La computación en nube [1] es la disponibilidad bajo demanda de los recursos del sistema informático , especialmente el almacenamiento de datos ( almacenamiento en la nube ) y la potencia informática , sin una gestión activa directa por parte del usuario. [2] El término se usa generalmente para describir los centros de datos disponibles para muchos usuarios a través de Internet . [3] Las nubes grandes, predominantes en la actualidad, a menudo tienen funciones distribuidas en múltiples ubicaciones desde servidores centrales . Si la conexión con el usuario es relativamente cercana, puede designarse como servidor de borde .
Las nubes pueden estar limitadas a una sola organización (nubes empresariales [4] [5] ) o estar disponibles para varias organizaciones (nube pública).
La computación en la nube se basa en compartir recursos para lograr coherencia y economías de escala .
Los defensores de las nubes públicas e híbridas señalan que la computación en la nube permite a las empresas evitar o minimizar los costos iniciales de infraestructura de TI . Los defensores también afirman que la computación en la nube permite a las empresas poner sus aplicaciones en funcionamiento más rápido, con una capacidad de administración mejorada y menos mantenimiento, y que permite a los equipos de TI ajustar más rápidamente los recursos para satisfacer la demanda fluctuante e impredecible, [5] [6] [7 ] que proporciona la capacidad de cálculo en ráfagas : alta potencia de cálculo en determinados períodos de máxima demanda. [8]
Los proveedores de la nube suelen utilizar un modelo de "pago por uso", que puede generar gastos operativos inesperados si los administradores no están familiarizados con los modelos de precios de la nube. [9]
La disponibilidad de redes de alta capacidad, computadoras y dispositivos de almacenamiento de bajo costo, así como la adopción generalizada de virtualización de hardware , arquitectura orientada a servicios y computación autónoma y de servicios públicos ha llevado al crecimiento de la computación en la nube. [10] [11] [12] A partir de 2017, la mayoría de las computadoras en la nube ejecutan un sistema operativo basado en Linux . [13]
Historia
La computación en la nube se popularizó con Amazon.com que lanzó su producto Elastic Compute Cloud en 2006. [14]
Las referencias a la frase "computación en la nube" aparecieron ya en 1996, con la primera mención conocida en un documento interno de Compaq . [15]
El símbolo de la nube se utilizó para representar redes de equipos informáticos en el ARPANET original ya en 1977, [16] y el CSNET en 1981 [17], ambos predecesores de la propia Internet. La palabra nube se usó como metáfora de Internet y se usó una forma estandarizada similar a una nube para denotar una red en esquemas de telefonía . Con esta simplificación, la implicación es que los detalles de cómo se conectan los puntos finales de una red no son relevantes para comprender el diagrama. [18]
El término nube se usó para referirse a plataformas para computación distribuida ya en 1993, cuando la escisión de Apple General Magic y AT&T lo usaron para describir sus tecnologías (emparejadas) Telescript y PersonaLink . [19] En el artículo de Wired de abril de 1994 "Bill and Andy Excellent Adventure II", Andy Hertzfeld comentó sobre Telescript, el lenguaje de programación distribuido de General Magic:
"La belleza de Telescript ... es que ahora, en lugar de solo tener un dispositivo para programar, ahora tenemos toda la Nube, donde un solo programa puede ir y viajar a muchas fuentes diferentes de información y crear una especie de servicio virtual. Nadie había concebido eso antes. El ejemplo que Jim White [el diseñador de Telescript, X.400 y ASN.1 ] usa ahora es un servicio de organización de fechas en el que un agente de software va a la florería y ordena flores y luego va a la taquilla y compra las entradas para el espectáculo, y todo se comunica a ambas partes ". [20]
Historia temprana
Durante la década de 1960, los conceptos iniciales de tiempo compartido se popularizaron a través de RJE ( Remote Job Entry ); [21] esta terminología se asoció principalmente con grandes proveedores como IBM y DEC . Las soluciones de uso compartido a tiempo completo estaban disponibles a principios de la década de 1970 en plataformas como Multics (en hardware GE), Cambridge CTSS y los primeros puertos UNIX (en hardware DEC). Sin embargo, predominaba abrumadoramente el modelo de "centro de datos" en el que los usuarios enviaban trabajos a los operadores para que los ejecutaran en los mainframes de IBM.
En la década de 1990, las empresas de telecomunicaciones, que anteriormente ofrecían principalmente circuitos de datos punto a punto dedicados, comenzaron a ofrecer servicios de redes privadas virtuales (VPN) con una calidad de servicio comparable, pero a un costo menor. Al cambiar el tráfico como mejor les pareciera para equilibrar el uso del servidor, podrían utilizar el ancho de banda general de la red de manera más eficaz. [ cita requerida ] Comenzaron a usar el símbolo de la nube para indicar el punto de demarcación entre lo que el proveedor era responsable y lo que los usuarios eran responsables. La computación en la nube extendió este límite para cubrir todos los servidores, así como la infraestructura de red. [22] A medida que las computadoras se volvieron más difundidas, los científicos y tecnólogos exploraron formas de hacer que la potencia informática a gran escala estuviera disponible para más usuarios a través del tiempo compartido. [ cita requerida ] Experimentaron con algoritmos para optimizar la infraestructura, la plataforma y las aplicaciones para priorizar las CPU y aumentar la eficiencia para los usuarios finales. [23]
El uso de la metáfora de la nube para los servicios virtualizados se remonta al menos a General Magic en 1994, donde se utilizó para describir el universo de "lugares" a los que podían ir los agentes móviles en el entorno de Telescript . Como lo describe Andy Hertzfeld :
"La belleza de Telescript ", dice Andy , "es que ahora, en lugar de solo tener un dispositivo para programar, ahora tenemos la nube completa, donde un solo programa puede ir y viajar a muchas fuentes diferentes de información y crear un una especie de servicio virtual ". [24]
El uso de la metáfora de la nube se atribuye al empleado de comunicaciones de General Magic, David Hoffman , basado en su uso prolongado en redes y telecomunicaciones. Además de su uso por parte de General Magic, también se utilizó para promocionar los Servicios PersonaLink asociados de AT&T . [25]
2000
En julio de 2002, Amazon creó la subsidiaria Amazon Web Services , con el objetivo de "permitir a los desarrolladores crear por su cuenta aplicaciones innovadoras y empresariales". En marzo de 2006, Amazon presentó su Simple Storage Service (S3), seguido de Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) en agosto del mismo año. [14] [26] Estos productos fueron pioneros en el uso de la virtualización de servidores para ofrecer IaaS a un precio más económico y bajo demanda.
