |
4QDeut o | Deuteronomio | 4T42 | Deuteronomio 2: 8; 4: 30–34; 5: 1–5, 8–9; 28: 15-18, 33-36, 47-52, 58-62; 29: 22-25 | hebreo | 75–50 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [170] |
4QDeut p | 4T43 | Deuteronomio 6: 4–11 | hebreo | 75–50 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio sobre amar a Dios | [47] [170] | |
4QDeut q | 4T44 | Deuteronomio 32: 9-10, 37-43 | hebreo | 50 a. C. – 25 d. C. Hasmoneo tardío o herodiano temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [170] | |
4QpaleoDeut r | Paleo-Deuteronomio | 4T45 | Deuteronomio 7: 2–7, 16–25; 11: 28,30–12: 1,11–12; 13:19; 14: 19-22, 26-29; 15: 5–6, 8–10; 19: 2-3; 21: 8–9; 22: 3–6,12–15; 28: 15-18, 20; 30: 7-8; 32: 2–8,10–11,13–14, 33–35; 33: 2–8, 29; 34: 1–2 | hebreo | 100-25 a. C. Escritura paleohebrea | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [170] |
4QpaleoDeut s | 4T46 | Deuteronomio 26: 14-15 | hebreo | 250-200 a. C. Escritura arcaica paleohebrea | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio sobre dar diezmos | [47] [170] | |
4QJosh a | Joshua | 4T47 | Josué 8: 34–35; 5:?, 2-7; 6: 5-10; 7: 12-17; 8: 3-14, 18 ?; 10: 2-5, 8-11. | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Josué | [170] [171] |
4QJosh b | 4T48 | Josué 2: 11-12; 3: 15-16; 4: 1-3; 17: 11-15 | [172] [173] | ||||
4QJudg a | Jueces | 4T49 | Jueces 6: 2–6, 11–13 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de jueces | [174] [175] |
4QJudg b | 4T50 | Jueces 19: 5–7; 21: 12-25 | [174] [176] | ||||
4QSam a | Samuel | 4T51 | 1 Samuel 1: 9, 11-13, 17-18, 22-26, 28; 2: 1–10,16–36; 3: 1–4,18–21; 4: 9-12; 5: 8-12; 6: 1–7,12–13,16–18,20–21; 7: 1; 8: 9-20; 9: 6–8,11–12,16–24; 10: 3–18,25–27; 11: 1, 7–12; 12: 7–8,14–19; 14: 24–25,28–34,47–51; 15: 24–32; 17: 3-6; 24: 4–5,8–9,14–23; 25: 3–12,20–21,25–26,39–40; 26: 10–12,21–23; 27: 8-12; 28: 1–2,22–25; 30: 28-30; 31: 2-4; 2 Samuel 2: 5–16,25–27,29–32; 3: 1–8,23–39; 4: 1–4,9–12; 5: 1–3,6–16; 6: 2–9,12–18; 7: 23-29; 8: 2–8; 10: 4–7,18–19; 11: 2–12,16–20; 12: 4–5,8–9,13–20,30–31; 13: 1–6,13–34,36–39; 14: 1–3,18–19; 15: 1–6,27–31; 16: 1–2,11–13,17–18,21–23; 18: 2–7,9–11; 19: 7-12; 20: 2–3,9–14,23–26; 21: 1–2,4–6,15–17; 22: 30–51; 23: 1–6; 24: 16-20 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de 1 Samuel y 2 Samuel | [174] [177] |
4QSam b | 4T52 | 1 Samuel 16: 1–11; 19: 10-17; 20: 27–42; 21: 1–10; 23: 9-17 | hebreo | Helenístico temprano | Fragmentos de 1 Samuel | [174] [178] | |
4QSam c | 4T53 | 1 Samuel 25: 30–32; 2 Samuel 14: 7–33; 15: 1-15 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de 1 Samuel y 2 Samuel | [174] [179] | |
4QKgs | Reyes | 4T54 | 1 Reyes 7: 31–41; 8: 1–9,16–18 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de 1 Reyes | [174] [180] |
4QIsa a | Isaías | 4T55 | Isaías 1 : 1-3; 2 : 7-10; 4: 5-6; 6: 4–7; 11: 12-15; 12: 4-6; 13: 4-6; 17: 9-14; 19: 9-14; 20: 1–6; 21: 1–2,4–16; 22: 13-25; 23: 1–12 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Isaías | [181] [182] |
4QIsa b | 4T56 | Isaías 1 : 1–6; 2 : 3-16; 3 : 14-22; 5 : 15-28; 9: 10-11; 11: 7–9; 12: 2; 13: 3-18; 17: 8-14; 18: 1,5–7; 19: 1–25; 20: 1–4; 21: 11-14; 22: 24-25; 24: 2; 26: 1–5,7–19; 35: 9-10; 36: 1-2; 37: 2932; 39: 1–8; 40: 1–4,22–26; 41: 8-11; 43: 12-15; 44: 19-28; 45: 20-25; 46: 1-3; 49: 21-23; 51: 14-16; 52: 2,7; 53: 11-12; 61: 1-3; 64: 5–11; 65: 1; 66:24 | hebreo | Herodiano | [181] [183] | ||
4QIsa c | 4T57 | Isaías 9 : 3–12; 10: 23–32; 11: 4–11,15–16; 12: 1; 14: 1–5,13; 22: 10-14; 23: 8-18; 24: 1–15,19–23; 25: 1–2,8–12; 30: 8-17; 33: 2–8,16–23; 45: 1–4,6–13; 48: 10-13,17-19; 50: 7–11; 51: 1-16; 52: 10-15; 53: 1–3,6–8; 54: 3-17; 55: 1–6; 66: 20-24 | hebreo | [181] [184] | |||
4QIsa d | 4T58 | Isaías 46 : 10–13; 47 : 1–6,8–9; 48 : 8-22; 49 : 1-15; 52: 4–7; 53: 8-12; 54: 1-11; 57: 9-21; 58: 1–3,5–7 | hebreo | [181] [185] | |||
4QIsa e | 4T59 | Isaías 2 : 1–4; 7: 17-20; 8: 2-14; 9: 17-20; 10: 1–10; 11: 14-15; 12: 1–6; 13: 1–4; 14: 1–13,20–24; 59: 15-16 | hebreo | [181] [186] | |||
4QIsa f | 4T60 | Isaías 1 : 10–16,18–31; 2 : 1-3; 5: 13-14, 25; 6: 3–8,10–13; 7: 16–18,23–25; 8: 1, 4–11; 20: 4-6; 22: 14–22,25; 24: 1-3; 27: 1,5–6,8–12; 28: 6–9,16–18,22,24; 29 : 8 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [181] [187] | ||
4QIsa g | 4T61 | Isaías 42 : 14–25; 43 : 1–4,17–24 | hebreo | Herodiano | [181] [188] | ||
4QIsa h | 4T61 | Isaías 42 : 4–11 | hebreo | Herodiano | [181] | ||
4QIsa i | 4T62 | Isaías 56 : 7–8; 57 : 5–8 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [189] [190] | ||
4QIsa j | 4T63 | Isaías 1 : 1–6 | hebreo | Herodiano | [189] [191] | ||
4QIsa k | 4T64 | Isaías 28 : 26– 29 : 9 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [189] [192] | ||
4QIsa l | 4T65 | Isaías 7 : 14-15; 8 : 11-14 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [189] [193] | ||
4QIsa m | 4T66 | Isaías 60 : 20– 61 : 1,3–6 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [189] [194] | ||
4QIsa n | Isaías | 4T67 | Isaías 58 : 13–14 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Isaías, que incluyen elementos sobre el castigo (4Q67) y las bendiciones de Dios para su pueblo (4Q67, 4Q69a). | [189] [195] |
4QIsa o | 4T68 | Isaías 14 : 28- 15 : 2 | [189] [196] | ||||
4QIsa p | 4T69 | Isaías 5 : 28–30 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [189] [197] [198] | ||
4QIsa q | 4Q69a | Isaías 54 : 10–13 | [189] [198] | ||||
4QIsa r | 4Q69b | Isaías 30 : 23 | [189] [198] | ||||
4QJer a | Jeremías | 4T70 | Jeremías 6 : 30 ?, 7: 1–2, 15–19, 28–9: 2, 7–15; 10: 9-14, 23; 11: 3–6, 19–20; 12: 3–7, 13–16, 17; 13: 1–7, 22–23? [o 22: 3], 27; 14: 4–7; 15: 1-2; 17: 8-26; 18: 15-23; 19: 1; 20: 14-18; 21: 1 ?; 22: 3-16; 26:10? | hebreo | 200 a. C. - 1 a. C. | Fragmentos de Jeremías | [189] [199] [200] |
4QJer b | 4T71 | Jeremías 9 : 22-25; 10 : 1–21 | [199] [200] [201] | ||||
4QJer c | 4T72 | Jeremías 4 : 5, 13–16; 8: 1-3, 21-23; 9: 1–5; 10: 12-13; 19: 8–9; 20: 2–5, 7–9, 13–15; 21: 7-10; 22: 4–6, 10–28; 25: 7–8,15–17, 24–26; 26: 10-13; 27: 1-3, 13-15; 30: 6-9, [10-17], 17-24; 31: 1–14, 19–26; 33:?, 16-20 | [199] [200] [201] | ||||
4QJer d (olim 4QJer b ) | 4Q72a | Jeremías 43: 2–10 | [199] [200] [201] | ||||
4QJer e (olim 4QJer b ) | 4T72b | Jeremías 50: 4–6 | [199] [200] [201] | ||||
4QEze a | Ezequiel | 4T73 | Ezequiel 10: 5–16, 17–22; 11: 1-11; 23: 14-15, 17-18, 44-47; 41: 3-6 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Ezequiel | [201] [202] |
4QEze b | 4T74 | Ezequiel 1 : 10–13, 16–17, 19–24 | [201] [203] [204] | ||||
4QEze c | 4T75 | Ezequiel 24: 2-3 | [201] [205] | ||||
4QXII a | Los Doce Profetas Menores | 4T76 | Zacarías 14 : 18; Malaquías 2 : 10–3: 24; Jonás 1 : 1–5, 7–2: 1, 7; 3: 2 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de los doce profetas menores | [201] [206] |
4QXII b | 4T77 | Sofonías 1 : 1-2; 2: 13-15; 3: 19-20; Hageo 1 : 1-2; 2: 2-4 | [201] [207] | ||||
4QXII c | 4T78 | Oseas 2 : 13-15; 3: 2-4; 4: 1-19; 5: 1; 7: 12-13; 13: 3–10, 15; 14: 1–6; Joel 1 : 10-20; 2: 1, 8–23; 4: 6-21; ¿Amós 1 : 1 ?; 2: 11-16; 3: 1-15; 4: 1-2; 6: 13-14; 7: 1–16; Sofonías 2:15 ; 3: 1-2; Malaquías 3 : 6–7? | [201] [208] | ||||
4QXII d | 4T79 | Oseas 1 : 6–2: 5 | [209] [210] | ||||
4QXII e | 4T80 | Hageo 2 : 18-19, 20-21; Zacarías 1 : 4–6, 8–10, 13–15; 2: 10-14; 3: 2-10; 4: 1–4; 5: 8–6: 5; 8: 2–4, 6–7, 12: 7–12 | [209] [211] | ||||
4QXII f | 4T81 | Jonás 1 : 6–8, 10–16; Miqueas 5 : 1–2 | [209] [212] | ||||
4QXII g | 4T82 | Oseas 2 : 1–5,14–19, 22–25; 3: 1–5; 4: 1, 10-11, 13-14; 6: 3-4, 8-11; 7: 1, 12-13, 13-16; 8: 1; 9: 1–4, 9–17; 10: 1-14; 11: 2–5, 6–11; 12: 1-15; 13: 1, 6-8 ?, 11-13; 14: 9-10; Joel 1 : 12-14; 2: 2–13 4: 4–9, 11–14, 17, 19–20; Amós 1 : 3–15; 2: 1, 7–9, 15–16; 3: 1-2; 4: 4-9; 5: 1–2, 9–18; 6: 1–4, 6–14; 7: 1, 7-12, 14-17; 8: 1–5, 11–14; 9: 1, 5–6, 14–15; Abdías 1–5, 8–12, 14–15; Jonás 1 : 1–9; 2: 3-11; 3: 1-3; 4: 5–11; Miqueas 1 : 7, 12-15; 2: 3-4; 3:12; 4: 1-2; 5: 6-7 (7-8); 7: 2-3, 20; Nahum 1 : 7–9; 2: 9-11; 3: 1-3, 17; Habacuc 2 : 4 ?; Sofonías 3 : 3-5; Zacarías 10 : 11-12; 11: 1-2; 12: 1-3 | [209] [213] | ||||
4QP a | Salmos | 4T83 | Salmo 5 : 9-13; 6 : 1–4; 25:15 ; 31 : 24-25; 33 : 1–12; 35 : 2,14–20,26–28; 36 : 1–9; 38 : 2–12,16–23; 47 : 2; 53 : 4–7; 54 : 1–6; 56 : 4; 62 : 13; 63 : 2-4; 66 : 16-20; 67 : 1–7; 69 : 1–19; 71 : 1-14 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Salmos. | [209] [214] |
4QPs b | 4T84 | Salmo 91 : 5–8,12–15; 92 : 4–8,13–15; 93 : 5; 94 : 1–4,8–14,17–18,21–22; 96 : 2; 98 : 4; 99 : 5–6; 100 : 1-2; 102 : 5,10–29; 103 : 1–6,9–14,20–21; 112 : 4-5; 113 : 1; 115 : 2-3; 116 : 17-19; 118 : 1–3,6–11,18–20,23–26,29 | hebreo | Herodiano | [209] [215] | ||
4QPs c | 4T85 | Salmo 16 : 7–9; 18 : 3–14,16–18,33–41; 27 : 12-14; 28 : 1–2,4; 35 : 27-28; 37 : 18-19; 45 : 8-11; 49 : 1-17; 50 : 14-23; 51 : 1–5; 52 : 6–11; 53 : 1 | hebreo | Herodiano | [209] [216] | ||
4QPs d | 4T86 | Salmo 146 : 10; 147 : 1–3,13–17,20; 104 : 1–5,8–11,14–15,22–25,33–35 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [217] [218] | ||
4QPs e | 4T87 | Salmo 76 : 10-12; 77: 1; 78: 6–7,31–33; 81: 2-3; 86: 10-11; 88: 1–4; 89: 44–46,50–53; 104: 1–3,20–21; 105: 22–24,36–45; 109: 13; 115: 15-18; 116: 1-3; 120: 6; 125: 2-5; 126: 1–5; 129: 8; 130: 1-3 | hebreo | Herodiano | [217] [219] | ||
