El National Geodetic Survey ( NGS ), anteriormente el United States Survey of the Coast (1807–1836), el United States Coast Survey (1836–1878) y el United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( USC & GS ) (1878–1970), es un Agencia federal de los Estados Unidos que define y administra un sistema de coordenadas nacional, proporcionando la base para el transporte y la comunicación; cartografía y cartografía; y un gran número de aplicaciones de la ciencia y la ingeniería. Desde su fundación en su forma actual en 1970, ha sido parte de la Administración Nacional Oceánica y Atmosférica (NOAA), del Departamento de Comercio de los Estados Unidos..
Servicio Geodésico Nacional ' historia y el patrimonio s se entrelazan con las de otras oficinas de la NOAA. Como US Coast Survey y US Coast and Geodetic Survey, la agencia operaba una flota de barcos de reconocimiento , y desde 1917 el Coast and Geodetic Survey fue uno de los servicios uniformados de los Estados Unidos con su propio cuerpo de oficiales comisionados . Tras la creación de la Administración de Servicios de Ciencias Ambientales (ESSA) en 1965, el cuerpo comisionado se separó de la Encuesta para convertirse en el Cuerpo de Administración de Servicios de Ciencias Ambientales (o "Cuerpo de ESSA"). Tras la creación de NOAA en 1970, el Cuerpo de ESSA se convirtió en el Cuerpo de Oficiales Comisionados de la Administración Nacional Oceánica y Atmosférica (o "Cuerpo de NOAA"); la operación de los barcos fue transferida a la nueva flota de la NOAA ; las responsabilidades geodésicas se asignaron a la nueva Encuesta Geodésica Nacional; y los deberes del levantamiento hidrográfico estuvieron bajo el conocimiento de la nueva Oficina de levantamientos costeros de la NOAA. Por lo tanto, las organizaciones ancestrales del National Geodetic Survey son también los ancestros del Cuerpo de NOAA y la Oficina de Estudios Costeros de hoy y se encuentran entre los ancestros de la flota de NOAA actual. Además, el Instituto Nacional de Estándares y Tecnología de hoy , aunque hace mucho que se separó de la Encuesta, comenzó como la Oficina de Pesas y Medidas de la Encuesta.
Objeto y función
El National Geodetic Survey es una oficina del National Ocean Service de la NOAA . Su función principal es mantener el Sistema Nacional de Referencia Espacial (NSRS), "un sistema de coordenadas consistente que define latitud, longitud, altura, escala, gravedad y orientación en todo Estados Unidos". [1] NGS es responsable de definir el NSRS y su relación con el Marco de Referencia Terrestre Internacional (ITRF). El NSRS permite un conocimiento preciso y accesible de dónde están las cosas en los Estados Unidos y sus territorios.
El NSRS puede dividirse en sus componentes físicos y geométricos. El datum geodésico oficial de los Estados Unidos, NAD83 define la relación geométrica entre puntos dentro de los Estados Unidos en el espacio tridimensional. Se puede acceder al dato a través de la red de marcas topográficas de NGS oa través de la red de estaciones de referencia de funcionamiento continuo (CORS) de antenas de referencia de GPS . NGS es responsable de calcular la relación entre NAD83 y el ITRF. Los componentes físicos del NSRS se reflejan en su sistema de alturas, definido por el datum vertical NAVD88 . Este dato es una red de alturas ortométricas obtenidas mediante nivelación de burbuja . Debido a la estrecha relación entre la altura y el campo de gravedad de la Tierra, NGS también recopila y selecciona medidas de gravedad terrestre y desarrolla modelos regionales del geoide (la superficie nivelada que mejor se aproxima al nivel del mar) y su pendiente, la desviación de la vertical . NGS es responsable de garantizar la precisión de la NSRS a lo largo del tiempo, incluso cuando la placa de América del Norte gira y se deforma con el tiempo debido a la tensión de la corteza, el rebote post-glacial , el hundimiento , la deformación elástica de la corteza y otros fenómenos geofísicos.