En abril de 2008, Google lanzó la versión beta de Google App Engine . [27] El App Engine era un PaaS (uno de los primeros de su tipo) que proporcionaba una infraestructura completamente mantenida y una plataforma de implementación para que los usuarios crearan aplicaciones web utilizando lenguajes / tecnologías comunes como Python , Node.js y PHP . El objetivo era eliminar la necesidad de algunas tareas administrativas típicas de un modelo IaaS , al tiempo que se creaba una plataforma donde los usuarios pudieran implementar fácilmente dichas aplicaciones y escalarlas según la demanda. [28]
A principios de 2008, la NASA 's Nebulosa , [29] mejorada en el proyecto financiado por la Comisión Europea DEPÓSITO, se convirtió en el primer software de código abierto para el despliegue de nubes privadas e híbridas, y por la federación de nubes. [30]
A mediados de 2008, Gartner vio una oportunidad para la computación en la nube "para dar forma a la relación entre los consumidores de servicios de TI, aquellos que usan servicios de TI y aquellos que los venden" [31] y observó que "las organizaciones están cambiando de hardware propiedad de la empresa y activos de software a modelos basados en servicios por uso ", de modo que el" cambio proyectado a la informática ... dará como resultado un crecimiento espectacular en los productos de TI en algunas áreas y reducciones significativas en otras áreas ". [32]
En 2008, la Fundación Nacional de Ciencias de EE. UU . Inició el programa Exploratorio de clústeres para financiar la investigación académica utilizando la tecnología de clúster de Google e IBM para analizar cantidades masivas de datos. [33]
En 2009, el gobierno de Francia anunció el Proyecto Andromède para crear una "nube soberana" o computación en la nube nacional, con el gobierno para gastar 285 millones de euros. [34] [35] La iniciativa fracasó gravemente y Cloudwatt se cerró el 1 de febrero de 2020. [36] [37]
2010
En febrero de 2010, Microsoft lanzó Microsoft Azure , que se anunció en octubre de 2008. [38]
En julio de 2010, Rackspace Hosting y la NASA lanzaron conjuntamente una iniciativa de software en la nube de código abierto conocida como OpenStack . El proyecto OpenStack tenía como objetivo ayudar a las organizaciones que ofrecen servicios de computación en la nube que se ejecutan en hardware estándar. El código inicial provino de la plataforma Nebula de la NASA, así como de la plataforma Cloud Files de Rackspace . Como oferta de código abierto y junto con otras soluciones de código abierto como CloudStack, Ganeti y OpenNebula, ha atraído la atención de varias comunidades clave. Varios estudios tienen como objetivo comparar estas ofertas de código abierto en función de un conjunto de criterios. [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45]
El 1 de marzo de 2011, IBM anunció el marco IBM SmartCloud para dar soporte a Smarter Planet . [46] Entre los diversos componentes de la base de Smarter Computing , la computación en la nube es una parte fundamental. El 7 de junio de 2012, Oracle anunció Oracle Cloud . [47] Esta oferta de nube está preparada para ser la primera en brindar a los usuarios acceso a un conjunto integrado de soluciones de TI, incluidas las capas de Aplicaciones ( SaaS ), Plataforma ( PaaS ) e Infraestructura ( IaaS ). [48] [49] [50]
En mayo de 2012, Google Compute Engine se lanzó en versión preliminar, antes de implementarse en Disponibilidad general en diciembre de 2013. [51]
En 2019, Linux fue el sistema operativo más utilizado en Microsoft Azure . [13] En diciembre de 2019, Amazon anunció AWS Outposts, que es un servicio totalmente administrado que extiende la infraestructura de AWS, los servicios de AWS, las API y las herramientas a prácticamente cualquier centro de datos del cliente, espacio de coubicación o instalación local para una verdadera coherencia. experiencia híbrida [52]
Conceptos similares
El objetivo de la computación en la nube es permitir que los usuarios se beneficien de todas estas tecnologías, sin la necesidad de un conocimiento profundo o experiencia con cada una de ellas. La nube tiene como objetivo reducir costos y ayuda a los usuarios a concentrarse en su negocio principal en lugar de verse obstaculizados por obstáculos de TI. [53] La principal tecnología habilitadora para la computación en nube es la virtualización . El software de virtualización separa un dispositivo informático físico en uno o más dispositivos "virtuales", cada uno de los cuales se puede utilizar y administrar fácilmente para realizar tareas informáticas. Con la virtualización a nivel de sistema operativo que crea esencialmente un sistema escalable de múltiples dispositivos informáticos independientes, los recursos informáticos inactivos se pueden asignar y utilizar de manera más eficiente. La virtualización proporciona la agilidad necesaria para acelerar las operaciones de TI y reduce los costos al aumentar la utilización de la infraestructura . La informática autónoma automatiza el proceso mediante el cual el usuario puede suministrar recursos a pedido . Al minimizar la participación del usuario, la automatización acelera el proceso, reduce los costos laborales y reduce la posibilidad de errores humanos. [53]
La computación en la nube utiliza conceptos de la computación de servicios públicos para proporcionar métricas para los servicios utilizados. La computación en la nube intenta abordar la QoS (calidad de servicio) y los problemas de confiabilidad de otros modelos de computación en red . [53]
La computación en la nube comparte características con:
- Modelo cliente-servidor - informática de cliente-servidor se refiere ampliamente a cualquier aplicación distribuida que distingue entre los proveedores de servicios (servidores) y los solicitantes de servicios (clientes). [54]
- Oficina de ordenador -A oficina de servicios que proporciona servicios informáticos, en particular desde la década de 1960 a 1980.
- Computación en cuadrícula: una forma de computación distribuida y paralela, mediante la cual una 'supercomputadora virtual' se compone de un grupo de computadoras conectadas en red y débilmente acopladas que actúan en concierto para realizar tareas muy grandes.
- Computación en la niebla: paradigma de computación distribuida que proporciona datos, computación, almacenamiento y servicios de aplicaciones más cerca del cliente o de dispositivos periféricos cercanos al usuario, como enrutadores de red. Además, la computación en la niebla maneja datos a nivel de red, en dispositivos inteligentes y en el lado del cliente del usuario final (por ejemplo, dispositivos móviles), en lugar de enviar datos a una ubicación remota para su procesamiento.
- Computadora central: computadoras potentes utilizadas principalmente por grandes organizaciones para aplicaciones críticas, por lo general, procesamiento de datos en masa, como censos ; estadísticas de la industria y los consumidores; servicios policiales y secretos de inteligencia; planificación de recursos empresariales ; y procesamiento de transacciones financieras .
- Computación de servicios públicos: el "empaquetado de recursos informáticos , como la computación y el almacenamiento, como un servicio medido similar a un servicio público tradicional, como la electricidad". [55] [56]
- Peer-to-peer: una arquitectura distribuida sin la necesidad de una coordinación central. Los participantes son tanto proveedores como consumidores de recursos (en contraste con el modelo tradicional cliente-servidor).
- Computación ecológica: estudio y práctica de informática o TI ambientalmente sostenibles .
- Sandbox en la nube: un entorno informático en vivo y aislado en el que se puede ejecutar un programa, código o archivo sin afectar la aplicación en la que se ejecuta.
Caracteristicas
La computación en la nube presenta las siguientes características clave:
- La agilidad para las organizaciones puede mejorarse, ya que la computación en la nube puede aumentar la flexibilidad de los usuarios al reaprovisionar, agregar o expandir los recursos de infraestructura tecnológica.