4QPs f | 4T88 | Salmo 22 : 14-17; 107 : 2–4,8–11,13–15,18–19,22–30,35; 109 : 4–6, 25–28; Apóstrofe de Sion; Apóstrofe de Judá; Himno escatológico | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [217] [220] | ||
4QPs g | 4T89 | Salmo 119 : 37–43,44–46,49–50,73,81–83,90 | hebreo | Herodiano | [217] [221] | ||
4QP h | 4T90 | Salmo 119 : 10-21 | hebreo | Herodiano | [217] [222] | ||
4QPs j | 4T91 | Salmo 48 : 1–7; 49 : 6,9-12,15,17 | hebreo | Herodiano | [217] [223] | ||
4QPs k | 4T92 | Salmo 26 : 7-12; 27 : 1; 30 : 9-13; 135 : 7–16; | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [217] [224] | ||
4QPs l | 4T93 | Salmo 104 : 3-5,11-12 | hebreo | Herodiano | [217] [225] | ||
4QPs m | 4T94 | Salmo 93 : 3-5; 95: 3-6; 97: 6–9; 98: 4–8 | hebreo | Herodiano | [217] [226] | ||
4QPs n | 4T95 | Salmo 135 : 6–9,11–12; 136: 23-24 | hebreo | Herodiano | [227] [228] | ||
4QPs o | 4T96 | Salmo 114 : 7; 115: 1–2,4; 116: 3, 5, 7–10 | hebreo | Herodiano | [228] [229] | ||
4QPs p (olim 4Q237) | 4T97 | Salmo 143 : 2–4, 6–8 | hebreo | Herodiano | [228] [230] | ||
4QPs q | Salmos | 4T98 | Salmo 31 : 24-25; 33 : 1-18; 35 : 4-20 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Salmos, que incluyen elementos sobre poner la esperanza en Dios (4Q98d), la tierra temblando ante la presencia de Dios (4Q98e), las bendiciones de los Hijos de Dios y la lucha de los impíos (4Q98f). | [228] |
4QPs r | 4Q98a | Salmo 26 : 7-12; 27 : 1; 30 : 9-13 | [228] [231] | ||||
4QP s | 4T98b | Salmo 5 : 8-13; 6 : 1 | [228] | ||||
4QPs t | 4Q98c | Salmo 88 : 15-17 | [228] | ||||
4QPs u | 4T98d | Salmo 42 : 5 | [228] | ||||
4QPs v (olim 4QPs u frg.2) | 4Q98e | Salmo 99 : 1 | [228] | ||||
4QPs w | 4Q98f | Salmo 112 : 1–9 | [228] | ||||
4QPs x (olim 4T236) | 4Q98g | Salmo 89 : 20-22, 26, 23, 27-28, 31 | [228] | ||||
4QJob a | Trabajo | 4T99 | Job 31: 14-19; 32: 3-4; 33: 10-11, 24-26, 28-30; 35:16; 36: 7-11, 13-27, 32-33; 37: 1–5, 14–15 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Job | [232] [233] |
4QJob b | 4T100 | Job 8: 15-17; 9:27; 13: 4; 14: 4-6; 31: 20-21 | Herodiano | [233] [234] | |||
4QpaleoJob c | Paleo-trabajo | 4T101 | Job 13: 18-20, 23-27; 14: 13-18 | hebreo | Helenística temprana; Escritura paleohebrea | Fragmento de trabajo | [233] [235] |
4QProv a | Proverbios | 4T102 | Proverbios 1: 27–33; 2: 1 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Proverbios | [233] [236] |
4QProv b | 4T103 | Proverbios 13: 6–9; 14: 5-10, 12-13, 31-35; 15: 1–8, 19–31; 7: 9, 11? | hebreo | Herodiano | [233] [237] | ||
4QRuth a | Piedad | 4T104 | Rut 1 : 1–12 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Rut | [233] [238] |
4QRuth b | 4T105 | Rut 1 : 1–6, 12–15 | hebreo | Herodiano | [233] [239] | ||
4QCant una | Canticles (Cantar de los cantares) | 4T106 | Cantar de los Cantares 3 : 4–5, 7–11; 4 : 1–7; 6 : 11? –12; 7 : 1–7 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Pesher sobre Cantar de los Cantares / Cantar de los Cantares, incluida una introducción (4Q106). | [233] [240] |
4QCant b | 4T107 | Cantar de los Cantares 2 : 9–17; 3: 1–2, 5, 9–11; 4: 1-3, 8-11, 14-16; 5: 1 | hebreo | Herodiano | [233] [241] | ||
4QCant c | 4T108 | Cantar de los Cantares 3 : 7–8 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [233] [242] | ||
4QQoh a | Eclesiastés | 4T109 | Eclesiastés 5: 13–17; 6: 1 ?, 3–8,12; 7: 1–10,19–20 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Eclesiastés | [243] [244] |
4QQoh b | 4T110 | Eclesiastés 1: 10–15 | hebreo | Herodiano | [243] [245] | ||
4QLam | Lamentaciones | 4T111 | Lamentaciones 1 : 1–15, 17, 16, 18; 2: 5 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Lamentaciones | [243] [246] |
4QDan a | Daniel | 4T112 | Daniel 1: 16–20; 2: 9-11, 19-49; 3: 1-2; 4: 29-30; 5: 5–7, 12–14, 16–19; 7: 5–7, 25–28; 8: 1–5; 10: 16-20; 11: 13-16 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Daniel | [243] [247] |
4QDan b | 4T113 | Daniel 5: 10-12, 14-16, 19-22; 6: 8-22, 27-29; 7: 1–6, 11 ?, 26–28; 8: 1–8, 13–16 | hebreo | Herodiano | [243] [248] | ||
4QDan c | 4T114 | Daniel 10: 5–9, 11–16, 21; 11: 1–2, 13–17, 25–29 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [243] [249] | ||
4QDan d | 4T115 | Daniel 3: 8-10 ?, 23-25; 4: 5–9, 12–16; 7: 15-23 | hebreo | Herodiano | [243] [250] | ||
4QDan e | 4T116 | Daniel 9: 12-17 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [243] [251] | ||
4QEzra | Esdras | 4T117 | Esdras 4: 2–6, 9–11; 5:17; 6: 1–5 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Esdras-Nehemías | [243] [252] |
4QChr / 4QChron | Crónicas | 4T118 | 2 Crónicas 28:27; 29: 1-3 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de 2 Crónicas | [243] [253] |
4QLXXLev a gr | Septuaginta Levítico | 4T119 | Levítico 26: 2-16 | griego | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Levítico | [254] [255] |
4QpapLXXLev b / pap4QLXXLev b gr | 4T120 | Levítico 1:11; 2: 3-5, 7-8 ?; 3: 4, 7, 9-14; 4: 3–4, 6–8, 10–11, 18–19, 26–28, 30; 5: 6, 8-10, 16-24; [6: 1–5] | griego | Hasmoneo | 97 fragmentos de Levítico. Contiene ΙΑΩ para el tetragrammaton | [254] [256] | |
4QLXXNum b gr | Números de la Septuaginta | 4T121 | Números 3: 40–43,50–51 ?; 4: 1?, 5–9,11–16; 3:39? | griego | Herodiano | Fragmentos de números | [254] [257] |
4QLXXDeut gr | Septuaginta Deuteronomio | 4T122 | Deuteronomio 11: 4 | griego | Helenístico temprano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio | [47] [254] [258] |
4QpaleoparaJosh | Paráfrasis de Josué | 4T123 | Joshua | hebreo | Escritura paleohebrea | "Joshua reescrito" | [254] [259] |
4Qpap paraExod / pap4QParaExod gr | Paráfrasis del Éxodo | 4T127 | éxodo | griego | Herodiano | "Éxodo reescrito" | [254] [260] |
4Qphyl a | Rollos de filacteria | 4T128 | Deuteronomio 5: 1–14,27–6: 3; 10: 12-11: 21; Éxodo 12: 43–13: 7 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos de Deuteronomio y Éxodo. | [47] [261] [262] |
4Qphyl b | 4T129 | Éxodo 13: 9–16 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [263] [264] | ||
4Qphyl c | 4T130 | Éxodo 13: 13–16; Deuteronomio 6: 4-9; 11: 13-21 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [263] [265] | ||
4Qphyl d | 4T131 | Deuteronomio 11: 13-21 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [263] [266] | ||
4Qphyl e | 4T132 | Éxodo 13: 1–10 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [263] [267] | ||
4Qphyl f | 4T133 | Éxodo 13: 11–16 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [263] [268] | ||
4Qphyl g | 4T134 | Deuteronomio 5: 1–21; Éxodo 13: 11-12 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [263] [269] | ||
4 Qphyl h | 4T135 | Deuteronomio 5: 22–6: 5; Éxodo 13: 14–16 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [263] [270] | ||
4Qphyl i | 4T136 | Deuteronomio 6: 6–7; 11: 13-21; Éxodo 12: 43–13: 10 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [263] [271] | ||
4Qphyl j (olim 4Qphyl a ) | 4T137 | Deuteronomio 5: 24–32; 6: 2-3 | hebreo | [47] [263] | |||
4Qphyl k | 4T138 | Deuteronomio 10: 12-11: 17 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [273] | ||
4Qphyl l | 4T139 | Deuteronomio 5: 7-24 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [274] | ||
4Qphyl m | 4T140 | Éxodo 12: 44–13: 10; Deuteronomio 5: 33–6: 5 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [275] | ||
4Qphyl n | 4T141 | Deuteronomio 32: 14-20, 32-33 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [276] | ||
4Qphyl o | 4T142 | Deuteronomio 5: 1–16, 6: 7–9 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [277] | ||
4Qphyl p | 4T143 | Deuteronomio 10: 22-11: 3,18-21 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [278] | ||
4Qphyl q | 4T144 | Éxodo 13: 4–9; Deuteronomio 11: 4–18 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [279] | ||
4Qphyl r | 4T145 | Éxodo 13: 1–10 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [272] [280] | ||
4QPhyl s | 4T146 | Deuteronomio 11: 19-21 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [47] [272] [281] | ||
4Qphyl t | 4T147 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | No se pudo descifrar | [272] [282] | ||
4Qphyl u | 4T148 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [272] [283] | |||
4QMez a | Rollos de mezuzá | 4T149 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Éxodo y Deuteronomio | [284] [285] | |
4QMez b | 4T150 | Deuteronomio 6: 5-6; 10: 14-11: 2 | hebreo | Herodiano | [286] [287] | ||
4QMez c | 4T151 | Deuteronomio 5: 27–6: 9; 10: 12-20 | hebreo | Herodiano | [286] [288] | ||
4QMez d | 4T152 | Deuteronomio 6: 5-7 | hebreo | Herodiano | [286] [289] | ||
4QMez e | 4T153 | Deuteronomio 11: 17-18 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [286] [290] | ||
4QMez f | 4T154 | Deuteronomio 13: 1–4 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [286] [291] | ||
4QMez g | 4T155 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [286] [292] | |||
4QtgLev | Targum de Levítico | 4T156 | Levítico 16: 12-15,18-21 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos de Levítico | [293] [294] |
4QtgJob | Targum de Job | 4T157 | Job 3: 5–6; 4: 17–5: 4 | arameo | Herodiano | Fragmentos de Job | [293] [295] [296] |
