Chien-Shiung Wu ( chino :吳健雄; 31 de mayo de 1912 - 16 de febrero de 1997) fue un físico experimental y de partículas chino-estadounidense que hizo importantes contribuciones en los campos de la física nuclear y de partículas. Wu trabajó en el Proyecto Manhattan , donde ayudó a desarrollar el proceso para separar uranio en isótopos de uranio-235 y uranio-238 por difusión gaseosa . Es mejor conocida por realizar el experimento de Wu , que demostró que la paridad no se conserva.. Este descubrimiento hizo que sus colegas Tsung-Dao Lee y Chen-Ning Yang ganaran el Premio Nobel de Física de 1957 , mientras que la propia Wu recibió el Premio Wolf de Física inaugural en 1978. Su experiencia en física experimental evoca comparaciones con Marie Curie . Sus apodos incluyen la "Primera Dama de la Física", la "Madame Curie de China" y la "Reina de la Investigación Nuclear". [1] [2]
Chien-Shiung Wu | |
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Nació | |
Fallecido | 16 de febrero de 1997 Nueva York , Estados Unidos | (84 años)
Nacionalidad | Chino americano |
alma mater | Universidad Nacional Central Universidad de California, Berkeley |
Conocido por | |
Esposos) | |
Niños | Vincent Yuan (袁 緯 承) |
Premios |
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Carrera científica | |
Campos | Física |
Instituciones | Instituto de Física, Academia Sinica Universidad de California en Berkeley Smith College Universidad de Princeton Universidad de Columbia Universidad de Zhejiang |
Tesis | I.Los continuos rayos X excitados por las partículas beta de 32 P . II. Xenones radiactivos (1940) |
Asesor de doctorado | Ernest Lawrence |
Chien-Shiung Wu | |||||||||
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Chino tradicional | 吳健雄 | ||||||||
Chino simplificado | 吴健雄 | ||||||||
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Vida temprana
Chien-Shiung Wu nació en la ciudad de Liuhe, Taicang en la provincia de Jiangsu , China, [4] el 31 de mayo de 1912, [5] el segundo de tres hijos de Wu Zhong-Yi (吳仲 裔) y Fan Fu-Hua. [6] La costumbre familiar era que los niños de esta generación tuvieran a Chien como primer carácter ( nombre de la generación ) de su nombre, seguido de los personajes de la frase Ying-Shiung-Hao-Jie, que significa "héroes y figuras destacadas". En consecuencia, tenía un hermano mayor, Chien-Ying, y un hermano menor, Chien-Hao. [7] Wu y su padre eran extremadamente cercanos, y él alentó sus intereses con pasión, creando un ambiente en el que estaba rodeada de libros, revistas y periódicos. [8] La madre de Wu era maestra y valoraba la educación de ambos sexos. El padre de Wu era un ingeniero [9] que fomentó la igualdad de las mujeres y se convirtió en un activista notable durante la reciente revolución liderada por Sun Zhongshan que modernizó el país. [10] Su padre apoyó la revuelta debido a sus ideales modernos. Incluso dirigió una milicia local que eliminó a los bandidos locales y modernizó por completo la pequeña ciudad de Liuhe, mientras buscaba niñas de familias ricas y pobres para unirse a su nueva escuela. [11]
Educación
Wu recibió su educación primaria en Ming De School, [7] una escuela para niñas fundada por su padre. [12] Wu creció como un niño modesto e inquisitivo en una familia acomodada. No jugaba al aire libre como lo hacían los otros niños, sino que escuchaba la radio recién inventada por placer y conocimiento. También le gustaba la poesía y los clásicos chinos como las Analectas , y la literatura occidental sobre democracia que su padre promovía en casa. Wu escuchaba a su padre recitar párrafos de revistas científicas en lugar de cuentos para niños hasta que Wu aprendiera a leer. [13] Dejó su ciudad natal en 1923 a la edad de 10 años para ir a la Escuela Normal de Mujeres N ° 2 de Suzhou , que estaba a ochenta kilómetros de su casa. Este era un internado con clases para la formación de maestros y para la escuela secundaria regular, e introdujo materias de ciencia que poco a poco se convirtieron en una pasión creciente para el joven Wu. La admisión a la formación docente era más competitiva, ya que no cobraba matrícula ni manutención y garantizaba un trabajo al graduarse. Aunque su familia podría haber pagado, Wu eligió la opción más competitiva y ocupó el noveno lugar entre alrededor de 10,000 solicitantes. [14]
En 1929, Wu se graduó como la mejor de su clase y fue admitida en la Universidad Nacional Central en Nanjing . De acuerdo con las regulaciones gubernamentales de la época, los estudiantes universitarios de formación de maestros que deseaban pasar a las universidades debían servir como maestros de escuela durante un año. En el caso de Wu, esto solo se hizo cumplir nominalmente. Fue a enseñar en una escuela pública en Shanghai, cuyo presidente era el famoso filósofo Hu Shih . Hu se convirtió en un ícono político muy notable a quien Wu vio como un segundo padre y visitaría a Wu cuando ella estaba en los Estados Unidos. [15] Hu fue anteriormente maestra de Wu cuando tomó algunos cursos en el National China College y se impresionó rápidamente después de que Wu, quien se sentó en el asiento delantero para ser notada por su héroe, terminó y perfeccionó la primera evaluación de tres horas en menos de dos horas. [16] Sus mayores le aconsejaron que "ignorara los obstáculos". Esto era similar a lo que su padre siempre le reiteró: "Solo baja la cabeza y sigue caminando hacia adelante". [17] [18]
Aunque Wu terminó haciendo investigación científica, su escritura se consideró sobresaliente gracias a su formación inicial. Su caligrafía china fue elogiada por otros. Antes de matricularse en la Universidad Nacional Central, Wu pasó el verano preparándose para sus estudios con toda su fuerza habitual. Sintió que sus antecedentes y formación en la Escuela Normal de Mujeres de Suzhou eran insuficientes para prepararla para especializarse en ciencias. Su padre la animó a dar un paso adelante y le compró tres libros para su autoestudio ese verano: trigonometría, álgebra y geometría. Esta experiencia fue el comienzo de su hábito de autoestudio y le dio suficiente confianza para especializarse en matemáticas en el otoño de 1930. [19]