NGS lanzará nuevos datums en 2022. [2] El Marco de Referencia Terrestre de América del Norte de 2022 (NATRF2022) reemplazará a NAD83 en la definición de la relación geométrica entre la placa de América del Norte y el ITRF. [3] Los territorios de los Estados Unidos en las placas del Pacífico, el Caribe y Mariana tendrán sus propios datums geodésicos respectivos. El dato geopotencial de América del Norte y el Pacífico de 2022 (NAPGD2022) definirá por separado el sistema de altura de los Estados Unidos y sus territorios, reemplazando a NAVD88. [3] Utilizará un modelo geoide con una precisión de 1 centímetro (0,4 ") para relacionar la altura ortométrica con la altura elipsoidal medida por GPS, eliminando la necesidad de futuros proyectos de nivelación. Este modelo geoide se basará en mediciones de gravedad terrestre y aérea recopiladas por El programa GRAV-D de NGS, así como los modelos de gravedad basados en satélites derivados de observaciones recopiladas por GRACE , GOCE y misiones de altimetría satelital . [4]
NGS proporciona una serie de otros servicios públicos. [5] Traza mapas de costas cambiantes en los Estados Unidos y proporciona imágenes aéreas de regiones afectadas por desastres naturales, lo que permite una rápida evaluación de daños por parte de administradores de emergencias y miembros del público. El Servicio de Posicionamiento y Usuario en Línea (OPUS) procesa los datos GPS ingresados por el usuario y genera soluciones de posición dentro del NSRS. La agencia ofrece otras herramientas para la conversión entre datums.
Historia
Primeros años
La agencia predecesora original del National Geodetic Survey fue el United States Survey of the Coast , creado dentro del Departamento del Tesoro de los Estados Unidos por una ley del Congreso el 10 de febrero de 1807, para realizar un "Survey of the Coast". [6] [7] La Encuesta de la Costa, el gobierno de los Estados Unidos ' es la primera agencia científica, [7] representa el interés de la administración del presidente Thomas Jefferson en la ciencia y la estimulación del comercio internacional mediante el uso científico de topografía métodos a la carta las aguas de los Estados Unidos y hacerlas seguras para la navegación. Un inmigrante suizo con experiencia tanto en topografía como en estandarización de pesos y medidas , Ferdinand R. Hassler , fue seleccionado para liderar la encuesta. [8]
Hassler presentó un plan para el trabajo de levantamiento que involucra el uso de triangulación para asegurar la precisión científica de los levantamientos, pero las relaciones internacionales impidieron que el nuevo Relevamiento de la Costa comenzara su trabajo; la Ley de Embargo de 1807 trajo el comercio exterior estadounidense prácticamente se detuvo sólo un mes después Hassler ' cita s y se mantuvo en vigor hasta Jefferson dejó el cargo en marzo de 1809. No fue hasta 1811 que Jefferson ' sucesor s, el presidente James Madison , envió Hassler a Europa para adquirir los instrumentos necesarios para realizar la encuesta planificada, así como pesos y medidas estandarizados. Hassler partió el 29 de agosto de 1811, pero ocho meses después, mientras se encontraba en Inglaterra , estalló la Guerra de 1812 , lo que lo obligó a permanecer en Europa hasta su conclusión en 1815. Hassler no regresó a los Estados Unidos hasta el 16 de agosto. 1815. [8]
The Survey finalmente comenzó a realizar operaciones topográficas en 1816, cuando Hassler comenzó a trabajar en las cercanías de la ciudad de Nueva York . La primera línea de base se midió y verificó en 1817. Sin embargo, Hassler se sorprendió cuando el Congreso de los Estados Unidos , frustrado por el progreso lento y limitado que había hecho la Encuesta en su primera década, no estaba dispuesto a soportar el tiempo y los gastos que implicaba una investigación científicamente precisa. agrimensor, no convencido de la conveniencia de gastar fondos del gobierno de los EE. UU. en esfuerzos científicos, e incómodo con