4QRP a | Pentateuco A reelaborado | 4T158 | Génesis 32: 25–30; 32:31?; Éxodo 3:12; 4: 27-28; 19: 17–23; 24: 4-6; 20: 12-17, 19-21 (Samaritan), 22-26; 21: 15-25, 32-37; 22: 1-13; 30: 32,34; Deuteronomio 5: 30–31; 21: 1–10 | hebreo | Herodiano | Pentateuco reelaborado | [47] [297] [298] [299] |
4Q Ordenanzas a | Ordenanzas A | 4T159 | hebreo | Herodiano | Composición no bíblica | [299] [300] | |
4QVisSam | Visión de Samuel | 4T160 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Composición no bíblica | [299] [301] | |
4QpIsaías a | Pesher sobre Isaías | 4T161 | hebreo | Herodiano | Composición no bíblica | [302] | |
4QpIsaías b | 4T162 | hebreo | Herodiano | Composición no bíblica | [303] | ||
4QpHosA | Pesher sobre Oseas A | 4T166 | hebreo | Herodiano | Pergamino de comentario de Oseas | [304] [305] [306] | |
4QpHosB | Pesher sobre Oseas B | 4T167 | hebreo | Herodiano | [305] [307] | ||
4QpMic (?) | ¿Pesher en Micah ? | 4T168 | hebreo | Herodiano | ¿Comentario de Miqueas? | [305] [308] | |
4QpNah | Pesher en Nahum | 4T169 | Nahum 1: 3–6; 2: 12-14; 3: 1–5, 6–9, 10–12, 14 | hebreo | Herodiano | Que contiene el término " Los buscadores de cosas suaves " | [305] [309] |
4Q Comentario escatológico A | Florilegium o Midrash en los últimos días | 4T174 | 2 Samuel 7: 10-14 (1 Crónicas 17: 9-13); Éxodo 15: 17-18; Amós 9:11; Salmo 1: 1; Isaías 8:11; Ezequiel 37:23 ?; Salmo 2: 1; Daniel 12:10; 11:32; Deuteronomio 33: 8-11, 12, 19-21 | hebreo | Herodiano | Citas de pasajes bíblicos con comentario midráshico | [310] [311] |
4QTest | Testimonios | 4T175 | Deuteronomio 5: 28-29; 18: 18-19; 33: 8-11 Números 24: 15-17 Josué 6:26, citado en Salmos de Josué (4Q379, frag. 22) | hebreo | Herodiano; Escritura hasmonea | Una lista de citas; Antología mesiánica o Testimonia | [47] [310] [312] |
4QapocrLamA | Lamentaciones apócrifas A | 4T179 | Lamentaciones | hebreo | Herodiano | cf. 4Q501 | [313] |
Horóscopo 4Q | Fisonomías / Horóscopos | 4T186 | hebreo | Herodiano | [314] | ||
4QpapTobit a | Morder | 4T196 | Morder | arameo | Hasmoneo | Sobre papiro . cf. 4Q501 | [315] |
4QTobit b | Morder | 4T197 | Morder | arameo | Herodiano | cf. 4Q501 | [316] |
4QTobit c | Morder | 4T198 | Morder | arameo | Hasmoneo | cf. 4Q501 | [317] |
4QTobit d | Morder | 4T199 | Morder | arameo | Hasmoneo | cf. 4Q501 | [318] |
4QTobit e | Morder | 4T200 | Morder | hebreo | Herodiano | cf. 4Q501 | [319] |
4QEn a | El pergamino de Enoch | 4T201 a | arameo | Hasmoneo | [304] [320] | ||
4QALD / 4QLevi a-f ar | El documento arameo de Levi (ALD) | 4Q213 4Q213a 4Q213b 4Q214 4Q214a 4Q214b | arameo | Hasmoneo | Varias composiciones | [321] | |
4QTNaph | Testamento de Neftalí | 4T215 | hebreo | Herodiano | [322] [323] | ||
4Q ¿ Puede un (?) | Pesher en cánticos / Cantar de los cantares | 4T240 | Canción de canciones | hebreo | Herodiano | Incluido en la lista original de Milik , pero este fragmento nunca ha sido localizado | [324] |
4QapocrDan | Apocalipsis arameo o el texto del Hijo de Dios | 4T246 | arameo | Herodiano | [325] | ||
4QComentario sobre Gen A / 4QCommGenA | Comentario / Pesher sobre Génesis | 4Q252 | Génesis 6: 3; 7: 10–8: 18; 9: 24-27; 11:31; 15: 9, 17, 17:20 ?; 18: 31–32 (con Deuteronomio 13:16, 17; 20:11, 14); 22: 10-12; 28: 3-4; 36:12; 49: 3-4, 10 (con Jeremías 33:17), 20-21 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos / comentario de Génesis. | [326] [327] |
4QComentario sobre Gen B / 4QCommGenB | 4Q253 | Génesis | hebreo | Herodiano | [326] [328] | ||
4QComentario sobre Gen C / 4QCommGenC | 4Q254 | Génesis 9: 24-25; 22: 5 ?, 17? | hebreo | Herodiano | [326] [329] | ||
4Q Comentario sobre la Generación D (olim 4QpGen c ) | 4T254 a –820 | Génesis 6:15 | hebreo | Herodiano | [326] [330] | ||
4QS d | Serekh ha-Yahad o regla comunitaria | 4Q258 | hebreo | Herodiano | cf. 1QS d | [331] | |
4QD | El documento de Damasco | 4Q265–273 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | cf. 4QD a / g = 4Q266 / 272, 4QD a / e = 4Q266 / 270, 5Q12, 6Q15, 4Q265–73 | [85] | |
4T Sefer ha-Milhamah | Regla de guerra | 4Q285 | hebreo | Herodiano | cf. 11T14 | [332] | |
4QMyst a | El libro de los misterios El libro de los secretos | 4T299 | hebreo | Herodiano | [333] | ||
4QMyst b | 4T300 | hebreo | Herodiano | [334] | |||
4QMyst c | El libro de los misterios El libro de los secretos | 4T301 | hebreo | Herodiano | [335] | ||
4QRP b | Pentateuco reelaborado | 4Q364 | Génesis 25: 18–21; 26: 7-8; 27:39; 28: 6; 29: 32–33; 30: 8-14, 26-36; 31: 47–53; 32: 18–20,26–30; 34: 2; 35:28; 37: 7-8; 38: 14-21; 44: 30–34; 45: 1, 21-27; 48: 14-15; Éxodo 21: 14–22; 19:17; 24: 12-14,18; 25: 1-2; 26: 1,33–35; Números 14: 16-20; 33: 31–49; 20: 17-18; Deuteronomio 2: 8-14, 30-37; 3: 2, 18-23; 9: 6–7,12–18, 21–25,27–29; 10: 1–4, 6–7, 10–13,22; 11: 1–2,6–9,23–24; 14: 24-26 | hebreo | Tardío hasmoneo o herodiano | Pentateuco reelaborado | [47] [297] [336] [337] |
4QRP c | 4T365 | Éxodo 8: 13-19; 9: 9-12; 10: 19-20; 14: 10,12-21; 15: 6- [21], 22-26; 17: 3-5; 18: 13-16; 26: 34–36; 28: 16-20; 29: 20-22; 30: 27–38; 31: 1-2; 35: [2] –5; 36: 32–38; 37:29; 38: 1–7; 39: 1-19; Levítico 11: 1 [3], 17- [25], 32- [33], [39] - [46]; 13: 6–8,15- [19], 51–52; 16: 6–7; 18: [25] - [29]; 23: 42–44; 24: 1-2; 25: 7–9; 26: 17–32; 27:34; Números 1: 1–5; 3: 26-30; 4: 47–49; 7: 1,78–80; 8: 11-12; 9: 15-23; 10: 1- [4]; 13: [11] –25, [28] –30; 15: 26- [29]; 17: 20-24; 27:11; 36: 1-2; Deuteronomio 2:24; 19: 20-21; 20: 1 | hebreo | Hasmoneo tardío / herodiano temprano | [47] [297] [338] [339] | ||
4QRP d | 4Q366 | Éxodo 21, 35–37; 22: 1–5; Levítico 24: 20–22; 25: 39–43; Números 29: 14- [25], 32-39; 30: 1; Deuteronomio 16: 13-14; 14: [13] –21 | hebreo | Herodiano | [47] [297] [338] [340] | ||
4QRP e | 4Q367 | Levítico 11:47; 12: 1–8; 13: 1; 15: 14-15; 19: 1–4,9–15; 20:13; 27: 30–34 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [297] [338] [341] | ||
4QapocrJosh a | Apócrifo de Josué | 4Q378 | hebreo | Herodiano | Textos basados en el contenido de Josué, Éxodo y Números. | [342] | |
4Qapocr Josh b | 4Q379 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [343] | |||
4QpsEzek | Pseudo-Ezequiel | 4Q385 4Q385b 4Q385c 4Q386 4Q388 4Q391 | hebreo | Herodiano | [344] | ||
4QMMT / 4Q Cal.Doc.D | Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah o algunos preceptos de la ley o la letra halájica | 4Q394–399 | hebreo | Herodiano | [345] | ||
4Q Salmos no canónicos A | Canciones del sacrificio del sábado o la liturgia angelical | 4Q400–407 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | cf. 11T5–6 | [346] | |
4QInstrucción | Obra sapiencial A | 4T415–418 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
4QParafrase | Paráfrasis de Génesis y Éxodo | hebreo | |||||
4Q Barkhi Nafshi a | Barkhi Nafshi - Salmos apócrifos | 4T434 | hebreo | Herodiano | 15 fragmentos: probables himnos de acción de gracias alabando a Dios por su poder y expresando agradecimiento | [347] | |
4Q Apocr. Salmo y oración | Himno al rey Jonatán o la oración por el rollo del rey Jonatán | 4T448 | Salmos 154 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Además de partes del Salmo 154, contiene una oración que menciona al " Rey Jonatán ". | [85] |
4QpapGen o papJub | pap- Génesis o pap- Jubileos | 4Q483 | Génesis 1: 28–29, o Libro de los jubileos | hebreo | Herodiano | [348] | |
4Q Shir a-b | Canciones del sabio o Canciones del Maskil | 4Q510–511 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
Apocalipsis mesiánico 4T | Apocalipsis mesiánico | 4Q521 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Compuesto por dos fragmentos | [349] | |
4Q Jonathan | 4Q523 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | MeKleine Fragmente, zT gesetzlichen Inhalts; El fragmento es de contenido legal. Número PAM, 41.944 | [350] [351] | ||
4QTempleScroll b | Pergamino del templo | 4Q524 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [85] [352] | ||
4QBeatitudes | 4Q525 | Mateo 5: 3-12 ( Bienaventuranzas ) | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
4Q TJoseph | Testamento de José | 4Q539 | arameo | Hasmoneo | [353] | ||
4QapocrLevi (?) B | Testamento de Levi d | 4Q541 | arameo | Hasmoneo | Fragmento arameo. también llamado "4QApocryphon de Levi b ar" | [354] | |
4QTKohath (4QTQahat) | Testamento de Qahat | 4Q542 | arameo | Hasmoneo | [355] | ||
4QNJ c | Nueva jerusalén | 4Q555 | arameo | Herodiano | cf. 1T32, 2T24, 5T15, 11T18 | [356] | |
4QGen n | Génesis | 4Q576 | Génesis 34: 7–10; 50: 3 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [85] | |
Incontable | hebreo | Nueve fragmentos sin abrir recientemente redescubiertos almacenados | [357] |
Cueva 5
La cueva 5 fue descubierta junto a la cueva 6 en 1952, poco después del descubrimiento de la cueva 4. La cueva 5 produjo aproximadamente 25 manuscritos. [25]
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 5 | |||||||
5QDeut | Deuteronomio | 5T1 | Deuteronomio 7: 15-24; 8: 5–9: 2 | hebreo | Helenístico temprano | [47] [358] [359] | |
5QKgs | Reyes | 5T2 | 1 Reyes 1: 1,16–17,27–37 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | [360] [361] | |