De 1930 a 1934, Wu estudió en la Universidad Nacional Central (que luego fue reinstalada en Taiwán , con la variante continental de la Universidad de Nanjing afirmando ser su verdadera sucesora) y primero se especializó en matemáticas pero luego se trasladó a física. [20] Se involucró en la política estudiantil. Las relaciones entre China y Japón eran tensas en este momento, y los estudiantes instaban al gobierno a tomar una línea más fuerte con Japón. [21] Wu fue elegida como una de las líderes estudiantiles por sus colegas porque sentían que, dado que ella era una de las mejores estudiantes de la universidad, su participación sería perdonada, o al menos pasada por alto, por las autoridades. Siendo ese el caso, tuvo cuidado de no descuidar sus estudios. [5] Ella encabezó protestas que incluyeron una sentada en el Palacio Presidencial en Nanjing , donde los estudiantes fueron recibidos por Chiang Kai-shek . [21]
Durante dos años después de graduarse, realizó estudios de posgrado en física y trabajó como asistente en la Universidad de Zhejiang . Se convirtió en investigadora en el Instituto de Física de la Academia Sinica . [2] Su supervisora era Gu Jing-Wei, una profesora que había obtenido su doctorado en el extranjero en la Universidad de Michigan y alentó a Wu a hacer lo mismo. Se convirtió en un importante modelo a seguir para el joven Wu, quien desarrolló confianza y, a veces, fue franco y honesto al dar consejos a amigos cercanos. [22] Wu fue aceptada por la Universidad de Michigan, y su tío, Wu Zhou-Zhi, proporcionó los fondos necesarios. Se embarcó para los Estados Unidos con una amiga y química de Taicang , Dong Ruo-Fen (董若芬), en el SS President Hoover en agosto de 1936. [2] Sus padres y su tío la despidieron en el Huangpu Bund mientras abordaba el Embarcacion. [23] Su padre y su tío estaban muy tristes mientras su madre lloraba ese día, y Wu no sabía que nunca volvería a ver a sus padres. [24] Aunque su familia sobreviviría a la Segunda Guerra Mundial , solo visitaría a los miembros restantes de su familia décadas más tarde cuando hizo viajes a conferencias en China en la década de 1970.
Carrera de física temprana
Berkeley
Las dos mujeres llegaron a San Francisco , [8] donde los planes de Wu para realizar estudios de posgrado cambiaron después de visitar la Universidad de California, Berkeley . [20] Conoció al físico Luke Chia-Liu Yuan , un nieto de clase media de la concubina de Yuan Shikai (el autoproclamado presidente de la nueva república de China y emperador de China durante seis meses antes de su fallecimiento). [8] Como resultado de su linaje político, Luke no habló mucho sobre Yuan Shikai y Wu se burlaría de él después de que ella descubriera la verdad, ya que su padre una vez se rebeló contra Yuan Shikai. [25] Yuan le mostró el Laboratorio de Radiación , donde el director era Ernest O. Lawrence , quien pronto ganaría el Premio Nobel de Física en 1939 por su invención del acelerador de partículas ciclotrón . [8]
Wu se sorprendió por el sexismo en la sociedad estadounidense cuando se enteró de que en Michigan a las mujeres ni siquiera se les permitía usar la entrada principal, [26] y decidió que preferiría estudiar en el Berkeley, más liberal, en California. Wu también se vio influenciada por su interés en las instalaciones de Berkeley, que incluían el primer ciclotrón de Lawrence, pero su decisión decepcionaría a Dong, que estudió por su cuenta en Michigan. Yuan la llevó a ver a Raymond T. Birge , el jefe del departamento de física, y le ofreció a Wu un lugar en la escuela de posgrado a pesar de que el año académico ya había comenzado. [27] Wu abandonó firmemente sus planes de estudiar en Michigan y se matriculó en Berkeley. [28] Entre sus compañeros de clase de Berkeley estaban Robert R. Wilson , quien, como otros, admiraba secretamente a Wu, [29] y George Volkoff ; [30] Entre sus amigos más cercanos estaban la estudiante de posdoctorado Margaret Lewis y Ursula Schaefer, una estudiante de historia que eligió permanecer en los Estados Unidos en lugar de regresar a la Alemania nazi . [30] [31] Wu echaba mucho de menos la cocina china y no estaba impresionada con la comida de Berkeley, por lo que siempre cenaba con amigos como Schaeffer en su restaurante favorito, el Tea Garden. [32] Wu y sus amigos obtenían comidas gratis que no eran parte del menú debido a su amistad con el dueño. [33] Wu solicitó una beca al final de su primer año, pero hubo prejuicios contra los estudiantes asiáticos por parte del jefe de departamento Birge, y en su lugar, a Wu y Yuan se les ofreció un número de lectores con un estipendio menor. Luego, Yuan solicitó y obtuvo una beca en Caltech . [34] Sin embargo, Birge respetaba a Wu por su talento y fue la razón por la que Wu pudo inscribirse a pesar de que el año académico ya había comenzado. [35]
Wu hizo un rápido progreso en su educación y su investigación. Aunque Lawrence era oficialmente su supervisor, también trabajó en estrecha colaboración con el famoso físico italiano Emilio Segrè . Rápidamente se convirtió en su estudiante favorita y los dos realizaron estudios sobre la desintegración beta, incluido el xenón, que proporcionaría resultados importantes en el futuro de las bombas nucleares. [36] Según Segrè, Wu era un estudiante popular, talentoso y bastante atractivo para muchos hombres. [34] [37] En su autobiografía, el premio Nobel Luis Álvarez dijo de Wu,
"Llegué a conocer a esta estudiante de posgrado en este tiempo de inactividad. Ella usaba la misma habitación de al lado y se llamaba 'Gee Gee (el apodo de Wu en Berkeley)'. Era la física experimental más talentosa y hermosa que he conocido. "
Segrè reconoció la brillantez de Wu y la comparó con la heroína de Wu, Marie Curie , a quien Wu siempre citaba, pero dijo que Wu era más "mundano, elegante e ingenioso". [38] Mientras tanto, Lawrence describió a Wu como "la física experimental femenina más talentosa que había conocido, y que haría brillar cualquier laboratorio". [39] Cuando llegó el momento de presentar su tesis en 1940, tenía dos partes separadas presentadas de manera muy ordenada. El primero fue en bremsstrahlung , la radiación electromagnética producida por la desaceleración de una partícula cargada cuando es desviada por otra partícula cargada, típicamente un electrón por un núcleo atómico , y el último está en Xe radioactivo. Ella investigó el primer estudio utilizando fósforo-32 emisor de beta , un isótopo radiactivo que se produce fácilmente en el ciclotrón que Lawrence y su hermano John H. Lawrence estaban evaluando para su uso en el tratamiento del cáncer y como marcador radiactivo . [40] Esto marcó el primer trabajo de Wu con la desintegración beta , un tema en el que se convertiría en una autoridad. [41] [42]