Hassler liderando el esfuerzo debido a su nacimiento en el extranjero, promulgó una legislación en 1818 que lo retiró del liderazgo de la Encuesta y suspendió sus operaciones. El Congreso creía que los oficiales del Ejército de los Estados Unidos y la Armada de los Estados Unidos podían lograr resultados topográficos adecuados para una navegación segura durante sus actividades de navegación y cartografía de rutina y podían hacerlo de manera más rápida y económica que Hassler, y otorgó al Ejército de los Estados Unidos y a la Marina de los Estados Unidos la responsabilidad de los reconocimientos costeros. . Bajo esta ley, que prohibía al gobierno de los Estados Unidos contratar civiles para realizar reconocimientos costeros, el Survey of the Coast existió sin un superintendente y sin realizar ningún reconocimiento durante los 14 años desde 1818 a 1832. [8]
Se reanuda el trabajo
El 10 de julio de 1832, el Congreso aprobó una nueva ley que renovó la ley original de 1807, colocando la responsabilidad de la topografía costera nuevamente en el Survey of the Coast y permitiendo la contratación de civiles para llevarla a cabo. Hassler fue designado nuevamente como la Encuesta ' superintendente s ese año. La administración del presidente Andrew Jackson amplió y extendió la Encuesta de la Costa ' alcance y la organización s. [9] : 468 The Survey of the Coast reanudó el trabajo de campo en abril de 1833.
En julio de 1833, Edmund E. Blunt, hijo del hidrógrafo Edmund B. Blunt , aceptó un puesto en el Survey. El anciano Blunt había comenzado la publicación del American Coast Pilot , el primer libro de direcciones de navegación, cartas y otra información para navegantes en aguas de América del Norte que se publicó en América del Norte , en 1796. Aunque el Estudio se basó en artículos que publicó en periódicos para proporcionar información a los navegantes en las próximas décadas, Blunt ' empleo s con la Encuesta comenzó una relación entre la americana Costa piloto y la encuesta en la que la encuesta ' hallazgos s se incorporaron a la americana Costa piloto y la Encuesta ' s cartas eran vendido por la familia Blunt, que se convirtió en aliados acérrimos de Survey en sus disputas con sus críticos. Con el tiempo, la relación entre la encuesta y las Blunt daría lugar a la creación de la encuesta ' s Estados Unidos Costa Piloto publicaciones en la última parte del siglo 19. [10]
El Departamento de la Marina de los Estados Unidos recibió el control de la Encuesta de la Costa de 1834 a 1836, pero el 26 de marzo de 1836, el Departamento del Tesoro reanudó la administración de la Encuesta, que pasó a llamarse Encuesta de la Costa de los Estados Unidos en 1836. [7] La Armada mantuvo una estrecha conexión con los esfuerzos hidrográficos del Coast Survey bajo la ley que requería que los barcos Survey fueran comandados y tripulados por oficiales y hombres de la Armada de los Estados Unidos cuando la Armada pudiera brindar tal apoyo. [11] Bajo este sistema, que persistió hasta que el Survey recibió la autoridad para tripular sus barcos en 1900, muchos de los nombres más famosos en hidrografía tanto para el Survey como para la Armada del período están vinculados, como oficiales de la Marina de los EE. UU. Y Coast Survey. los civiles sirvieron uno junto al otro a bordo del barco. Además, el Departamento de Guerra de los Estados Unidos proporcionó oficiales del Ejército de los EE. UU. Para el servicio de la Encuesta durante sus primeros años. Hassler creía que la experiencia en estudios costeros sería de importancia en guerras futuras y acogió con satisfacción la participación del personal del Ejército y la Armada, y su visión a este respecto sentó las bases para el cuerpo comisionado de oficiales que se crearía en el Estudio en 1917 como el antepasado de hoy ' s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Cuerpo Comisionado . [12]
Años de crecimiento