5QIsa | Isaías | 5T3 | Isaías 40 : 16,18-19 | hebreo | Herodiano | [360] [362] | |
5QAmos | Amós | 5T4 | Amós 1 : 2-5 | hebreo | [360] | ||
5QP | Salmos | 5T5 | Salmo 119 : 99–101,104,113–20,138–42 | hebreo | Herodiano | [360] [363] | |
5QLam a | Lamentaciones | 5T6 | Lamentaciones 4 : 5–8,11–16,19–22; 5 : 1–13,16–17 | hebreo | Herodiano | [360] [364] | |
5QLam b | 5T7 | Lamentaciones 4 : 17-20 | hebreo | Herodiano | [360] [365] | ||
5QPhyl | Filacteria | 5T8 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Filacteria en su estuche sin abrir | [360] [366] | |
5QapocrJosh o 5QToponyms | Topónimos | 5T9 | hebreo | Herodiano | Siete fragmentos con nombres de lugares. | [360] [367] | |
5QapocrMal | Apócrifo de Malaquías | 5T10 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Apócrifo de Malaquías | [360] [368] | |
5QS | Regla de comunidad (Serek ha-Yahad) | 5T11 | hebreo | Herodiano | [360] [369] | ||
5QD | Documento de Damasco | 5T12 | hebreo | Herodiano | Documento de Damasco | [360] [370] | |
5QRule o 5QRégle | Regla de comunidad | 5T13 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos relacionados con 1QS | [371] [372] | |
5Q Maldiciones | Maldiciones | 5T14 | hebreo | Herodiano | Composiciones litúrgicas con maldiciones | [371] [373] | |
5QNJ | Pergamino de la Nueva Jerusalén | 5T15 | arameo | Helenístico-romano | Descripción de la Nueva Jerusalén | [371] [374] | |
5QUnid | No identificado | 5T16–5T24 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos no identificados | [371] | |
5QUnc | Desclasificado | 5T25 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Fragmentos sin clasificar | [371] [375] |
Cueva 6
La cueva 6 fue descubierta junto a la cueva 5 en 1952, poco después del descubrimiento de la cueva 4. La cueva 6 contenía fragmentos de unos 31 manuscritos. [25]
Lista de grupos de fragmentos recogidos de la cueva 6 de Wadi Qumran: [376] [377]
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 6 | |||||||
6QpaleoGen | Génesis | 6T1 | Génesis 6: 13-21 | hebreo | Helenística temprana; Escritura paleohebrea | [378] [379] | |
6QpaleoLev | Levíticio | 6T2 | Levítico 8: 12-13 | hebreo | Helenística temprana; Escritura paleohebrea | [378] [380] | |
pap6QDeut o 6QpapDeut (?) | Deuteronomio | 6T3 | Deuteronomio 26:19 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Algunas cartas de Deuteronomio 26:19 en papiro | [378] [47] [381] |
6QpapKgs | Reyes | 6T4 | 1 Reyes 3: 12-14; 12: 28–31; 22: 28–31; 2 Reyes 5:26; 6:32; 7: 8-10,20; 8: 1–5; 9: 1-2; 10: 19-21 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Compuesto por 94 fragmentos. | [378] [382] |
pap6QPs o 6QpapPs (?) | Salmos | 6T5 | Salmo 78 : 36–37 | hebreo | Herodiano | [383] [384] | |
6QCant | Canción de canciones | 6T6 | Cantar de los Cantares 1: 1–7 | hebreo | Herodiano | [383] [385] | |
6QpapDan | Daniel | 6T7 | Daniel 8 : 20-21; 10: 8–16; 11: 33–36,38; 8: 16-17 | hebreo | Herodiano | 13 fragmentos de papiro. | [383] [386] |
6QpapGiants o pap6QEnGiants | Libro de gigantes de Enoch | 6T8 | arameo | Herodiano | Parte del "Libro de los gigantes" | [383] [387] | |
6Qpap apocrSam-Kgs o pap6QapocrSam / Kgs | Apócrifo sobre Samuel - Reyes | 6T9 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Apócrifo de Samuel – Reyes. Escrito en papiro. | [383] [388] | |
6QpapaProph o pap6QProph | Fragmento profético no identificado | 6T10 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Texto profético. Escrito en papiro | [383] [389] | |
6Q Alegoría | Alegoría de la vid | 6T11 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmento que contiene una alegoría que menciona una vid | [383] [390] | |
6QapProph | Una profecía apócrifa | 6T12 | Herodiano | [383] [391] | |||
6QPriestProph | Profecía sacerdotal | 6T13 | Herodiano | Una profecía sacerdotal | [383] [392] | ||
Apocalipsis 6Q | Texto apocalíptico | 6T14 | arameo | Herodiano | Dos fragmentos con texto apocalíptico. | [383] [393] | |
6QD | Documento de Damasco | 6T15 | hebreo | Herodiano | Documento de Damasco 4: 19–21; 5: 13-14, 18-21; 6: 1–2,20–21; 7: 1 | [383] [394] | |
6QpapBened o pap6QBen | papBenediction | 6T16 | Herodiano | Bendiciones relacionadas 1QSb. En papiro | [395] [396] | ||
6QCalDoc | Documento calendárico | 6T17 | Herodiano | Fragmento calendrico | [395] [397] | ||
pap6QHymn | Himno | 6T18 | Herodiano | Fragmento de un himno, relacionado con 1QM | [395] [398] | ||
Texto 6Q relacionado con Génesis | Génesis | 6T19 | Posiblemente de Génesis | arameo | Herodiano | Relacionado con Génesis 10: 6,20 | [395] [399] |
6QDeut (?) | Deuteronomio | 6T20 | Posiblemente de Deuteronomio | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | Relacionado con Deuteronomio 11:10 | [395] [400] |
Texto profético 6QfrgProph o 6Q | Posiblemente texto profético | 6T21 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmento profético de 5 palabras. | [395] [401] | |
pap6QUnidA | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 6T22 | hebreo | Herodiano | [395] [402] | ||
pap6QUnidA ar | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 6T23 | arameo | Herodiano | Relacionado con "Palabras del Libro de Miguel" | [395] [403] | |
6QUnidB | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 6T24 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [395] [404] | ||
6QUnidB | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 6T25 | arameo | Herodiano | [395] [405] | ||
6QUnidB o 6Qpap Cuenta o contrato | Cuentas o contratos | 6T26 | arameo | Helenístico-romano | [395] [406] | ||
6QUnidB | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 6T27–6T28 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [395] | ||
6QpapProv | Proverbios | 6T30 | Proverbios 11: 4b – 7a, 10b | hebreo | romano | Fragmento único de seis líneas | [395] [407] |
6QUnidB | Fragmentos sin clasificar | 6T31 | arameo | Herodiano | [395] [408] |
Cueva 7
La cueva 7 produjo menos de 20 fragmentos de documentos griegos, incluido el 7Q2 (la " Carta de Jeremías " = Baruc 6), el 7Q5 (que se convirtió en objeto de mucha especulación en décadas posteriores) y una copia griega de un rollo de Enoc. [409] [410] [411] La cueva 7 también produjo varios tiestos y jarras con inscripciones. [412]
Listas de grupos de fragmentos recogidos de la cueva 7 de Wadi Qumran: [376] [377]
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 7 | |||||||
7QpapLXX Éxodo | éxodo | 7T1 | Éxodo 28: 4–7 | griego | Hasmoneo | Fragmento griego del Éxodo | [413] |
7QpapEpJer | Carta de Jeremías | 7T2 | Carta de Jeremías, versículos 43–44 | griego | Hasmoneo | Epístola de Jeremías. Sobre papiro. | [414] |
7T3 | No identificado | 7T3 | griego | Herodiano | Texto bíblico desconocido | [415] | |
7T4 | No identificado | 7T4 | griego | Hasmoneo | Texto bíblico desconocido | [416] | |
7T5 | No identificado | 7T5 | griego | Herodiano | Texto bíblico desconocido. Algunos creen que es Marcos 6: 52–53 | [417] | |
7T6-18 | No identificado | 7T6-18 | griego | Helenístico-romano; Herodiano | Fragmentos no identificados muy diminutos escritos en papiro | [85] | |
7Q papImprint | No identificado | 7T19 | griego | Herodiano | Huella de papiro no identificada. Fragmentos muy pequeños escritos en papiro | [418] |
Cueva 8
La cueva 8, junto con las cuevas 7 y 9, fue una de las únicas cuevas a las que se puede acceder pasando por el asentamiento de Qumrán. Tallada en el extremo sur de la meseta de Qumran, la cueva 8 fue excavada por arqueólogos en 1957.
La cueva 8 produjo cinco fragmentos: Génesis (8QGen), Salmos (8QPs), un fragmento de tefilín (8QPhyl), una mezuzá (8QMez) y un himno (8QHymn). [419] La cueva 8 también produjo varios estuches de tefilín, una caja de objetos de cuero, toneladas de lámparas, frascos y la suela de un zapato de cuero. [412]
Lista de grupos de fragmentos recogidos de la cueva 8 de Wadi Qumran: [376] [377]
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 8 | |||||||
8QGen | Génesis | 8T1 | Génesis 17: 12-13, 15, 18-19; 18: 20-22, 24-25 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | |
8QP | Salmos | 8Q2 | Salmo 17 : 5–9, 14; 18 : 5–12 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | |
8QPhyl | Filacterias | 8T3 | Éxodo 13: 1–16; 12: 43–51; 20:11 Deuteronomio 6: 4-5; 6: 1-3; 10: 20–22; 10: 12-19; 5: 1-14; 10:13; 11: 2-3; 10: 21-22; 11: 1; 11: 6-12 | hebreo | 1-100 CE Herodiano | Fragmentos de una "filacteria" | [47] |
8QMez | Mezuzá | 8T4 | Deuteronomio 10: 1–11: 21 | hebreo | 30 a. C. – 68 d. C. Herodiano | [47] | |
8QHymn | Himno no identificado | 8Q5 | hebreo | Herodiano | Composición no bíblica. | [85] |
Cueva 9
La cueva 9, junto con las cuevas 7 y 8, fue una de las únicas cuevas a las que se puede acceder pasando por el asentamiento de Qumran. Tallada en el extremo sur de la meseta de Qumran, la cueva 9 fue excavada por arqueólogos en 1957. Solo se encontró un fragmento en la cueva 9.
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 9 | |||||||
9Qpap | No identificado | 9T1 | hebreo | romano | Escrito en papiro. | [420] |
Cueva 10
En la Cueva 10, los arqueólogos encontraron dos ostraca con escritura en ellos, junto con un símbolo desconocido en una losa de piedra gris.