La segunda parte de la tesis fue sobre la producción de isótopos radiactivos de Xe producidos por la fisión nuclear de uranio con ciclotrones de 37 y 60 pulgadas en el Laboratorio de Radiación . [41] [43] Su segunda parte sobre Xe y la fisión nuclear impresionó tanto a su comité, que incluía a Lawrence y J. Robert Oppenheimer , a quienes Wu llamaba cariñosamente, "Oppie", que Oppenheimer creía que Wu sabía todo sobre la sección transversal de absorción de neutrones, un concepto que se aplicaría cuando Wu se uniera al Proyecto Manhattan. [44]
Wu completó su doctorado en junio de 1940 y fue elegida miembro de Phi Beta Kappa , la sociedad de honor académica de EE. UU. A pesar de las recomendaciones de Lawrence y Segrè, no pudo conseguir un puesto de profesora en una universidad, por lo que permaneció en el Laboratorio de Radiación como becaria postdoctoral. [41] Debido a sus primeros logros, el Oakland Tribune publicó un número sobre ella titulado "Investigación sobresaliente en bombardeos nucleares por una pequeña dama china". El informe bromeó,
"Una pequeña niña china trabajó codo a codo con algunos de los principales científicos estadounidenses en el laboratorio estudiando colisiones nucleares. Esta niña es el nuevo miembro del equipo de investigación de física de Berkeley. La Sra. Wu, o más apropiadamente la Dra. Wu, parece que podría ser actriz o artista o hija adinerada en busca de la cultura occidental. Podría ser tranquila y tímida frente a extraños, pero muy segura y alerta frente a físicos y estudiantes de posgrado. China siempre está en su mente. tan apasionada y emocionada cada vez que se habla de “China” y “democracia”, se prepara para regresar y contribuir a la reconstrucción de China.
Sus planes tendrían que cambiar cuando comenzara la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [45]
La Segunda Guerra Mundial y el Proyecto Manhattan
Wu y Yuan se casaron en la casa de Robert Millikan , supervisor académico de Yuan y presidente de Caltech, el 30 de mayo de 1942. [46] Ni las familias de la novia ni del novio pudieron asistir debido al estallido de la Guerra del Pacífico . [47] Wu y Yuan se mudaron a la costa este de los Estados Unidos , donde Wu se convirtió en profesora asistente en Smith College , una universidad privada para mujeres en Northampton, Massachusetts , mientras Yuan trabajaba en el radar de RCA . Encontró el trabajo frustrante, ya que sus deberes implicaban únicamente la docencia y no había oportunidad de investigar. Apeló a Lawrence, quien escribió cartas de recomendación a varias universidades. Smith respondió nombrando a Wu profesora asociada y aumentando su salario. [48] Aceptó un trabajo de la Universidad de Princeton en Nueva Jersey como la primera mujer miembro de la facultad en la historia del departamento de física, donde enseñó para oficiales de la marina. [49] [41]
In March 1944, Wu joined the Manhattan Project's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories at Columbia University. She lived in a dormitory there, returning to Princeton on the weekends.[50] The role of the SAM Laboratories, headed by Harold Urey, was to support the Manhattan Project's gaseous diffusion (K-25) program for uranium enrichment. Wu worked alongside James Rainwater in a group led by William W. Havens, Jr.,[51] whose task was to develop radiation detector instrumentation.[41]
In September 1944, Wu was contacted by the Manhattan District Engineer, Colonel Kenneth Nichols. Wu was frustrated with her lack of professorships and volunteered to help out in the project. In the beginning, Wu was assigned to check the radiation effect of the reactor by building her own instruments; later, however, she was contacted for a much bigger role.[52] The newly commissioned B Reactor, the first practical nuclear reactor ever built, which was located at the Hanford Site had run into an unexpected problem, starting up and shutting down at regular intervals. John Archibald Wheeler and partner Enrico Fermi suspected that a fission product, Xe-135, with a half-life of 9.4 hours, was the culprit, and might be a neutron poison or absorber.[53] Segrè then remembered the 1940 PhD thesis that Wu had done for him at Berkeley on the radioactive isotopes of Xe and told Fermi to "ask Ms. Wu".[54] The paper on the subject was still unpublished, but after Fermi contacted Wu, Segrè visited her dorm room together with Nichols and collected the typewritten draft prepared for the Physical Review. The suspicions of Fermi and Wheeler came true, Wu's paper unknowingly verified that Xe-135 was indeed the culprit for the B Reactor; it turned out to have an unexpectedly large neutron absorption cross-section.[51] Wu, wary of her publication giving information to other nations on the arms race of the war, waited for a few months before November 1944, when she and Segrè submitted a complete study on these results, which was published months before the bombs were used the next year.[55][56][57] Wu also used her findings in radioactive uranium separation to build the standard model for producing enriched uranium to fuel the atomic bombs at the Oak Ridge, Tennessee facility as well as build innovative Geiger counters.[58] Wu, like most involved physicists in their later years, distanced herself from the Manhattan Project due to its destructive outcome and recommended to the Taiwanese president Chiang Kai-shek in 1962 to never build nuclear weapons. However, she was pleased to know that her family was safe in China.[59][60] Years later, Wu in a rare occasion opened up on her involvement in building the bomb,
"Do you think that people are so stupid and self-destructive? No. I have confidence in humankind. I believe we will one day live together peacefully."