Durante el siglo XIX, el mandato de la Encuesta se definió de forma bastante flexible y no tenía competidores en la investigación científica financiada con fondos federales. Varios superintendentes desarrollaron su trabajo en campos tan diversos como astronomía , cartografía , meteorología , geodesia , geología , geofísica , hidrografía , navegación , oceanografía , exploración , pilotaje , mareas y topografía . The Survey publicó importantes artículos de Charles Sanders Peirce sobre el diseño de experimentos y sobre un criterio para el tratamiento estadístico de valores atípicos . [13] [14] Ferdinand Hassler convirtió en el primer Superintendente de Pesos y Medidas a partir de noviembre de 1830, y la Oficina de Pesos y Medidas, el antepasado de hoy ' s Instituto Nacional de Estándares y Tecnología , se colocó bajo el control de la costa Encuesta en 1836; hasta 1901, la Encuesta fue responsable de la estandarización de pesos y medidas en todo Estados Unidos. [7] [12]
Cuando reanudó sus operaciones en 1833, el Survey volvió a los estudios del área de la ciudad de Nueva York y sus accesos marítimos. Aunque la ley de EE. UU. Prohibió a Survey adquirir sus propios barcos, requiriendo que utilizara barcos públicos existentes como los de la Armada y el Servicio de Reducción de Ingresos de los Estados Unidos para operaciones topográficas a flote, el Departamento de Marina de EE. UU. Evitó la ley al permitir al Teniente Thomas R. Gedney para comprar la goleta Jersey para la Armada, y luego consideró que Jersey era adecuado solo para el uso de Survey. Bajo Gedney ' comando s, Jersey comenzó la Encuesta ' primera s profundidad sonar operaciones en octubre de 1834, e hizo su primera comercialmente y el descubrimiento de importancia militar en 1835 por el descubrimiento de lo que se conoce como el canal Gedney en la entrada a puerto de Nueva York , que significativamente tiempos de navegación reducidos hacia y desde la ciudad de Nueva York. [12]
En 1838, el teniente de la Marina de los EE. UU. George M. Bache , mientras estaba adscrito a la Encuesta, sugirió estandarizar las marcas de las boyas y marcadores de navegación en tierra pintando las de la derecha al entrar en un puerto de color rojo y las de la izquierda de negro; instituido por el teniente comandante John R. Goldsborough en 1847, el sistema de marcas de "retorno derecho rojo" ha estado en uso en los Estados Unidos desde entonces. En agosto de 1839, la encuesta sobre la costa hizo otro tipo de historia, cuando el Servicio de Impuestos cortador USRC de Washington , la realización de estudios de resonancia de la encuesta sobre la costa de Long Island bajo Gedney ' comando s, interceptó el barco de esclavos La Amistad y la trajo al puerto. A principios de la década de 1840, la Encuesta comenzó a trabajar en la bahía de Delaware para trazar los accesos a Filadelfia , Pensilvania . [12]
El profesor Alexander Dallas Bache se convirtió en superintendente del US Coast Survey después de la muerte de Hassler en 1843. [7] Durante sus años como superintendente, reorganizó el Coast Survey y expandió su trabajo hacia el sur a lo largo de la costa este de los Estados Unidos hasta los Cayos de Florida . En 1846, el Survey comenzó a operar un barco, Phoenix , en la costa del Golfo de los Estados Unidos por primera vez. Antes de 1847, Bache había ampliado la encuesta ' operaciones s de nueve estados a los diecisiete años, y por 1849, también operado a lo largo de la costa oeste de Estados Unidos , lo que le da una presencia a lo largo de todas las costas de los Estados Unidos. [15] En 1845, se instituyó el mundo ' primer proyecto oceanográfico sistemática s para el estudio de un fenómeno específico cuando dirigió la encuesta sobre la costa para iniciar los estudios sistemáticos de la Corriente del Golfo y sus alrededores, incluyendo la oceanografía física, geológica oceanografía, biológica oceanografía y Oceanografía química . Los pedidos iniciales de Bache para el estudio Gulf Stream sirvieron de modelo para todos los cruceros oceanográficos integrados posteriores. [7] Bache también instituyó observaciones regulares y sistemáticas de las mareas e investigó las fuerzas y direcciones magnéticas , lo que convirtió al Survey en el centro de la experiencia del gobierno de los Estados Unidos en geofísica para el siglo siguiente. A finales de la década de 1840, el Survey fue pionero en el uso del telégrafo para proporcionar determinaciones de longitud muy precisas ; conocido como el " Método Americano ", pronto fue emulado en todo el mundo. [dieciséis]