- Los proveedores de la nube reclaman reducciones de costos. Un modelo de entrega de nube pública convierte los gastos de capital (por ejemplo, la compra de servidores) en gastos operativos . [57] Esto supuestamente reduce las barreras de entrada , ya que la infraestructura normalmente la proporciona un tercero y no es necesario comprarla para tareas informáticas intensivas puntuales o poco frecuentes. El precio basado en la computación de servicios públicos es "detallado", con opciones de facturación basadas en el uso. Además, se requieren menos habilidades de TI internas para la implementación de proyectos que utilizan la computación en la nube. [58] El repositorio de última generación del proyecto e-FISCAL [59] contiene varios artículos que analizan los aspectos de los costos con más detalle, la mayoría de ellos concluyendo que los ahorros de costos dependen del tipo de actividades apoyadas y del tipo de infraestructura disponible. en casa.
- La independencia del dispositivo y la ubicación [60] permite a los usuarios acceder a los sistemas mediante un navegador web, independientemente de su ubicación o del dispositivo que utilicen (p. Ej., PC, teléfono móvil). Como la infraestructura está fuera del sitio (generalmente proporcionada por un tercero) y se accede a ella a través de Internet, los usuarios pueden conectarse a ella desde cualquier lugar. [58]
- El mantenimiento de las aplicaciones de computación en la nube es más fácil, ya que no es necesario instalarlas en la computadora de cada usuario y se puede acceder a ellas desde diferentes lugares (por ejemplo, diferentes lugares de trabajo, mientras viaja, etc.). [ aclaración necesaria ]
- La tenencia múltiple permite compartir recursos y costos entre un gran grupo de usuarios, lo que permite:
- centralización de la infraestructura en lugares con menores costos (como bienes raíces, electricidad, etc.)
- aumentos de la capacidad de carga máxima (los usuarios no necesitan diseñar ni pagar por los recursos y equipos para alcanzar los niveles de carga más altos posibles)
- mejoras en la utilización y la eficiencia de los sistemas que a menudo se utilizan sólo en un 10-20%. [61] [62]
- El rendimiento es supervisado por expertos en TI del proveedor de servicios, y se construyen arquitecturas coherentes y poco acopladas utilizando servicios web como interfaz del sistema. [58] [63]
- La productividad puede aumentar cuando varios usuarios pueden trabajar con los mismos datos simultáneamente, en lugar de esperar a que se guarden y se envíen por correo electrónico. Se puede ahorrar tiempo ya que no es necesario volver a ingresar la información cuando los campos coinciden, ni los usuarios necesitan instalar actualizaciones de software de aplicación en su computadora. [64]
- La disponibilidad mejora con el uso de varios sitios redundantes, lo que hace que la computación en la nube bien diseñada sea adecuada para la continuidad del negocio y la recuperación ante desastres . [sesenta y cinco]
- Scalability and elasticity via dynamic ("on-demand") provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in near real-time[66][67] (Note, the VM startup time varies by VM type, location, OS and cloud providers[66]), without users having to engineer for peak loads.[68][69][70] This gives the ability to scale up when the usage need increases or down if resources are not being used.[71] Emerging approaches for managing elasticity include the use of machine learning techniques to propose efficient elasticity models.[72]
- Security can improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns can persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data, and the lack of security for stored kernels. Security is often as good as or better than other traditional systems, in part because service providers are able to devote resources to solving security issues that many customers cannot afford to tackle or which they lack the technical skills to address.[73] However, the complexity of security is greatly increased when data is distributed over a wider area or over a greater number of devices, as well as in multi-tenant systems shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. Private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology's definition of cloud computing identifies "five essential characteristics":
On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider.
Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).
Resource pooling. The provider's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand.
Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time.
Measured service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service.
— National Institute of Standards and Technology[74]
Modelos de servicio
Though service-oriented architecture advocates "Everything as a service" (with the acronyms EaaS or XaaS,[75] or simply aas), cloud-computing providers offer their "services" according to different models, of which the three standard models per NIST are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).[74] These models offer increasing abstraction; they are thus often portrayed as layers in a stack: infrastructure-, platform- and software-as-a-service, but these need not be related. For example, one can provide SaaS implemented on physical machines (bare metal), without using underlying PaaS or IaaS layers, and conversely one can run a program on IaaS and access it directly, without wrapping it as SaaS.
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
"Infrastructure as a service" (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high-level APIs used to abstract various low-level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup, etc. A hypervisor runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements. Linux containers run in isolated partitions of a single Linux kernel running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the underlying Linux kernel technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers. Containerisation offers higher performance than virtualization because there is no hypervisor overhead. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual-machine disk-image library, raw block storage, file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.[76]
The NIST's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls)."[74]
IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed.[citation needed]
Platform as a service (PaaS)
The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as:[74]
The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.
PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including operating system, programming-language execution environment, database, and web server. Application developers develop and run their software on a cloud platform instead of directly buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually.[77][need quotation to verify]
Some integration and data management providers also use specialized applications of PaaS as delivery models for data. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform as a Service). iPaaS enables customers to develop, execute and govern integration flows.[78] Under the iPaaS integration model, customers drive the development and deployment of integrations without installing or managing any hardware or middleware.[79] dPaaS delivers integration—and data-management—products as a fully managed service.[80] Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer, manages the development and execution of programs by building data applications for the customer. dPaaS users access data through data-visualization tools.[81]
Software as a service (SaaS)
The NIST's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as:[74]
The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.
In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases. Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on-demand software" and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis or using a subscription fee.[82] In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in their scalability—which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run-time to meet changing work demand.[83] Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access-point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that any machine may serve more than one cloud-user organization.
The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user,[84] so prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point. It may also be free.[85] Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users' data on the cloud provider's server. As a result,[citation needed] there could be unauthorized access to the data.[86] Examples of applications offered as SaaS are games and productivity software like Google Docs and Word Online. SaaS applications may be integrated with cloud storage or File hosting services, which is the case with Google Docs being integrated with Google Drive and Word Online being integrated with Onedrive.[citation needed]
Mobile "backend" as a service (MBaaS)
In the mobile "backend" as a service (m) model, also known as backend as a service (BaaS), web app and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their applications to cloud storage and cloud computing services with application programming interfaces (APIs) exposed to their applications and custom software development kits (SDKs). Services include user management, push notifications, integration with social networking services[87] and more. This is a relatively recent model in cloud computing,[88] with most BaaS startups dating from 2011 or later[89][90][91] but trends indicate that these services are gaining significant mainstream traction with enterprise consumers.[92]
Serverless computing
Serverless computing is a cloud computing code execution model in which the cloud provider fully manages starting and stopping virtual machines as necessary to serve requests, and requests are billed by an abstract measure of the resources required to satisfy the request, rather than per virtual machine, per hour.[93] Despite the name, it does not actually involve running code without servers.[93] Serverless computing is so named because the business or person that owns the system does not have to purchase, rent or provision servers or virtual machines for the back-end code to run on.