[61]
Famous early experiments and academic leading career
After the end of the war in August 1945, Wu accepted an offer of a position as an associate research professor at Columbia.[62] She would remain at Columbia for the rest of her career, and was first named associate professor in 1952, which made her the first woman to become a tenured physics professor in university history.[63][64]
In November 1949, Wu experimented with the conclusions of Einstein's EPR Thought Experiment, which called Quantum Entanglement "spooky action at a distance".[65] Wu was the first to establish the phenomenon and validity of entanglement using photons through observing angular correlation, as her result confirmed Maurice Pryce and John Clive Ward's calculations on the correlation of the quantum polarizations of two photons propagating in opposite directions.[66] Specifically, the experiment carried out by Wu was the first important confirmation of quantum results relevant to a pair of entangled photons as applicable to the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox.[67][68][69][70]
Guerra civil y residencia permanente
After the second world war, communication with China was restored, and Wu received a letter from her family,[71] but plans to visit China were disrupted by the civil war.[72] Due to the civil war and communist takeover led by Mao Zedong, Wu would not return to China until decades later to meet her surviving uncle and younger brother. Though Wu did not support Mao, she also did not particularly respect the now deposed president Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling. Wu found Soong to be class-conscious, while Chiang, now president of Taiwan, was too complacent with foreign affairs and willing to let Soong handle diplomatic issues for him.[73] However she decided to lend a bit more support to the Republic of China or Taiwan, as her teacher Hu carried close ties with the old republic.[74] Due to the war, many were displaced and younger students would leave for the United States, while scholars in America could not return home.[75] She missed China deeply and would often go with Luke to buy fabric to make her own qipao as a way to remember the country, which she always wore under her lab coat.[76]
Wu was also busy at this time due to the birth of her son, Vincent, in 1947.(袁緯承).[77] Vincent would later grow up to become a physicist like his parents and attend Columbia to follow Wu's footsteps.[78][79] By the end of the civil war in 1949, Yuan joined the Brookhaven National Laboratory, and the family bought another home in Long Island.[80] Yuan would regularly travel to Brookhaven in Long Island, and on weekends return to the family's Manhattan home near Columbia University where Wu worked as its first female physics professor.[81] After the communists came to power in China that year, Wu's father wrote urging her not to return. Since her passport had been issued by the Kuomintang government, she found it difficult to travel abroad as places such as Switzerland did not recognize her passport. Sometimes her friend in Switzerland, physicist Wolfgang Pauli, had to secure her special visas just to enter the country. This eventually led to her decision to stay in the United States. With the help of Columbia chairman Charles H. Townes, Wu would become a US citizen in 1954.[80][78]
Establecimiento de la desintegración beta
In her post-war research, Wu, now an established physicist, continued to investigate beta decay. Enrico Fermi had published his theory of beta decay in 1934, but an experiment by Luis Walter Alvarez had produced results at variance with the theory.[82] Wu set out to repeat the experiment and verify the result.[83] Wu was already heavily invested in working on beta decay as she took on the subject at UC Berkeley.[84] In the year 1949, Wu completely established Fermi's theory and showed how beta decay worked, especially in creating electrons, neutrinos, and positrons.[85] Supposedly, most of the electrons should come out of the nucleus at high speeds.