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 10 | |||||||
10QOstracon | Ostracón | 10T1 | hebreo | Dos letras escritas en una pieza de cerámica. | [18] |
Cueva 11
La cueva 11 fue descubierta en 1956 y produjo 21 textos, algunos de los cuales eran bastante largos. El Rollo del Templo, llamado así porque más de la mitad pertenece a la construcción del Templo de Jerusalén , se encontró en la Cueva 11 y es, con mucho, el rollo más largo. Ahora tiene 26,7 pies (8,15 m) de largo. Su longitud original puede haber sido de más de 28 pies (8,75 m). El Rollo del Templo fue considerado por Yigael Yadin como "La Torá según los esenios". Por otro lado, Hartmut Stegemann, contemporáneo y amigo de Yadin, creía que el pergamino no debía considerarse como tal, sino que era un documento sin un significado excepcional. Stegemann señala que no se menciona ni se cita en ningún escrito esenio conocido. [421]
También en la Cueva 11, se encontró un fragmento escatológico sobre la figura bíblica Melquisedec ( 11Q13 ). La cueva 11 también produjo una copia de los Jubileos y un texto proto-masotérico del rollo de la Torá (solo un fragmento del Libro de Levítico que sobrevive), conocido como el rollo del Levítico Paleo-Hebreo .
Según el ex editor en jefe del equipo editorial del DSS, John Strugnell , hay al menos cuatro pergaminos de propiedad privada de la Cueva 11, que aún no se han puesto a disposición de los académicos. Entre ellos se encuentra un manuscrito arameo completo del Libro de Enoc. [422]
Lista de grupos de fragmentos recolectados de la cueva 11 de Wadi Qumran:
Identificador de fragmento o desplazamiento | Fragmento o nombre de desplazamiento | Identificador alternativo | Asociación Bíblica Inglesa | Idioma | Fecha / Guión | Descripción | Referencia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cueva de Qumran 11 | |||||||
11QpaleoLev a | Paleo-Levítico a | 11T1 | Levítico 4: 24-26; 10: 4–7; 11: 27–32; 13: 3-9; 13: 39–43; 14: 16-21; 14: 52-15: 5; 16: 2-4; 16: 34-17: 5; 18: 27-19: 4; 20: 1–6; 21: 6–11; 22: 21-27; 23: 22-29; 24: 9-14; 25: 28–36; 26: 17-26; 27: 11-19 | hebreo | Escritura herodiana / paleohebrea | [85] | |
11QLev b | Levítico b | 11T2 | Levíticio | hebreo | Escritura herodiana / paleohebrea | [85] | |
11QDeut | Deuteronomio | 11T3 | Deuteronomio 1: 4-5; 2: 28-30 | hebreo | 50 d.C. Herodes tardío | [47] | |
11QEzek | Ezequiel | 11T4 | Ezequiel | hebreo | Herodiano | [423] [424] | |
11 QP | El Gran Pergamino de los Salmos | 11T5 | Salmos | hebreo | Herodiano | Un rollo de Salmos único con solo una cuarta parte de los salmos masoréticos (en orden atípico), tres salmos siríacos, uno de Ben Sira, y las únicas copias conocidas de tres salmos únicos más: Súplica de liberación, Apóstrofe a Sión e Himno a el Creador, todos los cuales no están atestiguados por otras fuentes, así como el texto breve de las Composiciones de David. | [85] |
11 QP a | Salmos | 11T5 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QPs b | 11T6 | Salmo 77 : 18-21; 78 : 1; 109 : 3-4; 118: 1; 118 : 15-16; 119 : 163-165; 133 : 1-3; 141 : 10; 144 : 1–2 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QPs c | 11T7 | Salmo 2 : 1–8; 9 : 3–7; 12 : 5–9; 13 : 1–6; 14 : 1–6; 17 : 9-15; 18 : 1-12; 19 : 4–8; 25 : 2-7 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QPs d | 11T8 | Salmo 6 : 2-4; 9 : 3-6; 18 : 26-29; 18: 39–42; 36 : 13; 37 : 1–4; 39 : 13-14; 40 : 1; 43 : 1-3; 45 : 6–8; 59 : 5-8; 68 : 1–5; 68: 14-18; 78 : 5-12; 81 : 4–9; 86 : 11-14; 115 : 16-18; 116 : 1 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QPs e | 11T9 | Salmo 50 : 3-7 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QtgJob | Trabajo Targum | 11T10 | Trabajo | arameo | Herodiano | Una traducción aramea única del Libro de Job; presenta a Job algo más favorablemente. | [85] |
11QapocrPs | Salmos apócrifos | 11T11 | Salmo 91 | hebreo | Herodiano | Paráfrasis apócrifa del Salmo 91 | [85] |
11QJub | Jubileos | 11T12 | hebreo | Herodiano | Texto etíope de Jubileos 4: 6–11; 4: 13-14; 4: 16-17; 4: 29–31; 5: 1-2; 12: 15-17; 12: 28-29 | [85] | |
11QMelch | Melquisedec | 11T13 | Contiene Pesher / comentario sobre Levítico 25:13; Deuteronomio 15: 2; Salmo 7 : 8–9; 82 : 2; Isaías 52 : 7; Daniel 9 : 25; Levítico 25: 9 | hebreo | 50-25 a. C. o 75-50 a. C. Hasmoneo tardío o herodiano temprano | Describe un décimo jubileo y retrata a Melquisedec como un agente mesiánico de salvación, usando un lenguaje similar al usado para Jesús en Hebreos , como "El Príncipe Celestial Melquisedec". | [85] [47] |
11Q Sefer ha-Milmah | Sefer ha-Milmah ("El libro de la guerra") | 11T14 | hebreo | Herodiano | Un relato de la batalla escatológica final de los israelitas y los Kittim (romanos), incluida una figura mesiánica llamada "Príncipe de la Congregación". | [85] | |
11QHymns a | Himnos | 11T15 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QHymns b | 11T16 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | |||
11QShirShabb | Canciones del sacrificio del sábado | 11T17 | hebreo | Herodiano | Colección de 13 himnos que describen un servicio en un templo celestial. | [85] | |
11QNJ | Nueva jerusalén | 11T18 | arameo | Herodiano | Parece ser una visión apocalíptica, que incluye algunos detalles arquitectónicos de una ciudad muy grande (cf. Ezequiel y Apocalipsis). | [85] | |
11QT a | Pergamino del templo | 11T19 | hebreo | Herodiano | Reformula las leyes del Pentateuco en el espíritu del Deuteronomio, busca resolver los conflictos legales bíblicos y ampliar las leyes rituales. | [85] | |
11QT b | Pergamino del templo | 11T20 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||
11QT c | 11T21 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | |||
11Q No identificado | No identificado | 11Q22 | hebreo | Hasmoneo | Fragmentos no identificados. | [85] | |
11Q23 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [85] | ||||
11Q24 | arameo | Hasmoneo | [85] | ||||
11T25 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||||
11T26 | hebreo | Herodiano | [85] | ||||
11Q27 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [85] | ||||
11T28 | hebreo | Helenístico-romano | [85] | ||||
11T29 | Serekh ha-Yahad relacionado | ||||||
11Q No identificado | No identificado | 11T30 | hebreo | Herodiano | Fragmentos no identificados. | [85] | |
11Q No identificado | No identificado | 11T31 | Fragmento no identificado | [425] | |||
11Q9999 | No identificado | Helenístico-romano | [85] |
Cueva 12
La cueva 12 fue descubierta en febrero de 2017 en los acantilados al oeste de Qumrán, cerca de la costa noroeste del Mar Muerto. [29] El examen arqueológico encontró picos y frascos de pergaminos rotos y vacíos, lo que indica que la cueva había sido descubierta y saqueada en la década de 1950. Uno de los investigadores principales del proyecto conjunto de la Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén y la Universidad Liberty de Virginia, el Dr. Oren Gutfeld, declaró: "Aunque al final del día no se encontró ningún pergamino, y en su lugar 'solo' encontramos un trozo de pergamino enrollado en una jarra que estaba siendo procesada para escribir, los hallazgos indican más allá de toda duda que la cueva contenía pergaminos que fueron robados ". [30]
Fragmentos de procedencia desconocida
Algunos fragmentos de rollos no tienen una procedencia arqueológica significativa ni registros que revelen en qué área designada de la cueva de Qumrán se encontraron. Se cree que provienen de las cuevas de Wadi Qumran, pero es muy probable que provengan de otros sitios arqueológicos en el área del desierto de Judea. [426] Por lo tanto, estos fragmentos se han designado a la serie temporal "X".
Fragmento / Pergamino # | Nombre del fragmento / desplazamiento | Asociación Bíblica KJV | Descripción |
---|---|---|---|
XQ1-3 | "Tefilín de Qumran" | Deuteronomio 5: 1 - 6: 3; 10:12 - 11:12. [426] | Publicado por primera vez en 1969; Filacterias |
XQ4 | "Tefilín de Qumran" | Filacterias | |
XQ5 a | Jubileos 7: 4–5 | ||
XQ5 b | Himno | ||
XQ6 | Ofrecimiento | Pequeño fragmento con una sola palabra en arameo . | |
XQ7 | Fragmento no identificado | Gran posibilidad de que sea parte de 4QInstruction. | |
XQpapEn | Libro de Enoc 9: 1 | Un pequeño fragmento escrito en hebreo. = XQ8 |
Galería
Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, completo, Testimonia, de la cueva 4 de Qumran, el Museo de Jordania en Amman
Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la cueva 1 de Qumrán, completo, el Museo de Jordania en Amman
El pergamino de guerra , que se encuentra en la cueva 1 de Qumran.
Una porción de la segunda copia descubierta del rollo de Isaías , 1QIsa b .
Parte del rollo 28a del mar Muerto de la cueva 1 de Qumrán. Museo de Jordania, Ammán
Rollo del Mar Muerto, Pesher Isaiah, de la cueva de Qumrán 4. Museo de Jordania, Ammán
Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, Testimonia, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán. Museo de Jordania, Ammán
Rollo 109 del Mar Muerto, Qohelet o Eclesiastés, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán. Museo de Jordania, Ammán
Rollos del Mar Muerto en el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Tiras del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto en el Museo de Jordania, de la cueva de Qumran 3, siglo I d.C.
Tira 11 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumrán 3, Museo de Jordania
Tira 15 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumrán 3, Museo de Jordania
Tira 13 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumrán 3, Museo de Jordania
Tiras 1 y 2 del Rollo de Cobre del Mar Muerto, de la Cueva de Qumran 3, Museo de Jordania
Rollo 109 del Mar Muerto, Qohelet o Eclesiastés, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Rollo 109 del Mar Muerto, Qohelet o Eclesiastés, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán, en el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Rollo del Mar Muerto, Pesher Isaiah, de Qumran Cave 4, el Museo de Jordania en Amman
Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, Testimonia, de la cueva 4 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Detalle, Rollo 175 del Mar Muerto, Testimonia, de la Cueva 4 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la cueva 1 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Parte del Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la Cueva 1 de Qumrán, el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Parte del Rollo 28a del Mar Muerto de la Cueva 1 de Qumrán, en el Museo de Jordania en Ammán
Fragmento de Rollo del Mar Muerto 5 / 6HEV PS encontrado en la Cueva de las Letras en Nahal Hever
Origen
Ha habido mucho debate sobre el origen de los Rollos del Mar Muerto. La teoría dominante sigue siendo que los pergaminos fueron producidos por los esenios , una secta de judíos que vivían en la cercana Qumrán, pero esta teoría ha sido cuestionada por varios estudiosos modernos. [427]
Teoría de Qumran-Esenia
La opinión entre los eruditos, sostenida casi universalmente hasta la década de 1990, es la hipótesis "Qumran-Essene" propuesta originalmente por Roland Guérin de Vaux [428] y Józef Tadeusz Milik, [429] aunque independientemente tanto Eliezer Sukenik como Butrus Sowmy del Monasterio de San Marcos. relacionó los pergaminos con los esenios mucho antes de cualquier excavación en Qumrán. [430] La teoría de Qumran-Essene sostiene que los pergaminos fueron escritos por los esenios, o por otro grupo sectario judío, que residía en Khirbet Qumran . Ellos compusieron los pergaminos y finalmente los escondieron en las cuevas cercanas durante la Revuelta Judía.en algún momento entre 66 y 68 d.C. El sitio de Qumran fue destruido y los rollos nunca se recuperaron. Se utilizan varios argumentos para apoyar esta teoría.