Function as a service (FaaS)
Function as a service (FaaS) is a service-hosted remote procedure call that leverages serverless computing to enable the deployment of individual functions in the cloud that run in response to events.[94] FaaS is included under the broader term serverless computing, but the terms may also be used interchangeably.[95]
Modelos de implementación
Private cloud
Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third party, and hosted either internally or externally.[74] Undertaking a private cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. It can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities. Self-run data centers[96] are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage them" and thus do not benefit from less hands-on management,[97] essentially "[lacking] the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept".[98][99]
Public cloud
Cloud services are considered "public" when they are delivered over the public Internet, and they may be offered as a paid subscription, or free of charge.[100] Architecturally, there are few differences between public- and private-cloud services, but security concerns increase substantially when services (applications, storage, and other resources) are shared by multiple customers. Most public-cloud providers offer direct-connection services that allow customers to securely link their legacy data centers to their cloud-resident applications.[58][101]
Several factors like the functionality of the solutions, cost, integrational and organizational aspects as well as safety & security are influencing the decision of enterprises and organizations to choose a public cloud or on-premise solution.[102]
Hybrid cloud
Hybrid cloud is a composition of a public cloud and a private environment, such as a private cloud or on-premises resources,[103][104] that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed and/or dedicated services with cloud resources.[74] Gartner defines a hybrid cloud service as a cloud computing service that is composed of some combination of private, public and community cloud services, from different service providers.[105] A hybrid cloud service crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that it can't be simply put in one category of private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another cloud service.
Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store sensitive client data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a business intelligence application provided on a public cloud as a software service.[106] This example of hybrid cloud extends the capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business service through the addition of externally available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption depends on a number of factors such as data security and compliance requirements, level of control needed over data, and the applications an organization uses.[107]
Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing resources to meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud.[108] This capability enables hybrid clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds.[74] Cloud bursting is an application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts" to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. A primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model is that an organization pays for extra compute resources only when they are needed.[109] Cloud bursting enables data centers to create an in-house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud resources from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands.[110] The specialized model of hybrid cloud, which is built atop heterogeneous hardware, is called "Cross-platform Hybrid Cloud". A cross-platform hybrid cloud is usually powered by different CPU architectures, for example, x86-64 and ARM, underneath. Users can transparently deploy and scale applications without knowledge of the cloud's hardware diversity.[111] This kind of cloud emerges from the rise of ARM-based system-on-chip for server-class computing.
Hybrid cloud infrastructure essentially serves to eliminate limitations inherent to the multi-access relay characteristics of private cloud networking. The advantages include enhanced runtime flexibility and adaptive memory processing unique to virtualized interface models.[112]
Others
Community cloud
Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether managed internally or by a third-party, and either hosted internally or externally. The costs are spread over fewer users than a public cloud (but more than a private cloud), so only some of the cost savings potential of cloud computing are realized.[74]
Distributed cloud
A cloud computing platform can be assembled from a distributed set of machines in different locations, connected to a single network or hub service. It is possible to distinguish between two types of distributed clouds: public-resource computing and volunteer cloud.
- Public-resource computing—This type of distributed cloud results from an expansive definition of cloud computing, because they are more akin to distributed computing than cloud computing. Nonetheless, it is considered a sub-class of cloud computing.
- Volunteer cloud—Volunteer cloud computing is characterized as the intersection of public-resource computing and cloud computing, where a cloud computing infrastructure is built using volunteered resources. Many challenges arise from this type of infrastructure, because of the volatility of the resources used to build it and the dynamic environment it operates in. It can also be called peer-to-peer clouds, or ad-hoc clouds. An interesting effort in such direction is Cloud@Home, it aims to implement a cloud computing infrastructure using volunteered resources providing a business-model to incentivize contributions through financial restitution.[113]
Multi cloud
Multi cloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services in a single heterogeneous architecture to reduce reliance on single vendors, increase flexibility through choice, mitigate against disasters, etc. It differs from hybrid cloud in that it refers to multiple cloud services, rather than multiple deployment modes (public, private, legacy).[114][115][116]
Poly cloud
Poly cloud refers to the use of multiple public clouds for the purpose of leveraging specific services that each provider offers. It differs from Multi cloud in that it is not designed to increase flexibility or mitigate against failures but is rather used to allow an organization to achieve more that could be done with a single provider.[117]
Big Data cloud
The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the data is in the cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data originates in the cloud and with the advent of bare-metal servers, the cloud has become[118] a solution for use cases including business analytics and geospatial analysis.[119]
HPC cloud
HPC cloud refers to the use of cloud computing services and infrastructure to execute high-performance computing (HPC) applications.[120] These applications consume considerable amount of computing power and memory and are traditionally executed on clusters of computers. In 2016 a handful of companies, including R-HPC, Amazon Web Services, Univa, Silicon Graphics International, Sabalcore, Gomput, and Penguin Computing offered a high performance computing cloud. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud was one of the first non-virtualized remote HPC services offered on a pay-as-you-go basis.[121][122] Penguin Computing launched its HPC cloud in 2016 as alternative to Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, which uses virtualized computing nodes.[123][124]
Arquitectura
Cloud architecture,[125] the systems architecture of the software systems involved in the delivery of cloud computing, typically involves multiple cloud components communicating with each other over a loose coupling mechanism such as a messaging queue. Elastic provision implies intelligence in the use of tight or loose coupling as applied to mechanisms such as these and others.
Cloud engineering
Cloud engineering is the application of engineering disciplines of cloud computing. It brings a systematic approach to the high-level concerns of commercialization, standardization and governance in conceiving, developing, operating and maintaining cloud computing systems. It is a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from diverse areas such as systems, software, web, performance, information technology engineering, security, platform, risk, and quality engineering.
Seguridad y privacidad
Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is in the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or delete information.[126] Many cloud providers can share information with third parties if necessary for purposes of law and order without a warrant. That is permitted in their privacy policies, which users must agree to before they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy include policy and legislation as well as end-users' choices for how data is stored.[126] Users can encrypt data that is processed or stored within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access.[127][126] Identity management systems can also provide practical solutions to privacy concerns in cloud computing. These systems distinguish between authorized and unauthorized users and determine the amount of data that is accessible to each entity.[128] The systems work by creating and describing identities, recording activities, and getting rid of unused identities.