After careful research, Wu suspected that the problem was that a thick and uneven film of copper(II) sulfate (CuSO
4) was being used as a copper-64 beta ray source, which was causing the emitted electrons to lose energy. To get around this, she adapted an older form of the spectrometer, a solenoidal spectrometer. She added detergent to the copper sulfate to produce a thin, even film. She then demonstrated that the discrepancies observed were the result of experimental error; her results were consistent with Fermi's theory.[86] The speeds of the electrons that were commonly produced in experiments were now shown to be significantly slower. Thus by analyzing radioactive materials used by previous researchers, she proved that this was the cause of the problem and not from theoretical flaws. Wu thus established herself as the leading physicist on beta decay.[87][88] Her work on beta decay became hugely beneficial to her later research and to modern physics in general.[89]
Experimento de paridad
At Columbia, Wu knew the Chinese-born theoretical physicist Tsung-Dao Lee personally. In the mid-1950s, Lee and another Chinese theoretical physicist, Chen Ning Yang, grew to question a hypothetical law of elementary particle physics, the "law of conservation of parity". One example highlighting the problem was the puzzle of the theta and tau particles, two apparently differently charged, strange mesons. They were so similar that they would ordinarily be considered to be the same particle,[90] but different decay modes resulting in two different parity states were observed, suggesting that Θ+ and τ+ were different particles, if parity is conserved:
Θ+ → π+ +
π0
τ+ →
π+
+
π+
+
π−
Lee and Yang's research into existing experimental results convinced them that parity was conserved for electromagnetic interactions and for the strong interaction. For this reason, scientists had expected that it would also be true for the weak interaction, but it had not been tested, and Lee and Yang's theoretical studies showed that it might not hold true for the weak interaction. Lee and Yang worked out a pencil-and-paper design of an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory. Because of her expertise in choosing and then working out the hardware manufacture, set-up, and laboratory procedures, Wu then informed Lee that she could carry out the experiment.[91][92]
Wu chose to do this by taking a sample of radioactive cobalt-60 and cooling it to cryogenic temperatures with liquid gases. Cobalt-60 is an isotope that decays by beta particle emission, and Wu was also an expert on beta decay. The extremely low temperatures were needed to reduce the amount of thermal vibration of the cobalt atoms to almost zero. Also, Wu needed to apply a constant and uniform magnetic field across the sample of cobalt-60 in order to cause the spin axes of the atomic nuclei to line up in the same direction. For this cryogenic work, she needed the facilities of the National Bureau of Standards and its expertise in working with liquid gases, and traveled to its headquarters in Maryland with her equipment to carry out the experiments.[93]
Lee and Yang's theoretical calculations predicted that the beta particles from the cobalt-60 atoms would be emitted asymmetrically and the hypothetical "law of conservation of parity" was invalid. Wu's experiment showed that this is indeed the case: parity is not conserved under the weak nuclear interactions. Θ+ and τ+ are indeed the same particle, which is today known as a kaon, K+.[94][95][96] This result was soon confirmed by her colleagues at Columbia University in different experiments, and as soon as all of these results were published—in two different research papers in the same issue of the same physics journal—the results were also confirmed at many other laboratories and in many different experiments.[97][98]
The discovery of parity violation was a major contribution to particle physics and the development of the Standard Model. The discovery actually set the stage for the development of the model, as the model relied on the idea of symmetry of particles and forces and how particles can sometimes break that symmetry.[99][100] The wide coverage of her discovery prompted the discoverer of fission Otto Frisch to mention that those at Princeton would often say that her experiment was the most impactful since the Michelson-Morley experiment that inspired Einstein's Theory of Relativity.[101] The AAUW called it the solution to the biggest riddle in science.[102] Beyond showing the distinct characteristic of weak interaction from the other three conventional forces of interaction, this eventually led to the general CP Violation or the violation of the charge conjugation parity symmetry.[103] This violation meant researchers could distinguish matter from antimatter and create a solution that would explain the existence of the universe as one that is filled with matter.[104] This is because the lack of symmetry gave the possibility of matter-antimatter imbalance which would allow matter to exist today through the Big Bang.[105] In recognition of their theoretical work, Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957.[106]
Wu's role in the discovery was not publicly honored until 1978, when she was awarded the inaugural Wolf Prize. The reaction to her not winning the Nobel Prize was deemed preposterous, when she was said to have done the main part of the theory by proving the CP Violation through her rigorous experiment, prompting Time Magazine to describe her two male colleagues as physicists who were merely theoretical but "not experimental men".[107][108][109] 1988 Nobel laureate Jack Steinberger frequently called it the biggest mistake of the Nobel committee.[110] Yang and Lee also tried to nominate Wu for future Nobel prizes as they believed she deserved to win and thanked her in their speeches.[111] In fact, Wu became very well regarded by the scientific community: she was nominated at least seven times, which were all before 1966 when the Nobel committee announced that they would conceal their list of nominees to avoid further public controversy and consternation.[112] Wu's friend Pauli, who was notable for being the creator of the Pauli Exclusion Principle, was certain parity was true and was completely shocked with Wu's discovery; he, like many other known physicists, lost a large hypothetical bet for wagering against the eventual outcome. He later wrote his feelings on Wu's discovery to Princeton colleague John M. Blatt: "I don’t know whether anyone has written you as yet about the sudden death of parity. Miss Wu has done an experiment with beta-decay of oriented Co nuclei which shows that parity is not conserved in β decay. [...] We are all rather shaken by the death of our well-beloved friend, parity."[113]
He later became even more confounded when he learned that Wu was robbed of the Nobel prize, and even believed that he predicted she would be robbed of the award through his dream analysis conducted by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung.[114][115]
Fuerza débil y corriente vectorial conservada
Wu quickly became a full professor in 1958, and later on was named the first Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1973.[116] Some of her impish students called her the Dragon Lady, after the character of that name in the comic strip Terry and the Pirates due to Wu's strictness and high standards of excellence.[117] Regardless of this, Wu actually treated her students like her children and often ate lunch with them as well as got to know their entourages.[118] She would do this while working from 8 am to 7 or 8 in the evening, with her pay still very low until it was drastically increased after Robert Serber was installed as the new chairman.[119] Her discoveries proved to be important in physics and her work even crossed over to biology and medicine, where her contributions became extremely influential to certain studies on the molecular changes in red blood cells that caused sickle-cell disease or anemia.[120]
In December 1962, Wu experimentally demonstrated a universal form and more accurate version of Fermi's old beta decay model,[121] confirming the conserved vector current (CVC) hypothesis of Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann on the road to the Standard Model. She would release the results in the succeeding year. In this experiment, she was approached by Gell-Mann after he and Feynman realized they needed an expert on experimental physics to prove their hypothesis. Gell-Mann pleaded to Wu, "How long did Yang and Lee pursue you to follow upon their work?"[122] Their hypothesis was influenced by Wu's demonstration that parity was not conserved, which brought other assumptions that physicists have made about the weak interaction into question. The question was if parity cannot be conserved in weak force interaction, then the conservation of charge conjugation could also be in dispute. Conservation and symmetry were basic laws that held true for electromagnetism, gravity, and the strong interaction, so it had been assumed for decades that they should also hold for the weak interaction until Wu debunked these laws. This was also crucial to the future discovery of the electroweak force.