- Existen sorprendentes similitudes entre la descripción de una ceremonia de iniciación de nuevos miembros en la Regla de la Comunidad y las descripciones de la ceremonia de iniciación esenia mencionada en las obras de Flavius Josephus , un historiador judío-romano del período del Segundo Templo.
- Josefo menciona que los esenios comparten la propiedad entre los miembros de la comunidad, al igual que la Regla de la comunidad.
- Durante la excavación de Khirbet Qumran, se encontraron dos tinteros y elementos enlucidos que se cree que eran tablas, lo que ofrece evidencia de que se hizo algún tipo de escritura allí. Se descubrieron más tinteros cerca. De Vaux llamó a esta área el " scriptorium " basado en este descubrimiento.
- Se descubrieron varios baños rituales judíos (hebreo: miqvah = מקוה) en Qumrán, lo que ofrece evidencia de una presencia judía observadora en el sitio.
- Plinio el Viejo (un geógrafo que escribió después de la caída de Jerusalén en 70 EC) describe a un grupo de esenios que vivían en una comunidad desértica en la costa noroeste del Mar Muerto cerca de la ciudad en ruinas de ' Ein Gedi .
Teoría sectaria de Qumrán
Las teorías de Qumran-Sectarian son variaciones de la teoría de Qumran-Essene. El principal punto de partida de la teoría de Qumran-Esenia es la vacilación en vincular los Rollos del Mar Muerto específicamente con los Esenios. La mayoría de los defensores de la teoría sectaria de Qumrán entienden que un grupo de judíos que viven en o cerca de Qumrán son responsables de los Rollos del Mar Muerto, pero no necesariamente concluyen que los sectarios son esenios.
Una variación específica de la teoría sectaria de Qumrán que ha ganado mucha popularidad reciente es el trabajo de Lawrence H. Schiffman , quien propone que la comunidad estaba dirigida por un grupo de sacerdotes sadokitas ( saduceos ). [431] El documento más importante en apoyo de este punto de vista es el " Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah " (4QMMT), que cita leyes de pureza (como la transferencia de impurezas) idénticas a las atribuidas en los escritos rabínicos a los saduceos. 4QMMT también reproduce un calendario de festivales que sigue los principios saduceos para la datación de ciertos días festivos.
Teoría del origen cristiano
El jesuita español José O'Callaghan Martínez argumentó en la década de 1960 que un fragmento (7Q5) conserva una parte del texto del Evangelio del Nuevo Testamento de Marcos 6: 52–53. [432] Esta teoría fue examinada en el año 2000 mediante el análisis paleográfico del fragmento particular. Sin embargo, esto enfrentó cierta controversia, y la teoría de O'Callaghan sigue siendo un área de gran controversia. Análisis posteriores en 2004 y 2018 han dado crédito a la afirmación original de O'Callaghan.
Robert Eisenman ha adelantado la teoría de que algunos rollos describen la comunidad cristiana primitiva . Eisenman también argumentó que las carreras de Santiago el Justo y Pablo el Apóstol corresponden a eventos registrados en algunos de estos documentos. [433]
Teoría del origen de Jerusalén
Algunos eruditos han argumentado que los rollos fueron producto de judíos que vivían en Jerusalén, quienes escondieron los rollos en las cuevas cerca de Qumrán mientras huían de los romanos durante la destrucción de Jerusalén en el 70 EC. [434] Karl Heinrich Rengstorf propuso por primera vez que los Rollos del Mar Muerto se originaron en la biblioteca del Templo Judío de Jerusalén . [435] Más tarde, Norman Golb sugirió que los rollos eran el producto de múltiples bibliotecas en Jerusalén, y no necesariamente la biblioteca del Templo de Jerusalén. [436] [437]Los defensores de la teoría del origen de Jerusalén señalan la diversidad de pensamiento y escritura entre los pergaminos como evidencia contra el origen de Qumran de los pergaminos. Varios arqueólogos también han aceptado un origen de los pergaminos distintos a Qumran, incluidos Yizhar Hirschfeld [438] y más recientemente Yizhak Magen y Yuval Peleg, [439] quienes entienden que los restos de Qumran son los de un fuerte hasmoneo que fue reutilizado durante períodos posteriores.
Características físicas
Datación por radiocarbono
El pergamino de varios Rollos del Mar Muerto ha sido fechado con carbono . La prueba inicial realizada en 1950 fue en un trozo de ropa de una de las cuevas. Esta prueba dio una datación indicativa de 33 EC más o menos 200 años, eliminando las primeras hipótesis que relacionan los rollos con el período medieval. [440] Desde entonces, se han realizado dos grandes series de pruebas en los propios pergaminos. Los resultados fueron resumidos por VanderKam y Flint, quienes dijeron que las pruebas dan "fuertes razones para pensar que la mayoría de los manuscritos de Qumran pertenecen a los dos últimos siglos a. C. y al siglo I d. C." [20] : 32
Datación paleográfica
El análisis de las formas de las letras, o paleografía , fue aplicado a los textos de los Rollos del Mar Muerto por una variedad de estudiosos en el campo. Los principales análisis lingüísticos de Cross y Avigad datan de fragmentos del 225 a. C. al 50 d. C. [441] Estas fechas se determinaron examinando el tamaño, la variabilidad y el estilo del texto. [442] Los mismos fragmentos se analizaron más tarde utilizando la datación por radiocarbono y se fecharon en un rango estimado de 385 a. C. a 82 d. C. con una tasa de precisión del 68%. [441]
Tinta y pergamino
Los rollos se analizaron usando un ciclotrón en la Universidad de California, Davis , donde se encontró que toda la tinta negra era negro de carbón . [443] Se descubrió que la tinta roja de los rollos estaba hecha con cinabrio (HgS, sulfuro de mercurio). [444] Solo hay cuatro usos de esta tinta roja en toda la colección de fragmentos de Rollos del Mar Muerto. [444] Las tintas negras que se encuentran en los rollos están hechas principalmente de hollín de carbón de lámparas de aceite de oliva . [445] A menudo se agregaba miel, aceite, vinagre y agua a la mezcla para diluir la tinta y obtener una consistencia adecuada para escribir. [445] Agallasa veces se agregaban a la tinta para hacerla más resistente. [445] Para aplicar la tinta a los pergaminos, sus escritores utilizaron bolígrafos de caña . [446]
Los rollos del Mar Muerto se escribieron en pergamino hecho de piel de animal procesada conocida como vitela (aproximadamente 85,5 a 90,5% de los rollos), papiro (estimado en 8,0 a 13,0% de los rollos) y láminas de bronce compuestas de aproximadamente 99,0% de cobre. y 1,0% de estaño (aproximadamente 1,5% de los rollos). [446] [447] Para los pergaminos escritos en pieles de animales, los estudiosos de la Autoridad de Antigüedades de Israel, mediante el uso de pruebas de ADN para fines de ensamblaje, creen que puede haber una jerarquía en la importancia religiosa de los textos según el tipo de animal. se utilizó para crear la piel. Rollos escritos en cabra yLos estudiosos consideran que las pieles de becerro son de naturaleza más significativa, mientras que las escritas en gacelas o íbices se consideran de naturaleza menos significativa desde el punto de vista religioso. [448]
Además, las pruebas realizadas por el Instituto Nacional de Física Nuclear en Sicilia , Italia , han sugerido que el origen del pergamino de fragmentos selectos del Rollo del Mar Muerto proviene del área de Qumran, mediante el uso de rayos X y pruebas de emisión de rayos X inducida por partículas . del agua utilizada para hacer el pergamino que se comparó con el agua del área alrededor del sitio de Qumrán. [449]
Preservación
The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea.[450] In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation.[451] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[452] During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents.[452] The Government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls.[453] However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequately studied".[453]
In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum (commonly called the Rockefeller Museum)[454] in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[20]:63–65 The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards.[20] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 war waged by Israel, Britain and France against Egypt, the scrolls collection of the Palestine Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[455] Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 led to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault.[455] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[453] Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[20][452]
Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[452] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus or bronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[456] In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were among the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[20] Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[20] In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[452]
In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature-controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[452] The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[452]
Nine tiny phylactery slips were rediscovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) in 2014, after they had been stored unopened for six decades following their excavation in 1952. The IAA is preparing to unroll the phylacteries or tefillin once a safe procedure has been decided upon.[457][458]
Photography and assembly
Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization.
First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948)
The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (1916–2006), a Biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[20]:68 He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[20]:26[459][460] Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over the years, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings.
Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (1952–1967)
A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The Museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem,[461] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five-stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, using infrared photography. Using a process known today as broadband fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography, Najib and the team at the Museum produced over 1,750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments.[20]:68[462][463][464] The photographs were taken with the scrolls laid out on animal skin, using large format film, which caused the text to stand out, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[20]:68 These are the earliest photographs of the museum's collection, which was the most complete in the world at the time, and they recorded the fragments and scrolls before their further decay in storage, so they are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls.[465]
Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012)
Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[466] In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed.[467] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[467] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result, image distortion is significantly diminished.[466] This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[466] The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts.[468]
On 18 December 2012[469] the first output of this project was launched together with Google on the dedicated site Deadseascrolls.org.il.[470] The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 1950s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology.[471]
Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2020)
Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used.[448] In a paper published in 2020 in the journal Cell, researchers from Tel Aviv University have shown that ancient DNA extracted from the ancient scrolls can be used to sort different scroll fragments not only based on the animal species but also based on variations in the nuclear genome of individual fragments. This effort enabled the researchers to match different fragments to each other based on their genetics and separate fragments which were falsely connected in the past.[472][473]
Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016)
In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[474] The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-II back in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[475] With photos taken at 1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a second exposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[474] The digital photography project was estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars.[475]
Scholarly examination
After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the "Scrollery".[476]
The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean.
Language | Script | Percentage of Documents | Centuries of Known Use |
---|---|---|---|
Hebrew | Assyrian block script[477] | Estimated 76.0–79.0% | 3rd century BCE to present |
Hebrew | Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"[478][479][480] | Estimated 0.9–1.0%[481] | Unknown |
Biblical Hebrew | Paleo-Hebrew script[482] | Estimated 1.0–1.5%[480] | 10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE |
Biblical Hebrew | Paleo-Hebrew scribal script[482] | ||
Aramaic | Aramaic square script | Estimated 16.0–17.0%[483] | 8th century BCE to present |
Greek | Greek uncial script[482] | Estimated 3.0%[480] | 3rd century BCE to 8th century CE |
Nabataean | Nabataean script[484] | Estimated 0.2%[484] | 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE |
Publication
Physical publication and controversy
Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their translations into English soon followed.
Controversy
Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Norman Golb, publishers and writers such as Hershel Shanks, and many others argued for decades for publishing the texts, so that they become available to researchers. This controversy only ended in 1991, when the Biblical Archaeology Society was able to publish the "Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", after an intervention of the Israeli government and the Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA).[485] In 1991 Emanuel Tov was appointed as the chairman of the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation, and publication of the scrolls followed in the same year.
Physical description
The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was limited to the editorial committee.[citation needed]
Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (1955–2009)
The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series by Oxford University Press published between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judaean Desert.[486] In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them.[487] The initial publication, assembled by Dominique Barthélemy and Józef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955.[486] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch–Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov's team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009.
A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)
In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[488] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the library's complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[489]
A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)
After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[490] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement for publishing, without authorization or attribution, his decipherment of one of the scrolls, MMT. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993.[491] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies.[492] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars.[493][494][495][496][497]
The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008)
In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), and The Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[498][499] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah scroll.[498]
Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets including facsimiles of three fragments from Cave 4 (now in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Amman, Jordan) Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009. The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment. The complete facsimile set (three scrolls including the Isaiah scroll and the three Jordanian fragments) can be purchased for $60,000.[498]
The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrân. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France (2010)[500] and Verbum Domini at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012).[501]
Digital publication
Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011)
The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.[502] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader, on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks.
The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005)
The text of almost all of the non-Biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005.[503] The 2400 page, 6 volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov.[504] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic and liturgical works.[503]
Israel Antiquities Authority and Google digitization project (2010–2016)
High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites.