According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure Interfaces and APIs, Data Loss & Leakage, and Hardware Failure—which accounted for 29%, 25% and 10% of all cloud security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider platform being shared by different users, there may be a possibility that information belonging to different customers resides on the same data server. Additionally, Eugene Schultz, chief technology officer at Emagined Security, said that hackers are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate the cloud. "There are some real Achilles' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the bad guys to get into". Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single attack—a process he called "hyperjacking". Some examples of this include the Dropbox security breach, and iCloud 2014 leak.[129] Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over 7 million of its users passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by Bitcoins (BTC). By having these passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have this data be indexed by search engines (making the information public).[129]
There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can the cloud provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question of ownership.[130] Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than having the equipment off-site and under someone else's control (public cloud). This delivers great incentive to public cloud computing service providers to prioritize building and maintaining strong management of secure services.[131] Some small businesses that don't have expertise in IT security could find that it's more secure for them to use a public cloud. There is the risk that end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a cloud service (persons sometimes don't read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just click "Accept" without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is becoming popular and required for some services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple's Siri or Google Now). Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for the owner, however public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money investment from the user.[132]
Limitaciones y desventajas
According to Bruce Schneier, "The downside is that you will have limited customization options. Cloud computing is cheaper because of economics of scale, and—like any outsourced task—you tend to get what you want. A restaurant with a limited menu is cheaper than a personal chef who can cook anything you want. Fewer options at a much cheaper price: it's a feature, not a bug." He also suggests that "the cloud provider might not meet your legal needs" and that businesses need to weigh the benefits of cloud computing against the risks.[133] In cloud computing, the control of the back end infrastructure is limited to the cloud vendor only. Cloud providers often decide on the management policies, which moderates what the cloud users are able to do with their deployment.[134] Cloud users are also limited to the control and management of their applications, data and services.[135] This includes data caps, which are placed on cloud users by the cloud vendor allocating a certain amount of bandwidth for each customer and are often shared among other cloud users.[135]
Privacy and confidentiality are big concerns in some activities. For instance, sworn translators working under the stipulations of an NDA, might face problems regarding sensitive data that are not encrypted.[136]
Cloud computing is beneficial to many enterprises; it lowers costs and allows them to focus on competence instead of on matters of IT and infrastructure. Nevertheless, cloud computing has proven to have some limitations and disadvantages, especially for smaller business operations, particularly regarding security and downtime. Technical outages are inevitable and occur sometimes when cloud service providers (CSPs) become overwhelmed in the process of serving their clients. This may result in temporary business suspension. Since this technology's systems rely on the Internet, an individual cannot access their applications, server, or data from the cloud during an outage.[137]
Tendencias emergentes
Cloud computing is still a subject of research.[138] A driving factor in the evolution of cloud computing has been chief technology officers seeking to minimize risk of internal outages and mitigate the complexity of housing network and computing hardware in-house.[139] They are also looking to share information to workers located in diverse areas in near and real-time, to enable teams to work seamlessly, no matter where they are located. Major cloud technology companies invest billions of dollars per year in cloud Research and Development. For example, in 2011 Microsoft committed 90 percent of its $9.6 billion R&D budget to its cloud.[140] Research by investment bank Centaur Partners in late 2015 forecasted that SaaS revenue would grow from $13.5 billion in 2011 to $32.8 billion in 2016.[141] Since the global pandemic of 2020, it is said that cloud technology jumped ahead in popularity due to the level of security of data and the flexibility of working options for all employees, notably remote workers. For example, Zoom grew over 160% in 2020 alone.[142]
In 2021, software as a service (SaaS) still will be the largest market segment for end-user cloud IT spending – it’s expected to grow approximately 16 percent to $117.8 billion – application infrastructure services (PaaS) is expected to grow at a higher 26.6 percent rate to about $55.5 billion, according to Gartner.[143]
Análisis forense digital en la nube
The issue of carrying out investigations where the cloud storage devices cannot be physically accessed has generated a number of changes to the way that digital evidence is located and collected.[144] New process models have been developed to formalize collection.[145]
In some scenarios existing digital forensics tools can be employed to access cloud storage as networked drives (although this is a slow process generating a large amount of internet traffic).[citation needed]
An alternative approach is to deploy a tool that processes in the cloud itself.[146]
For organizations using Office 365 with an 'E5' subscription, there is the option to use Microsoft's built-in ediscovery resources, although these do not provide all the functionality that is typically required for a forensic process.[147]
Ver también
- Block-level storage
- Category:Cloud computing providers
- Category:Cloud platforms
- Communication protocol
- Communications system
- Cloud collaboration
- Cloud computing security
- Cloud computing comparison
- Cloud management
- Cloud research
- Cloud robotics
- Cloud storage
- Cloudlet
- Computer cluster
- Cooperative storage cloud
- Dew computing
- Data cluster
- Directory
- Distributed data store
- Distributed database
- Distributed computing
- Distributed networking
- Decentralized computing
- Edge computing
- Edge device
- eScience
- File system
- Clustered file system
- Distributed file system
- Distributed file system for cloud
- Fog computing
- Fog robotics
- Grid computing
- In-memory database
- In-memory processing
- Internet of things
- Microservices
- Mobile cloud computing
- Mobile edge computing
- Peer-to-peer
- Personal cloud
- Robot as a service
- Service-oriented architecture
- Time-sharing
- Ubiquitous computing
- Web computing
Referencias
- ^ "An Introduction to Dew Computing: Definition, Concept and Implications - IEEE Journals & Magazine". doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2775042. S2CID 3324933. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ Montazerolghaem, Ahmadreza; Yaghmaee, Mohammad Hossein; Leon-Garcia, Alberto (September 2020). "Green Cloud Multimedia Networking: NFV/SDN Based Energy-Efficient Resource Allocation". IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking. 4 (3): 873–889. doi:10.1109/TGCN.2020.2982821. ISSN 2473-2400. S2CID 216188024.
- ^ The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing NIST
- ^ Wang (2012). "Enterprise cloud service architectures". Information Technology and Management. 13 (4): 445–454. doi:10.1007/s10799-012-0139-4. S2CID 8251298.
- ^ a b "What is Cloud Computing?". Amazon Web Services. 2013-03-19. Retrieved 2013-03-20.
- ^ Baburajan, Rajani (2011-08-24). "The Rising Cloud Storage Market Opportunity Strengthens Vendors". It.tmcnet.com. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
- ^ Oestreich, Ken (2010-11-15). "Converged Infrastructure". CTO Forum. Thectoforum.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
- ^ Ted Simpson, Jason Novak, Hands on Virtual Computing, 2017, ISBN 1337515744, p. 451
- ^ "Where's The Rub: Cloud Computing's Hidden Costs". 2014-02-27. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
- ^ "Cloud Computing: Clash of the clouds". The Economist. 2009-10-15. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
- ^ "Gartner Says Cloud Computing Will Be As Influential As E-business". Gartner. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ Gruman, Galen (2008-04-07). "What cloud computing really means". InfoWorld. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
- ^ a b Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. "Microsoft developer reveals Linux is now more used on Azure than Windows Server". ZDNet. Retrieved 2019-07-02.
- ^ a b "Announcing Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2) – beta". 24 August 2006. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
- ^ Antonio Regalado (31 October 2011). "Who Coined 'Cloud Computing'?". Technology Review. MIT. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ^ "Internet History of 1970s | Internet History | Computer History Museum". www.computerhistory.org.
- ^ "National Science Foundation, "Diagram of CSNET," 1981".
- ^ "What Is Cloud Computing?". PCMAG. Retrieved 2020-02-24.
- ^ AT&T (1993). "What Is The Cloud?". Retrieved 2017-10-26.
You can think of our electronic meeting place as the Cloud. PersonaLink was built from the ground up to give handheld communicators and other devices easy access to a variety of services. [...] Telescript is the revolutionary software technology that makes intelligent assistance possible. Invented by General Magic, AT&T is the first company to harness Telescript, and bring its benefits to people everywhere. [...] Very shortly, anyone with a computer, a personal communicator, or television will be able to use intelligent assistance in the Cloud. And our new meeting place is open, so that anyone, whether individual, entrepreneur, or a multinational company, will be able to offer information, goods, and services.