Wu worked with a number of student assistants including Y.K. Lee, Mo Wei or L.W. Mo, and Lee Rong-Gen from Korea. Using a Van de Graaff accelerator at Columbia with proton, heavy hydrogen, and helium beams, they were able to perform their notable experiment. The beta ray spectra were measured in the magnetometer spectroscopy fifty feet from the accelerator. The beta decay sources B-12 and N-12 were produced in the magnetometer. The laboratories were locked during midnight and Mo had to create a duplicate key for everyone to sneak in and out of the laboratory during the wee hours of the morning. Mo would escort Wu to her Manhattan apartment home. Wu's discovery was presented at the Hilton hotel on January 26, 1963. Wu was pleased with the achievement and mentioned that it gave a complete foundation for Fermi's theory of beta decay as well as provide support for the theory of the two-component neutrino, which her parity experiment first established.[123] Feynman was very happy with the announcement and was so proud of the outcome that he called the CVC theory, together with his diagram and work in quantum electrodynamics, one of his finest scientific accomplishments.[124][125] Later in the 1960s, Wu conducted more experiments on beta decay, specifically on double beta decay. She went inside a 2,000 ft deep salt mine below Lake Erie in Ohio to investigate on muonic atoms in which muons take the place of electrons in normal atoms. The work conducted here would paved the way for its future discovery in the 1980s.[95]
Wu later wrote a textbook with Steven Moszkowski entitled Beta Decay, which was published in 1966.[119] It was the first comprehensive study on beta decay, and the book quickly became the standard reference textbook on the subject; it remains one of the standard references in the 21st century.[126][127]
Años posteriores y promoción social
Wu's older brother died in 1958. Her father died the next year, and her mother would follow him in 1962. The United States State Department had imposed severe restrictions on travel to Communist countries by its citizens, so Wu was not permitted to visit mainland China to attend their funerals.[128] She saw her uncle, Wu Zhou-Zhi, and younger brother, Wu Chien-Hao, on a trip to Hong Kong in 1965. After the 1972 Nixon visit to China, relations between the two countries improved, and she visited China again in 1973. Wu nearly visited in 1956, but decided to stay in the US to finish her famous experiment while her husband visited China. By the time she returned, her uncle and brother had perished in the Cultural Revolution, and the tombs of her parents had been destroyed. She was greeted by Zhou Enlai, who personally apologized for the destruction of the tombs. After this, she returned to China and Taiwan several times.[129]
During the late 20th century, Wu continued to be seen as the top experimental physicist in the world and many continued to ask for her guidance in proving certain hypotheses.[130] Herwig Schopper, who was the director general of CERN, commented that physicists believed "if the experiment was done by Wu, it must be correct."[131] She conducted experiments on Mössbauer spectroscopy and its application in the study of sickle-cell anemia. She researched on the molecular changes in the deformation of hemoglobins that cause this form of anemia. She also did research on magnetism in the 1960s.[128] Wu would later work on Bell's theorem, which showed results that confirmed the orthodox interpretation of quantum mechanics.[132]
In later life, Wu became more outspoken. She protested the imprisonment in Taiwan of the in-laws of physicist Kerson Huang in 1959 and of the journalist Lei Chen in 1960.[133] With the help of her teacher Hu Shih, Huang's in-laws were eventually released on bail. Lei's sentence was reduced to ten years by President Chiang Kai-shek.[134] In 1964, she spoke out against gender discrimination at a symposium at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[135] "I wonder," she asked her audience, "whether the tiny atoms and nuclei, or the mathematical symbols, or the DNA molecules have any preference for either masculine or feminine treatment," which garnered heavy applause from the audience.[136] When men referred to her as Professor Yuan, she immediately corrected them and told them that she was Professor Wu.[137] In 1975, physics department chairman Serber discovered that Wu had a much lower pay than her male colleagues but that she had never reported on it, so he adjusted her pay to make it equal to that of her male counterparts even if Wu only cared about the research at Columbia.[138] Wu later quipped,
"In China there are many, many women in physics. There is a misconception in America that women scientists are all dowdy spinsters. This is the fault of men. In Chinese society, a woman is valued for what she is, and men encourage her to accomplishments, yet she remains eternally feminine."[139]
Wu's advocacies and conviction maintained a strong priority for the advancement of the sciences. Later in 1975 as the first female president of the American Physical Society, Wu met with President Gerald Ford to formally request him to create an advisory scientific body for the president, which President Ford granted and signed into law the formation of the Office of Science and Technology Policy.[140]
Wu also continued to be an advocate for human rights issues as she protested the crackdown in China that followed the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989.[141] In 1978, she was awarded the first Wolf Prize in Physics. One of its criteria considered those who were thought deserving to win a Nobel Prize without receiving one.[142] She retired in 1981[135] and became a professor emerita.[143]
Últimos años y legado
Wu would spend most of her time in her later years visiting China, Taiwan, and different American states. She became renowned for her steadfast promotion of teaching STEM subjects to all students regardless of gender or any other discriminating cause. Wu suffered a stroke on February 16, 1997, in New York City. An ambulance rushed her to St. Luke's–Roosevelt Hospital Center where she was pronounced dead. Her granddaughter, Jada Wu Hanjie, remarked “I was young when I saw my grandmother, but her modesty, rigorousness and beauty were rooted in my mind. My grandmother had emphasized much enthusiasm for national scientific development and education, which I really admire.”[144][126]
During her retirement, Columbia hosted a celebration "to honor the First Lady of Physics", which garnered a huge reception, and subsequently held a banquet at the Qian Jia Fu restaurant along Broadway. The Polish-American award-winning professor Isidor Rabi called Wu one who had made greater contributions to science than Marie Curie, in spite of her nickname as the “Chinese Madame Curie". Maurice Goldhaber later quipped, "People avoid doing experiments in beta decay, simply because they know that Wu Chien-Shiung will do a better job than anybody!"[145] The other physicists were surveyed for their opinions on the finest female physicists, with Wu, Lise Meitner, and Curie coming in different orders depending on their standards; Leon Lederman noted that Curie and Wu were equally above Meitner while Valentine Telegdi ranked Wu first among female physicists.[146] Regardless of the differing views, Wu was highly regarded by members of the scientific community.[147]
In accordance with her wishes, her ashes were buried in the courtyard of the Ming De School that her father had founded and that she had attended as a girl.[141]
Honores, premios y distinciones
- Elected a fellow of the American Physical Society (1948)[109]
- Elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (1958)[148]
- Wu was the first woman with an honorary doctorate from Princeton University. The citation called Wu, “top woman experimental physicist in the world.” (1958)[149]