On 19 October 2010, it was announced[505] that Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge,[506] on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. The project is scheduled for completion within five years.
On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online.[507][508] It gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online: the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll.
Biblical significance
Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew-language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE, such as the Aleppo Codex.[509] Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century. The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years, to the 2nd century BCE.[510] This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand. The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand-year period, rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works.
According to The Dead Sea Scrolls by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows,
Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, there are only seventeen letters in question. Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. Four more letters are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining three letters comprise the word "light," which is added in verse 11, and does not affect the meaning greatly.[511]
It is important to note that differences were found among fragments of texts. According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology:
While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A.D. 100.[512]
Biblical books found
There are 225 Biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235.[513][514] The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Sirach, Baruch 6 (also known as the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah), and Psalm 151.[513] The Book of Esther has not yet been found and scholars believe Esther is missing because, as a Jew, her marriage to a Persian king may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran,[515] or because the book has the Purim festival which is not included in the Qumran calendar.[20]:180 Listed below are the most represented books, along with the deuterocanonicals, of the Bible found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the number of translatable Dead Sea texts that represent a copy of scripture from each Biblical book:[516][517]
Book | Number found |
---|---|
Psalms | 39 |
Deuteronomy | 33 |
1 Enoch | 25 |
Genesis | 24 |
Isaiah | 22 |
Jubilees | 21 |
Exodus | 18 |
Leviticus | 17 |
Numbers | 11 |
Minor Prophets | 10[note 1] |
Daniel | 8 |
Jeremiah | 6 |
Ezekiel | 6 |
Job | 6 |
Tobit | 5[note 2] |
Kings | 4 |
Samuel | 4 |
Judges | 4[520] |
Song of Songs (Canticles) | 4 |
Ruth | 4 |
Lamentations | 4 |
Sirach | 3 |
Ecclesiastes | 2 |
Joshua | 2 |
Non-biblical books
The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the Biblical books, but a different consensus has emerged which sees many of these works as being collected by the Essene community instead of being composed by them.[521] Scholars now recognize that some of these works were composed earlier than the Essene period, when some of the Biblical books were still being written or redacted into their final form.[521]
Museum exhibitions and displays
Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-Day War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage.
The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection was moved to Jerusalem's Shrine of the Book (a part of the Israel Museum) after the building's completion in April 1965.[522] The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other famous fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[523][524]
Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordanian government prior to 1967 was stored in Amman rather than at the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. In 2013 parts of this collection have been put on display at The Jordan Museum in Amman, to which they were moved from the Jordan Archaeological Museum.[525] Among the display items are artifacts from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.[526]
Ownership
Past ownership
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2012) |
Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the now famous Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), the Community Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book of Habakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar, archaeologists at Hebrew University, soon found themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah scroll (1QIsab).
Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls eventually went up for sale in an advertisement on 1 June 1954, The Wall Street Journal.[527] On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000 (approximately $2,400,000 in 2019 dollars[528]), and brought to Jerusalem.[529]Since 2002, forgeries of alleged Dead Sea Scrolls have appeared on black markets.[530]
Current ownership
Israel claims ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection currently housed in the Shrine of the Book on the grounds of the Israel Museum. This ownership is contested by both Jordan and by the Palestinian Authority.[531]
A list of known ownership of Dead Sea Scroll fragments:
Claimed Owner | Year Acquired | Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned |
---|---|---|
Azusa Pacific University[532] | 2009 | 5 |
Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago[533] | 1956 | 1 |
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary[534] | 2009; 2010; 2012 | 8 |
Rockefeller Museum – Government of Israel[535][536] | 1967 | > 15,000 |
The Schøyen Collection owned by Martin Schøyen[537] | 1980; 1994; 1995 | 115[538] |
The Jordan Museum – Government of Jordan[525] | 1947–1956 | > 25 |
Syrian Orthodox Church's eastern U.S. archdiocese[539] | 1 | |
Ashland Theological Seminary[539] | 1 | |
Lanier Theological Library[539] | 1 | |
Pasadena Private Collection[539] | 1 |
Note:
- In 2020 Museum of the Bible (also known as Green Collection – Green Family) reported that all 16 of the museum's Dead Sea Scroll fragments acquired between 2009 and 2014[538][540] are modern forgeries.[541][542]
Ownership disputes
The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Israel, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli–Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition.
Parties Involved | Party Role | Explanation of Role |
---|---|---|
Jordan | Disputant; Minority Owner | Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestine Archaeological Museum (now the Rockefeller Museum) operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the Museum, and that therefore they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.[543] Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.[544] |
Israel | Disputant; Current Majority Owner | After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Museum. Israel disputes Jordan's claim and states that Jordan never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an unlawful occupier of the museum and region.[545][546][547] |
Palestinian Authority | Disputant | The Palestinian Authority also has a claim to the scrolls.[548] |
Canada | Neutral Exhibition Host | In 2009, a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Israeli Antiquities Authority was moved and displayed at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada. Both the Palestinian Authority and Jordan petitioned the international community, including the United Nations,[549] for the scrolls to be seized under disputed international law. Ottawa dismissed the demands and the exhibit continued, with the scrolls returning to Israel upon its conclusion.[550] A planned exhibition in Germany was cancelled, as the German government could not guarantee a return of the scrolls to Israel [1] |
Copyright disputes
This section needs attention from an expert in law. The specific problem is: Complexity of copyright law surrounding historical documents in the United States and other nations.June 2012) ( |
There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous; the documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law.
In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[551] In an appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak, the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favor.[552] The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorship and originality.
The court's ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of, in the words of U.S. copyright law professor David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer has shown how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[551]
See also
- Ancient Hebrew writings
- Cairo Geniza
- Jordan Lead Codices
- Nag Hammadi library
- Oxyrhynchus Papyri
- Teacher of Righteousness
- The Book of Mysteries
Notes
- ^ 10 Scrolls containing fragments of all 12 of the "Minor Prophets" were found in Cave 4, although no fragment contains portions of more than three prophets.[518]
- ^ There are four Aramaic fragmentary texts of Tobit, and one Hebrew text.[519]
References
Citations
- ^ Kershner, Isabel (16 March 2021). "Israel Reveals Newly Discovered Fragments of Dead Sea Scrolls". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ "Newly discovered fragments of Dead Sea Scrolls reveal hidden ancient Bible texts". NBC News. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
- ^ "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ^ Vermes, Geza (1977). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Qumran in Perspective. London: Collins. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-00-216142-8.
- ^ "Languages and Scripts". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ^ McCarthy, Rory (27 August 2008). "From papyrus to cyberspace". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
- ^ a b c "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls: Nature and Significance". Israel Museum Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ^ "The Digital Library: Introduction". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ^ Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: a living history. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 51–53.
- ^ "Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave". The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
- ^ Donahue, Michelle Z. (10 February 2017). "New Dead Sea Scroll Find May Help Detect Forgeries". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
- ^ Leaney, A. R. C. From Judaean Caves: The Story of the Dead Sea Scrolls. p.27, Religious Education Press, 1961.
- ^ Ofri, Ilani (13 March 2009). "Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed". Ha'aretz. Archived from the original on 6 January 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
- ^ Golb, Norman (5 June 2009). "On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (PDF). University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
- ^ Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English, San Francisco: Harper, 2002.
- ^ "Dead Sea Scrolls". virtualreligion.net. Archived from the original on 5 February 2005. Retrieved 25 January 2005.
- ^ Humphries, Mark. Early Christianity Archived 14 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine. 2006.
- ^ a b Evans, Craig. Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls. 2010.
- ^ a b Trever, John C. The Dead Sea Scrolls. Gorgias Press LLC, 2003.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l VanderKam, James; Flint, Peter (2005). The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Significance For Understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity. A&C Black. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-567-08468-2. Archived from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
- ^ Trstensky, Frantisek. "The Archaeological Site of Qumran and the Personality of Roland De Vaux" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. p. 9.
- ^ a b c S.S.L. Frantisek Trstensky. "The Archaeological Site of Qumran and the Personality of Roland De Vaux" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ a b c "Dead Sea Scrolls: Timetable". The Gnostic Society Library. Archived from the original on 16 August 2003. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ a b c d e VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. pp. 10–11.
- ^ "Digital Dead Sea Scrolls at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem – Discovery". imj.org.il. Archived from the original on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ Yizhar Hirschfeld (2002). "Qumran in the Second Temple Period: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence" (PDF). Liber Annuus. 52: 279–81. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2006. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
Some of these caves, such as 4 and 5, are located ca. 160 yd from the site, while others, such as 1, 2, 3 and 11, are at a distance of 1 mile to its north (Fig. 12)
- ^ Martinez/Tigchelaar (1999). The Dead Sea Scrolls Edition, Caves 1 to 11 & more (Enoch Aramaic fragments and translation by Milik: Hénoc au pays des aromates, pp. 413, 425, 430)
- ^ a b "Hebrew University Archaeologists Find 12th Dead Sea Scrolls Cave" (Press release). Hebrew University of Jerusalem. 8 February 2017. Archived from the original on 9 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
- ^ a b McKernan, Bethan (2017). "New Dead Sea Scrolls cave filled with ancient artefacts discovered for first time in 60 years". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
- ^ Zion, Ilan (16 March 2021). "Israeli experts announce discovery of more Dead Sea scrolls". APNews. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
- ^ "Israel Finds New Dead Sea Scrolls, First Such Discovery in 60 Years". Haaretz. 16 March 2021.
- ^ Wise, Michael; Abegg Jr., Martin; Cook, Edward (2005). The Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Harper San Francisco. pp. 5. ISBN 978-0-06-076662-7. | Les manuscrits de la Mer Morte avec textes originaux traduits en français par I. Fortunato)
- ^ Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4.
- ^ The Great Isaiah Scroll at The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b 1Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Bruce, F.F.,"The Dead Sea Habakkuk Scroll," The Annual of Leeds University Oriental Society I (1958/59): 5–24.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 16.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 16–18.
- ^ Schiffman, Lawrence H. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.
- ^ 1Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc OakTree Software, Inc. Accordance 10: Bible Software. 2008.
- ^ 1Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 19.
- ^ 1Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q27 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q29 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q30 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q31 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q32 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q34 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q35 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q36 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q37 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q38 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q39 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q40 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar "Leon Levy Collection". Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Israel Antiquities Authority. Archived from the original on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
- ^ 1Q71 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 1Q72 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008, p. 25.
- ^ 2Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008, p. 26.
- ^ 2Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 26–27.
- ^ 2Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 27.
- ^ 2Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 2Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 3Q1 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 28.
- ^ 3Q2 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q3 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q4 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q5 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q6 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q7 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q8 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q9 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 28–29.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 29.
- ^ 3Q14 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ 3Q15 at Leon Levy Collection
- ^ Milik (1957). Dix ans de découverte dans le désert de Juda | Discoveries in the Judaean Desert; Milik (1976). The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments Qumran Cave 4 with the collaboration of Black M.
- ^ 4Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fitzmyer 2008, p. 30.
- ^ 4Q8 4QGen h1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q8 4QGen h2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q8 4QGen h-para at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Martinez and Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Brill 1997): page 246
- ^ 4Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 31.
- ^ 4Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 31–32.
- ^ 4Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 32.
- ^ 4Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q27 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q28 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q29 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 32–33.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 33.
- ^ a b c 4Q38 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Accessed 20 May 2013
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 34.
- ^ 4Q47 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 34–35.
- ^ 4Q48 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 35.
- ^ 4Q49 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q50 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q51 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q52 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q53 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q54 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h Fitzmyer 2008, p. 36.
- ^ 4Q55 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q56 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q57 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q58 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q59 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q60 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q61 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 37.
- ^ 4Q62 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q63 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q64 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q65 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q66 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q67 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q68 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q69 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c Martinez and Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Brill 1997): page 270
- ^ a b c d e Schiffman, Lawrence; VanderKam, James (2008). Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195084504.
- ^ a b c d e Flint, Peter (2013). The Dead Sea Scrolls. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780687494491.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 38.
- ^ 4Q73 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q74 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Sanderson 1997. DJD 15: 215–218.
- ^ 4Q75 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q76 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q77 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q78 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g Fitzmyer 2008, p. 39.
- ^ 4Q79 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q80 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q81 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q82 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q83 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q84 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q85 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 40.