- ^ Steven Levy (April 1994). "Bill and Andy's Excellent Adventure II". Wired.
- ^ White, J.E. "Network Specifications for Remote Job Entry and Remote Job Output Retrieval at UCSB". tools.ietf.org. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
- ^ "July, 1993 meeting report from the IP over ATM working group of the IETF". CH: Switch. Archived from the original on 2012-07-10. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ Corbató, Fernando J. "An Experimental Time-Sharing System". SJCC Proceedings. MIT. Archived from the original on 6 September 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
- ^ Levy, Steven (April 1994). "Bill and Andy's Excellent Adventure II". Wired.
- ^ Levy, Steven (2014-05-23). "Tech Time Warp of the Week: Watch AT&T Invent Cloud Computing in 1994". Wired.
AT&T and the film's director, David Hoffman, pulled out the cloud metaphor–something that had long been used among networking and telecom types. [...]
"You can think of our electronic meeting place as the cloud," says the film's narrator, [...]
David Hoffman, the man who directed the film and shaped all that cloud imagery, was a General Magic employee. - ^ Qian, Ling; Lou, Zhigou; Du, Yujian; Gou, Leitao. "Cloud Computing: An Overview". researchgate.net. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
- ^ "Introducing Google App Engine + our new blog". Google Developer Blog. 2008-04-07. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
- ^ "App Engine". cloud.google.com. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
- ^ "Nebula Cloud Computing Platform: NASA". Open Government at NASA. 2012-11-20. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
- ^ Rochwerger, B.; Breitgand, D.; Levy, E.; Galis, A.; Nagin, K.; Llorente, I. M.; Montero, R.; Wolfsthal, Y.; Elmroth, E.; Caceres, J.; Ben-Yehuda, M.; Emmerich, W.; Galan, F. (2009). "The Reservoir model and architecture for open federated cloud computing". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 53 (4): 4:1–4:11. doi:10.1147/JRD.2009.5429058.
- ^ Keep an eye on cloud computing, Amy Schurr, Network World, 2008-07-08, citing the Gartner report, "Cloud Computing Confusion Leads to Opportunity". Retrieved 2009-09-11.
- ^ Gartner (2008-08-18). "Gartner Says Worldwide IT Spending on Pace to Surpass Trillion in 2008".
- ^ "Cluster Exploratory (CluE) nsf08560". www.nsf.gov.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20111023154428/https://www.lemondeinformatique.fr/actualites/lire-285-millions-d-euros-pour-andromede-le-cloud-souverain-francais-41990.html
- ^ Hicks, Jacqueline. "'Digital colonialism': why some countries want to take control of their people's data from Big Tech". The Conversation.
- ^ "Orange enterre Cloudwatt, qui fermera ses portes le 31 janvier 2020". www.nextinpact.com. August 30, 2019.
- ^ https://www.rudebaguette.com/2019/08/cloudwatt-orange-cloud-souverain-fin/
- ^ "Windows Azure General Availability". The Official Microsoft Blog. Microsoft. 2010-02-01. Archived from the original on 2014-05-11. Retrieved 2015-05-03.
- ^ Milita Datta (August 9, 2016). "Apache CloudStack vs. OpenStack: Which Is the Best?". DZone · Cloud Zone.
- ^ "OpenNebula vs OpenStack". SoftwareInsider.[dead link]
- ^ Kostantos, Konstantinos, et al. "OPEN-source IaaS fit for purpose: a comparison between OpenNebula and OpenStack." International Journal of Electronic Business Management 11.3 (2013)
- ^ L. Albertson, "OpenStack vs. Ganeti", LinuxFest Northwest 2017
- ^ Qevani, Elton, et al. "What can OpenStack adopt from a Ganeti-based open-source IaaS?." Cloud Computing (CLOUD), 2014 IEEE 7th International Conference on. IEEE, 2014
- ^ Von Laszewski, Gregor, et al. "Comparison of multiple cloud frameworks.", IEEE 5th International Conference on Cloud Computing (CLOUD), 2012.
- ^ Diaz, Javier et al. " Abstract Image Management and Universal Image Registration for Cloud and HPC Infrastructures ", IEEE 5th International Conference on Cloud Computing (CLOUD), 2012
- ^ "Launch of IBM Smarter Computing". Archived from the original on 20 April 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
- ^ "Launch of Oracle Cloud". Retrieved 28 February 2014.
- ^ "Oracle Cloud, Enterprise-Grade Cloud Solutions: SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS". Retrieved 12 October 2014.
- ^ "Larry Ellison Doesn't Get the Cloud: The Dumbest Idea of 2013". Forbes.com. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
- ^ "Oracle Disrupts Cloud Industry with End-to-End Approach". Forbes.com. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
- ^ "Google Compute Engine is now Generally Available with expanded OS support, transparent maintenance, and lower prices". Google Developers Blog. 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2017-03-07.
- ^ "Announcing General Availability of AWS Outposts". Amazon Web Services, Inc.
- ^ a b c HAMDAQA, Mohammad (2012). Cloud Computing Uncovered: A Research Landscape (PDF). Elsevier Press. pp. 41–85. ISBN 978-0-12-396535-6.
- ^ "Distributed Application Architecture" (PDF). Sun Microsystem. Retrieved 2009-06-16.
- ^ Vaquero, Luis M.; Rodero-Merino, Luis; Caceres, Juan; Lindner, Maik (December 2008). "It's probable that you've misunderstood 'Cloud Computing' until now". Sigcomm Comput. Commun. Rev. TechPluto. 39 (1): 50–55. doi:10.1145/1496091.1496100. S2CID 207171174.
- ^ Danielson, Krissi (2008-03-26). "Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing". Ebizq.net. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "Recession Is Good For Cloud Computing – Microsoft Agrees". CloudAve. 2009-02-12. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ a b c d "Defining 'Cloud Services' and "Cloud Computing"". IDC. 2008-09-23. Archived from the original on 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "State of the Art | e-FISCAL project". www.efiscal.eu.
- ^ Farber, Dan (2008-06-25). "The new geek chic: Data centers". CNET News. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "Jeff Bezos' Risky Bet". Business Week.
- ^ He, Sijin; Guo, L.; Guo, Y.; Ghanem, M. (June 2012). Improving Resource Utilisation in the Cloud Environment Using Multivariate Probabilistic Models. 2012 2012 IEEE 5th International Conference on Cloud Computing (CLOUD). pp. 574–581. doi:10.1109/CLOUD.2012.66. ISBN 978-1-4673-2892-0. S2CID 15374752.
- ^ He, Qiang, et al. "Formulating Cost-Effective Monitoring Strategies for Service-based Systems." (2013): 1–1.
- ^ Heather Smith (23 May 2013). Xero For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 37–. ISBN 978-1-118-57252-8.
- ^ King, Rachael (2008-08-04). "Cloud Computing: Small Companies Take Flight". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ a b Mao, Ming; M. Humphrey (2012). A Performance Study on the VM Startup Time in the Cloud. Proceedings of 2012 IEEE 5th International Conference on Cloud Computing (Cloud2012). p. 423. doi:10.1109/CLOUD.2012.103. ISBN 978-1-4673-2892-0. S2CID 1285357.