- Achievement Award, American Association of University Women (1959)[148]
- Honorary degree from Smith College (1959)[150]
- Wu won the Research Corporation Award, and dedicated the award to her teacher Hu Shih. The award is now housed in Nangang District, Taipei, where Hu's memorial is located. Wu spent two hours at the memorial, which was built after Hu suddently collapsed and succumbed to a heart attack in the middle of a conference. Wu and her husband happened to be in that conference which was supposed to celebrate her career. (1958)[148][151]
- John Price Wetherill Medal, The Franklin Institute (1962)[109]
- American Association of University Women Woman of the Year Award (1962)
- First female to win the Comstock Prize in Physics, National Academy of Sciences (1964)[148]
- Chi-Tsin Achievement Award, Chi-Tsin Culture Foundation (1965)[148]
- Received an Sc.D. from Yale University (1967)[152]
- Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1969)[109]
- Wu was bestowed an honorary L.L.D. from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The citation stated, "The charming lady who is being honoured on this occasion is reputed as the world's foremost female experimental physicist...Dr. Wu has made one of the greatest contributions to the knowledge of the universe." (1969)[153]
- First Pupin Professor in the history of Columbia University, which went with a citation that described Wu as “the first lady of physics research” (1973)[154]
- Scientist of the Year Award, Industrial Research Magazine (1974)[109]
- Honorary degree from Harvard University (1974)[155]
- Tom W. Bonner Prize, American Physical Society (1975)[109][156]
- First female President of the American Physical Society (1975)[157]
- Honorary doctorate from Dickinson College (1975)[158]
- First female to be honored with the National Medal of Science in Physics, which is the highest presidential honor for American scientists (1975)[109][159]
- First person selected to receive the Wolf Prize in Physics (1978)[109]
- Woman of the Year award from the St. Vincent Culture Foundation under UNESCO, which was presented by the president of Italy (1981)[160]
- Honorary degree from the University of Southern California (1982)[160]
- Honorary degree from the University at Albany, SUNY[160]
- Honorary degree from Columbia University (1982)[160]
- Lifetime Achievement Award from Radcliffe College, Harvard University[160]
- Honorary professorship from the University of Padua, where Wu was asked to deliver a lecture in the same hall as the Renaissance astronomer Galileo Galilei (1984)[161]
- Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1984)[162]
- Wu received only the second Blue Cloud Award from the Institute of China for her outstanding contributions to cultural exchanges between China and America. (1985)[161]
- To celebrate the centennial of the creation of the Statue of Liberty, 80 distinguished Americans were chosen to be honored with the Ellis Island Medal of Honor. Wu was the only physicist in a group that featured Rosa Parks, Gregory Peck, and Muhammad Ali, whom she took a photo with on the day of the ceremony. (1986)[109][163]
- Awarded only the second mayor's award of honor from then-New York City mayor Ed Koch (1986)[161]
- Honorary degree from National Central University (1989)[154]
- Has an asteroid (2752 Wu Chien-Shiung) named after her (1990)
- Pupin Medal, Columbia University (1991)[148]
- Wu was awarded the Science for Peace prize from the Ettore Majorana Centre for Scientific Culture in Erice, Italy "for her intense and vast scientific activity that has permitted the understanding of weak forces and for her engagement in the promotion of the role of women in science." The Ettore Majorana Centre, founded by the Sicilian government in 1963, is known worldwide for its scholarly meetings and graduate institutes with a membership of more than 56,000 scientists from over 100 nations. (1992)[154][164]
- Elected one of the first foreign academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1994)[141]
- Nobel laureates Chen-Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee, Samuel C. C. Ting, and Yuan Tse Lee, together with other top physicists, established the Wu Chien-Shiung Education Foundation with the goal of promoting science to youths in Chinese communities worldwide. The foundation holds camps every summer that invite the top students in Science to participate, with many Nobel laureates of any ethnicity usually speaking in the camp's lectures. Competitions and face-to-face discussions are usually held with prestigious scholarships serving as the top prizes. Dialogues are all in Mandarin with professional translators who are hired to translate from other languages in real time. (1995)[165]
- Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame (1998)[166]
- Southeast University, one of the successors of National Central University, opened a college named in her honor. Wu was previously honored as an honorary professor in the university in 1990. (2003)[167]
- The Taicang Normal School of Jiangsu Province was renamed into the "Suzhou Chien-shiung Institute of Technology" in her honor. (2004)[168]
- First female nuclear and particle physicist to be honored with a street name at CERN called, Route C.S. Wu, and the second woman given the honor after Marie Curie (2004)[169]
- Mingde Middle School held a memorial ceremony at Wu's cemetery located in the school campus. The 1,300 sq m cemetery was designed as a rounded viewing stand surrounded by flowers and trees, and was built by Southeast University in collaboration with the famous architect Ioeh Ming Pei. An educational activity titled "Promoting the Scientific Spirit of Chien-Shiung, and Be a Person of Moral Integrity" was launched among primary and middle school students across the city. Honorary president Jada Wu Hanjie was in attendance, as she habitually visited the school every month. The ceremony was sponsored by the Taicang municipal government. (2012)[170]
- The Suzhou Chien-shiung Institute of Technology celebrated Wu's 100th birthday with a 23-foot bronze statue that weighed 8 tons at the center of the school in front of Xinjing lake, where it is surrounded by pine trees and cypresses. It was designed by Professor Zhang Yonghao and was based on her visit to the White House in the 1970s. Together with the statue was the inauguration of the Chien-Shiung Wu museum in the school. Other monuments, structures, and edifices include a stone inscription of Wu's biography, a large park called the Knowledge Square, and plenty of other tributes. (2012)[171]
- Portrait was added into New York City Hall (2020)[172]
- For the centennial of the 19th amendment that gave suffragettes the right to join fair elections, Time Magazine released the 100 Women of the Year. This list was to represent each woman of the year from 1920 to 2019. The woman of the year would be the female counterpart to the disused, so-called "man of the year" that Time changed to "person of the year". Wu was on the magazine cover where she was called the woman of the year in 1945 for her crucial role in the Manhattan Project. This was the same year when US Pres. Harry Truman was labeled man of the year for fully utilizing the very bomb Wu built, which he tested on Japan. (2020)[173]
- Wu became only the eighth full-time physicist to be honored with a United States Postal Service postage stamp. The others include John Bardeen, Feynman, Fermi, Millikan, Einstein, and Josiah Gibbs. (2021)[174][175][176]
- The United States Postal Service issued a Forever stamp featuring a portrait of Wu, designed by Ethel Kessler with art from Kam Mak. (2021)[177]
Bibliografía
- Wu, C.-S. (1950). "Recent Investigation of the Shapes of β-Ray Spectra". Reviews of Modern Physics. 22 (4): 386–398. Bibcode:1950RvMP...22..386W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.22.386.