- ^ 4Q86 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q87 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q88 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q89 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q90 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q91 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q92 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q93 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q94 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q95 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 41.
- ^ 4Q96 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q97 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q98 4QPsr at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q99 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 42.
- ^ 4Q100 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q101 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q102 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q103 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q104 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q105 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q106 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q107 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q108 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fitzmyer 2008, p. 43.
- ^ 4Q109 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q110 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q111 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q112 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q113 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q114 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q115 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q116 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q117 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q118 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 44.
- ^ 4Q119 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q120 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q121 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q122 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q123 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q127 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 44–45.
- ^ 4Q128 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Fitzmyer 2008, p. 45.
- ^ 4Q129 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q130 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q131 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q132 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q133 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q134 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q135 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q136 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 46.
- ^ 4Q138 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q139 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q140 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q141 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q142 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q143 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q144 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q145 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q146 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q147 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q148 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 46–47.
- ^ 4Q149 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f Fitzmyer 2008, p. 47.
- ^ 4Q150 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q151 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q152 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q153 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q154 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q155 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b Wise, Michael O.; Abegg, Martin G.; Cook, Edward M. (2005). The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 577. ISBN 9780060766627.
- ^ 4Q156 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 47–48.
- ^ 4Q157 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e Martinez and Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Brill 1997): page 305ff
- ^ 4Q158 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c Fitzmyer 2008, p. 48.
- ^ 4Q159 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q160 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q161 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q162 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b "The Qumran Library: Scrolls".
- ^ a b c d Fitzmyer 2008, p. 49.
- ^ 4Q166 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q167 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q168 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q169 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b Fitzmyer 2008, p. 50.
- ^ 4Q174 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q175 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q179 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q186 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q196 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q197 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q198 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q199 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q200 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q201 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 55.
- ^ 4Q215 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Gault, Brian P. (2010) "Fragments of Canticles at Qumran". Revue de Qumran. p.352
- ^ 4Q246 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d Fitzmyer 2008, p. 62.
- ^ 4Q252 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q253 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q254 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q254a-820 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q258 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q285 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q299 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q300 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q301 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 74.
- ^ 4Q364 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c Fitzmyer 2008, p. 75.
- ^ 4Q365 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q366 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q367 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q378 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q379 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q385 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q394 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q400 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q434 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q483 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q521 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Buitenwerf, Rieuwerd, The Gog and Magog Tradition in Revelation 20:8, in, H. J. de Jonge, Johannes Tromp, eds., The book of Ezekiel and its influence, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, p.172; scheduled to be published in Charlesworth's edition, volume 9
- ^ 4Q523 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, p. 98.
- ^ 4Q539 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q541 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q542 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 4Q555 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ "Uncovered in Jerusalem, 9 tiny unopened Dead Sea Scrolls". The Times of Israel.
- ^ Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 104–105.
- ^ 5Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 105.
- ^ 5Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e Fitzmyer 2008, p. 106.
- ^ 5Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 5Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c Garcia Martinez, Florentino and Tigchelaar, Eibert. The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition. Vol. 1. 1999.
- ^ a b c Fritzmyer, Joseph. A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. 2008.
- ^ a b c d Fitzmyer 2008, pp. 104,106.
- ^ 6Q1 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fitzmyer 2008, p. 107.
- ^ 6Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q6 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q7 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q8 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q9 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q10 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q11 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q12 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q13 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q14 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q15 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Fitzmyer 2008, p. 108.
- ^ 6Q16 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q17 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q18 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q20 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q21 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q22 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q23 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q24 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q25 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q26 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q30 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 6Q31 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Baillet, Maurice ed. Les 'Petites Grottes' de Qumrân (ed., vol. 3 of Discoveries in the Judaean Desert; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962), 144–45, pl. XXX.
- ^ Muro, Ernest A., "The Greek Fragments of Enoch from Qumran Cave 7 (7Q4, 7Q8, &7Q12 = 7QEn gr = Enoch 103:3–4, 7–8)," Revue de Qumran 18 no. 70 (1997).
- ^ Puech, Émile, "Sept fragments grecs de la Lettre d'Hénoch (1 Hén 100, 103, 105) dans la grotte 7 de Qumrân (= 7QHén gr)," Revue de Qumran 18 no. 70 (1997).
- ^ a b Humbert and Chambon, Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ain Feshkha, 67.
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- ^ 7Q2 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 7Q3 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 7Q4 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 7Q5 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ 7Q19 at the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- ^ Baillet ed. Les 'Petites Grottes' de Qumrân (ed.), 147–62, pl. XXXIXXXV.
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- ^ a b Grossman, Maxine. Rediscovering the Dead Sea Scrolls. pp. 66–67. 2010.
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Sources
- Books
- Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English, San Francisco: Harper, 2002. ISBN 0-06-060064-0, (contains the biblical portion of the scrolls)
- Abegg, Jr. Martin, James E. Bowley, Edward M. Cook, Emanuel Tov. The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance, Vol 1. "The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance, Volume 1". Brill.nl. 2007. Archived from the original on 5 November 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2010. Brill Publishing 2003. ISBN 90-04-12521-3.
- Allegro, John Marco, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth (ISBN 0-7153-7680-2), Westbridge Books, UK, 1979.
- Berg, Simon. Insights into the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Beginner's Guide, BookSurge Publishing, 2009.
- Boccaccini, Gabriele. Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
- Burrows, Millar (1955). The Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-5176-2535-0.
- Burrows, Millar (1958). More Light on the Dead Sea Scrolls; New Scrolls and New Interpretations, with Translations of Important Recent Discoveries. New York: Viking.
- Charlesworth, James H. "The Theologies of the Dead Sea Scrolls." pp. xv–xxi in The Faith of Qumran: Theology of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by H. Ringgren. New York: Crossroad, 1995.
- Chernoivanenko, Vitaly. "The Jerusalem Theory of the Dead Sea Scrolls Authorship: Origins, Evolution, and Discussions," in Ukrainian Orientalistics: Special Issue on Jewish Studies, Кyiv: NaUKMA Omeljan Pritsak Center for Oriental Studies, 2011: 9–29.
- Collins, John J., Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, New York: Routledge, 1997.
- Collins, John J., and Craig A. Evans. Christian Beginnings and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006.
- Cook, Edward M. (1994). Solving the Mysteries of the Dead Sea Scrolls: New Light on the Bible, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
- Cross, Frank Moore (1995). The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed., Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-2807-1
- Davies, A. Powell (1956). The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Signet.
- Davies, Philip R., George J. Brooke, and Phillip R. Callaway (2002). The Complete World of the Dead Sea Scrolls, London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05111-9
- de Vaux, Roland, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Schweich Lectures of the British Academy, 1959). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973.
- Dimant, Devorah, and Uriel Rappaport (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, Leiden and Jerusalem: E.J. Brill, Magnes Press, Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1992.
- Eisenman, Robert H., The Dead Sea Scrolls and the First Christians, Shaftesbury: Element, 1996.
- Eisenman, Robert H., and Michael O. Wise. The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered: The First Complete Translation and Interpretation of 50 Key Documents Withheld for Over 35 Years, Shaftesbury: Element, 1992.
- Eisenman, Robert H. and James Robinson, A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 2 vol., Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991.
- Fitzmyer, Joseph A., Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Paulist Press 1992, ISBN 0-8091-3348-2
- Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
- Galor, Katharina, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jürgen Zangenberg. Qumran: The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates: Proceedings of a Conference held at Brown University, 17–19 November 2002, Edited by Florentino García Martínez, Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
- García-Martinez, Florentino, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, (Translated from Spanish into English by Wilfred G. E. Watson) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994).
- García Martínez Florentino, Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, Editors, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition, Brill, 1999
- Gaster, Theodor H., The Dead Sea Scriptures, Peter Smith Pub Inc., 1976. ISBN 0-8446-6702-1
- Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran, New York: Scribner, 1995.
- Golb, Norman, On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls Archived 10 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine, University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 5 June 2009.
- Heline, Theodore, Dead Sea Scrolls, New Age Bible & Philosophy Center, 1957, Reprint edition 1987, ISBN 0-933963-16-5
- Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2004.
- Israeli, Raphael, [2] Piracy in Qumran: The Battle over the Scrolls of the Pre-Christ Era], Transaction Publishers: 2008 ISBN 978-1-4128-0703-6
- Khabbaz, C., "Les manuscrits de la mer Morte et le secret de leurs auteurs", Beirut, 2006. (Ce livre identifie les auteurs des fameux manuscrits de la mer Morte et dévoile leur secret).
- Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, The Qumran Excavations 1993–2004: Preliminary Report, JSP 6 (Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007) Download Archived 28 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, "Back to Qumran: Ten years of Excavations and Research, 1993–2004," in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57), Brill, 2006 (pp. 55–116).
- Magness, Jodi, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002.
- Maier, Johann, The Temple Scroll, [German edition was 1978], (Sheffield:JSOT Press [Supplement 34], 1985).
- Milik, Józef Tadeusz, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judea, London: SCM, 1959.
- Muro, E. A., "The Greek Fragments of Enoch from Qumran Cave 7 (7Q4, 7Q8, &7Q12 = 7QEn gr = Enoch 103:3–4, 7–8)." Revue de Qumran 18, no. 70 (1997): 307, 12, pl. 1.
- O'Callaghan-Martínez, Josep, Cartas Cristianas Griegas del Siglo V, Barcelona: E. Balmes, 1963.
- Qimron, Elisha, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies, 1986. (This is a serious discussion of the Hebrew language of the scrolls.)
- Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumran und die Bibliothek vom Toten Meer, Translated by J. R. Wilkie. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1960.
- Roitman, Adolfo, ed. A Day at Qumran: The Dead Sea Sect and Its Scrolls. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum, 1998.
- Sanders, James A., ed. Dead Sea scrolls: The Psalms scroll of Qumrân Cave 11 (11QPsa), (1965) Oxford, Clarendon Press.
- Schiffman, Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995, ISBN 0-385-48121-7, (Schiffman has suggested two plausible theories of origin and identity – a Sadducean splinter group, or perhaps an Essene group with Sadducean roots.) Excerpts of this book can be read at COJS: Dead Sea Scrolls.
- Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
- Shanks, Hershel, The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vintage Press 1999, ISBN 0-679-78089-0 (recommended introduction to their discovery and history of their scholarship)
- Stegemann, Hartmut. "The Qumran Essenes: Local Members of the Main Jewish Union in Late Second Temple Times." pp. 83–166 in The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 18–21 March 1991, Edited by J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Mountainer. Vol. 11 of Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah. Leiden: Brill, 1992.
- Thiede, Carsten Peter, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity, Palgrave 2000, ISBN 0-312-29361-5
- Thiering, Barbara, Jesus the Man, New York: Atria, 2006.
- Thiering, Barbara, Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ISBN 0-06-067782-1), New York: Harper Collins, 1992
- VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.
- Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4 (good translation, but complete only in the sense that he includes translations of complete texts, but neglects fragmentary scrolls and more especially does not include biblical texts.) (7th ed. 2011 ISBN 978-0-14-119731-9)
- Wise, Michael O., Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, (1996), Harper San Francisco paperback 1999, ISBN 0-06-069201-4, (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls, including fragments)
- Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect, New York: Random House, 1985.
- Other sources
- Dead Sea Scrolls Study Vol 1: 1Q1 – 4Q273, Vol. 2: 4Q274 – 11Q31, (compact disc), Logos Research Systems, Inc., (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls with Hebrew and Aramaic transcriptions in parallel with English translations)
- Comprehensive Cross Reference interactive module for Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, Philo, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament Apocrypha, New Testament Apocrypha, Plato, Pythagoras, Dhammapada, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Tacitus, Talmud, New and Old Testaments, Apostolic and Early Church Fathers Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Further reading
- Harrison, R.K., The Dead Sea Scrolls: an Introduction, in series, The Cloister Library, New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dead Sea Scrolls. |
Wikisource has original text related to this article: Dead Sea Scrolls |
- Bible Places: Qumran Caves
- Chabad.org: What are the Dead Sea Scrolls?
- The Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library
- Israel Museum, Jerusalem: Shrine of the Book – Dead Sea Scrolls
- My Jewish Learning: Dead Sea Scrolls