- ^ Bruneo, Dario; Distefano, Salvatore; Longo, Francesco; Puliafito, Antonio; Scarpa, Marco (2013). "Workload-Based Software Rejuvenation in Cloud Systems". IEEE Transactions on Computers. 62 (6): 1072–1085. doi:10.1109/TC.2013.30. S2CID 23981532.
- ^ Kuperberg, Michael; Herbst, Nikolas; Kistowski, Joakim Von; Reussner, Ralf (2011). "Defining and Measuring Cloud Elasticity". KIT Software Quality Departement. doi:10.5445/IR/1000023476. Retrieved 13 August 2011. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ "Economies of Cloud Scale Infrastructure". Cloud Slam 2011. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ He, Sijin; L. Guo; Y. Guo; C. Wu; M. Ghanem; R. Han (March 2012). Elastic Application Container: A Lightweight Approach for Cloud Resource Provisioning. 2012 IEEE 26th International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA). pp. 15–22. doi:10.1109/AINA.2012.74. ISBN 978-1-4673-0714-7. S2CID 4863927.
- ^ Marston, Sean; Li, Zhi; Bandyopadhyay, Subhajyoti; Zhang, Juheng; Ghalsasi, Anand (2011-04-01). "Cloud computing – The business perspective". Decision Support Systems. 51 (1): 176–189. doi:10.1016/j.dss.2010.12.006.
- ^ Nouri, Seyed; Han, Li; Srikumar, Venugopal; Wenxia, Guo; MingYun, He; Wenhong, Tian (2019). "Autonomic decentralized elasticity based on a reinforcement learning controller for cloud applications". Future Generation Computer Systems. 94: 765–780. doi:10.1016/j.future.2018.11.049.
- ^ Mills, Elinor (2009-01-27). "Cloud computing security forecast: Clear skies". CNET News. Retrieved 2019-09-19.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Peter Mell; Timothy Grance (September 2011). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing (Technical report). National Institute of Standards and Technology: U.S. Department of Commerce. doi:10.6028/NIST.SP.800-145. Special publication 800-145.
- ^ Duan, Yucong; Fu, Guohua; Zhou, Nianjun; Sun, Xiaobing; Narendra, Nanjangud; Hu, Bo (2015). "Everything as a Service (XaaS) on the Cloud: Origins, Current and Future Trends". 2015 IEEE 8th International Conference on Cloud Computing. IEEE. pp. 621–628. doi:10.1109/CLOUD.2015.88. ISBN 978-1-4673-7287-9. S2CID 8201466.
- ^ Amies, Alex; Sluiman, Harm; Tong, Qiang Guo; Liu, Guo Ning (July 2012). "Infrastructure as a Service Cloud Concepts". Developing and Hosting Applications on the Cloud. IBM Press. ISBN 978-0-13-306684-5.
- ^ Boniface, M.; et al. (2010). Platform-as-a-Service Architecture for Real-Time Quality of Service Management in Clouds. 5th International Conference on Internet and Web Applications and Services (ICIW). Barcelona, Spain: IEEE. pp. 155–160. doi:10.1109/ICIW.2010.91.
- ^ "Integration Platform as a Service (iPaaS)". Gartner IT Glossary. Gartner.
- ^ Gartner; Massimo Pezzini; Paolo Malinverno; Eric Thoo. "Gartner Reference Model for Integration PaaS". Retrieved 16 January 2013.
- ^ Loraine Lawson. "IT Business Edge". Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ Enterprise CIO Forum; Gabriel Lowy. "The Value of Data Platform-as-a-Service (dPaaS)". Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^ "Definition of: SaaS". PC Magazine Encyclopedia. Ziff Davis. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ^ Hamdaqa, Mohammad. A Reference Model for Developing Cloud Applications (PDF).
- ^ Chou, Timothy. Introduction to Cloud Computing: Business & Technology.
- ^ "HVD: the cloud's silver lining" (PDF). Intrinsic Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
- ^ Sun, Yunchuan; Zhang, Junsheng; Xiong, Yongping; Zhu, Guangyu (2014-07-01). "Data Security and Privacy in Cloud Computing". International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. 10 (7): 190903. doi:10.1155/2014/190903. ISSN 1550-1477. S2CID 13213544.
- ^ Carney, Michael (2013-06-24). "AnyPresence partners with Heroku to beef up its enterprise mBaaS offering". PandoDaily. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
- ^ Alex Williams (11 October 2012). "Kii Cloud Opens Doors For Mobile Developer Platform With 25 Million End Users". TechCrunch. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ Aaron Tan (30 September 2012). "FatFractal ups the ante in backend-as-a-service market". Techgoondu.com. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
- ^ Dan Rowinski (9 November 2011). "Mobile Backend As A Service Parse Raises $5.5 Million in Series A Funding". ReadWrite. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
- ^ Pankaj Mishra (7 January 2014). "MobStac Raises $2 Million in Series B To Help Brands Leverage Mobile Commerce". TechCrunch. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
- ^ "built.io Is Building an Enterprise MBaas Platform for IoT". programmableweb. 2014-03-03. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
- ^ a b Miller, Ron (24 Nov 2015). "AWS Lambda Makes Serverless Applications A Reality". TechCrunch. Retrieved 10 July 2016.
- ^ "bliki: Serverless". martinfowler.com. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
- ^ Sbarski, Peter (2017-05-04). Serverless Architectures on AWS: With examples using AWS Lambda (1st ed.). Manning Publications. ISBN 9781617293825.
- ^ "Self-Run Private Cloud Computing Solution – GovConnection". govconnection.com. 2014. Retrieved April 15, 2014.
- ^ "Private Clouds Take Shape – Services – Business services – Informationweek". 2012-09-09. Archived from the original on 2012-09-09.
- ^ Haff, Gordon (2009-01-27). "Just don't call them private clouds". CNET News. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "There's No Such Thing As A Private Cloud – Cloud-computing -". 2013-01-26. Archived from the original on 2013-01-26.
- ^ Rouse, Margaret. "What is public cloud?". Definition from Whatis.com. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
- ^ "FastConnect | Oracle Cloud Infrastructure". cloud.oracle.com. Retrieved 2017-11-15.
- ^ Schmidt, Rainer; Möhring, Michael; Keller, Barbara (2017). "Customer Relationship Management in a Public Cloud environment - Key influencing factors for European enterprises". HICSS. Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (2017). doi:10.24251/HICSS.2017.513. hdl:10125/41673. ISBN 9780998133102.
- ^ "What is hybrid cloud? - Definition from WhatIs.com". SearchCloudComputing. Retrieved 2019-08-10.
- ^ Butler, Brandon (2017-10-17). "What is hybrid cloud computing? The benefits of mixing private and public cloud services". Network World. Retrieved 2019-08-11.
- ^ "Mind the Gap: Here Comes Hybrid Cloud – Thomas Bittman". Thomas Bittman. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
- ^ "Business Intelligence Takes to Cloud for Small Businesses". CIO.com. 2014-06-04. Retrieved 2014-06-04.