- Wu, C. S.; Moszkowski, S. A. (1966). Beta Decay. New York: Interscience Publishers. LCCN 65-21452. OCLC 542299.
- Wu, C.-S. (1975). "Can We Save Basic Research?". Physics Today. 281 (12): 88. Bibcode:1975PhT....28l..88W. doi:10.1063/1.3069274.
Ver también
- Timeline of women in science
Referencias
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- ^ "Three Columbia Physicists Awarded Italy's Science for Peace Prize".
- ^ Kwong (August 9, 2010). "The Brief Introduction of Wu Chien-Shiung Science Camp" (PDF).
- ^ "21 Inducted Into Women's Hall of Fame". Los Angeles Times. July 12, 1998. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
- ^ "吴健雄学院". wjx.seu.edu.cn.
- ^ "Suzhou Chien-shiung Institute of Technology".
- ^ Chiang, Tsai-Chien (December 31, 2015). "Wu Chien-Shiung: A brief biography". AIP Conference Proceedings. 1702: 040004. doi:10.1063/1.4937640. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ "100th anniversary of the birth of Wu Chien-Shiung". May 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2020.
- ^ "Culture of Chien-shiung Institute of Technology: A Reader". May 2012.
- ^ Speaker Corey Johnson and New-York Historical Society Add New Portraits in City Hall of Iconic New York Women, New York City Council, March 2, 2020
- ^ Kruger, Jeffrey (March 2020). "1945: Chien-Shiung Wu". Retrieved March 16, 2021.
- ^ Cantor, Carla (February 10, 2021). "Columbia Physicist Honored With a Commemorative U.S. Postage Stamp".
- ^ "CHIEN-SHIUNG WU FEATURED ON USPS FOREVER STAMP". February 4, 2021. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
- ^ "She never won a Nobel prize. But today this pioneering physicist is getting her face on a stamp". CNN. 2021.
- ^ "Chien-Shiung Wu Stamp | USPS.com". store.usps.com. Retrieved May 3, 2021.
Sources
- Chiang, Tsai-Chien (2014). Madame Chien-Shiung Wu: The First Lady of Physics Research. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4374-84-2.
- Cooperman, Stephanie H. (2004). Chien-Shiung Wu: Pioneering Physicist and Atomic Researcher. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8239-3875-9.
- Gardner, Martin (2005). The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry from Mirror Reflections to Superstrings. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-4864-4244-0.
- Hammond, Richard (2007). Chien-Shiung Wu: Pioneering Nuclear Physicist. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8160-6177-8.
- Heilbron, J. L.; Seidel, Robert W. (1989). Lawrence and his Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06426-3. OCLC 19455957. Retrieved May 24, 2015.
- McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch (1998). Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Revised ed.). Joseph Henry Press. pp. 254–260. ISBN 978-0-309-07270-0.
- Wang, Zuoyue (1970–1980). "Wu Chien-Shiung". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 25. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 363–368. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.
Otras lecturas
- Reynolds, Moira Davison (2004). American Women Scientists: 23 Inspiring Biographies, 1900–2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2161-9. OCLC 60686608.
- Teresa, Robeson (2019). Queen of Physics: How Wu Chien Shiung Helped Unlock the Secrets of the Atom. Sterling Children's Books. illustrated by Rebecca Huang. New York. ISBN 978-1-4549-3220-8. OCLC 1086482902. (won the Asian/Pacific American Awards for Literature for Picture Books in 2020.[1])
enlaces externos
- Wu Chien-Shiung Education Foundation
- Eulogy-biography (Columbia University)
- The Fall of Parity Photo Gallery with Short Biographies, NIST
- Optional view: large-scale black & white photo from the above
- Wu, Chien-Shiung National Women's Hall of Fame
- E-Book: Madame Wu Chien-Shiung
- Chien-Shiung Wu
- Medal of Science: Wu Chien-Shiung
- Confidence and Crises in the Second World War: Chien-Shiung Wu
- Legendary Scientists: Chien-Shiung Wu
- Chien-Shiung Wu, Notable Chinese-American Scientist
- ^ "2020 Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature Winners Selected" (Press release). APALA. January 27, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2020.