- ^ Désiré Athow. "Hybrid cloud: is it right for your business?". TechRadar. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
- ^ Metzler, Jim; Taylor, Steve. (2010-08-23) "Cloud computing: Reality vs. fiction", Network World.
- ^ Rouse, Margaret. "Definition: Cloudbursting", May 2011. SearchCloudComputing.com.
- ^ "How Cloudbursting "Rightsizes" the Data Center". 2012-06-22.
- ^ Kaewkasi, Chanwit (3 May 2015). "Cross-Platform Hybrid Cloud with Docker".
- ^ Qiang, Li (2009). "Adaptive management of virtualized resources in cloud computing using feedback control". First International Conference on Information Science and Engineering.
- ^ Cunsolo, Vincenzo D.; Distefano, Salvatore; Puliafito, Antonio; Scarpa, Marco (2009). "Volunteer Computing and Desktop Cloud: The Cloud@Home Paradigm". 2009 Eighth IEEE International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications. pp. 134–139. doi:10.1109/NCA.2009.41. S2CID 15848602.
- ^ Rouse, Margaret. "What is a multi-cloud strategy". SearchCloudApplications. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
- ^ King, Rachel. "Pivotal's head of products: We're moving to a multi-cloud world". ZDnet. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
- ^ Multcloud manage multiple cloud accounts. Retrieved on 06 August 2014
- ^ Gall, Richard (2018-05-16). "Polycloud: a better alternative to cloud agnosticism". Packt Hub. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
- ^ Roh, Lucas (31 August 2016). "Is the Cloud Finally Ready for Big Data?". dataconomy.com. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
- ^ Yang, C.; Huang, Q.; Li, Z.; Liu, K.; Hu, F. (2017). "Big Data and cloud computing: innovation opportunities and challenges". International Journal of Digital Earth. 10 (1): 13–53. Bibcode:2017IJDE...10...13Y. doi:10.1080/17538947.2016.1239771. S2CID 8053067.
- ^ Netto, M.; Calheiros, R.; Rodrigues, E.; Cunha, R.; Buyya, R. (2018). "HPC Cloud for Scientific and Business Applications: Taxonomy, Vision, and Research Challenges". ACM Computing Surveys. 51 (1): 8:1–8:29. arXiv:1710.08731. doi:10.1145/3150224. S2CID 3604131.
- ^ Eadline, Douglas. "Moving HPC to the Cloud". Admin Magazine. Admin Magazine. Retrieved 30 March 2019.
- ^ "Penguin Computing On Demand (POD)". Retrieved 23 January 2018.
- ^ Niccolai, James (11 August 2009). "Penguin Puts High-performance Computing in the Cloud". PCWorld. IDG Consumer & SMB. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
- ^ "HPC in AWS". Retrieved 23 January 2018.
- ^ "Building GrepTheWeb in the Cloud, Part 1: Cloud Architectures". Developer.amazonwebservices.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ a b c Ryan, Mark D. "Cloud Computing Privacy Concerns on Our Doorstep". cacm.acm.org.
- ^ Haghighat, Mohammad; Zonouz, Saman; Abdel-Mottaleb, Mohamed (2015). "CloudID: Trustworthy cloud-based and cross-enterprise biometric identification". Expert Systems with Applications. 42 (21): 7905–7916. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2015.06.025.
- ^ Indu, I.; Anand, P.M. Rubesh; Bhaskar, Vidhyacharan (August 1, 2018). "Identity and access management in cloud environment: Mechanisms and challenges". Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal. 21 (4): 574–588. doi:10.1016/j.jestch.2018.05.010 – via www.sciencedirect.com.
- ^ a b "Google Drive, Dropbox, Box and iCloud Reach the Top 5 Cloud Storage Security Breaches List". psg.hitachi-solutions.com. Archived from the original on 2015-11-23. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
- ^ Maltais, Michelle (26 April 2012). "Who owns your stuff in the cloud?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2012-12-14.
- ^ "Security of virtualization, cloud computing divides IT and security pros". Network World. 2010-02-22. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
- ^ "The Bumpy Road to Private Clouds". 2010-12-20. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
- ^ "Should Companies Do Most of Their Computing in the Cloud? (Part 1) – Schneier on Security". www.schneier.com. Retrieved 2016-02-28.
- ^ "Disadvantages of Cloud Computing (Part 1) – Limited control and flexibility". www.cloudacademy.com. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
- ^ a b "The real limits of cloud computing". www.itworld.com. 2012-05-14. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
- ^ Karra, Maria. "Cloud solutions for translation, yes or no?". IAPTI.org. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
- ^ Seltzer, Larry. "Your infrastructure's in the cloud and the Internet goes down. Now, what?". ZDNet. Retrieved 2020-06-01.
- ^ Smith, David Mitchell. "Hype Cycle for Cloud Computing, 2013". Gartner. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
- ^ "The evolution of Cloud Computing". Archived from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
- ^ "Microsoft Says to Spend 90% of R&D on Cloud Strategy". Archived from the original on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
- ^ "Roundup of Cloud Computing Forecasts And Market Estimates, 2014". Forbes. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
- ^ "Remote work helps Zoom grow 169% in one year, posting $328.2M in Q1 revenue". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2021-04-27.
- ^ "Gartner Forecasts Worldwide Public Cloud End-User Spending to Grow 18% in 2021" Gartner, November 17, 2020.
- ^ Ruan, Keyun; Carthy, Joe; Kechadi, Tahar; Crosbie, Mark (2011-01-01). Cloud forensics: An overview.
- ^ R., Adams (2013). The emergence of cloud storage and the need for a new digital forensic process model. researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au. ISBN 9781466626621. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
- ^ Richard, Adams; Graham, Mann; Valerie, Hobbs (2017). "ISEEK, a tool for high speed, concurrent, distributed forensic data acquisition". Research Online. doi:10.4225/75/5a838d3b1d27f.
- ^ "Office 365 Advanced eDiscovery". Retrieved 2018-03-18.
Otras lecturas
- Millard, Christopher (2013). Cloud Computing Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967168-7.
- Singh, Jatinder; Powles, Julia; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean (July 2015). "Data Flow Management and Compliance in Cloud Computing". IEEE Cloud Computing. 2 (4): 24–32. doi:10.1109/MCC.2015.69. S2CID 9812531.
- Armbrust, Michael; Stoica, Ion; Zaharia, Matei; Fox, Armando; Griffith, Rean; Joseph, Anthony D.; Katz, Randy; Konwinski, Andy; Lee, Gunho; Patterson, David; Rabkin, Ariel (1 April 2010). "A view of cloud computing". Communications of the ACM. 53 (4): 50. doi:10.1145/1721654.1721672. S2CID 1673644.
- Hu, Tung-Hui (2015). A Prehistory of the Cloud. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02951-3.
- Mell, P. (2011, September 31). The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing. Retrieved November 1, 2015, from National Institute of Standards and Technology website
enlaces externos
- Media related to Cloud computing at Wikimedia Commons