El desastre golpeó a Coast Survey el 8 de septiembre de 1846 cuando el bergantín de investigación Peter G. Washington se encontró con un huracán mientras realizaba estudios de la Corriente del Golfo en el Océano Atlántico frente a la costa de Carolina del Norte . Fue derribada en la tormenta con la pérdida de 11 hombres que fueron arrastrados por la borda, pero logró cojear hasta el puerto.
La Guerra Mexicana de 1846-1848 vio la retirada de prácticamente todos los oficiales del Ejército de los EE. UU. Del Coast Survey y el bergantín de Coast Survey Washington fue asumido para el servicio de la Marina de los EE. UU. En la guerra, pero en general el esfuerzo de guerra tuvo poco impacto en el Coast Survey ' s operaciones. Los oficiales del ejército regresaron después de la guerra, y la expansión del territorio estadounidense como resultado de la guerra llevó al Coast Survey a expandir sus operaciones para incluir las costas recién adquiridas de Texas y California . [16] El famoso naturalista Louis Agassiz estudió la vida marina frente a Nueva Inglaterra desde el vapor de Coast Survey Bibb en 1847 y también realizó el primer estudio científico del sistema de arrecifes de Florida en 1851 bajo una comisión de Coast Survey; [7] su hijo, Alexander Agassiz , más tarde también sirvió a bordo de los barcos Coast Survey para operaciones técnicas. [17] En la década de 1850, la encuesta sobre la costa también se llevaron a cabo encuestas y mediciones en apoyo de los esfuerzos para reformar el Departamento del Tesoro ' s Faro Establecimiento , [18] y se empleó brevemente el artista James McNeill Whistler como dibujante en 1854-55 . [19]
Ever since it began operations, the Coast Survey had faced hostility from politicians who believed that it should complete its work and be abolished as a means of reducing U.S. Government expenditures, and Hassler and Bache had fought back periodic attempts to cut its funding. By 1850, the Coast Survey had surveyed enough of the U.S. coastline for a long enough time to learn that – with a few exceptions, such as the rocky coast of New England – coastlines were dynamic and required return visits by Coast Surveyors to keep charts up to date.[18] In 1858, Bache for the first time publicly stated that the Coast Survey was not a temporary organization charged with charting the coasts once, but rather a permanent one that would continually survey coastal areas as they changed over time.[20]
Another significant moment in the Survey's history that occurred in 1858 was the first publication of what would later become the United States Coast Pilot, when Survey employee George Davidson adapted an article from a San Francisco, California, newspaper into an addendum to that year's Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey. Although the Survey had previously published its work indirectly via the Blunts' American Coast Pilot, it was the first time that the Survey had published its sailing directions directly in any way other than through local newspapers.[10]
On June 21, 1860, the greatest loss of life in a single incident in the history of NOAA and its ancestor agencies occurred when a commercial schooner collided with the Coast Survey paddle steamer Robert J. Walker in the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey. Robert J. Walker sank with the loss of 20 men.[21][22]
A Coast Survey ship took part in an international scientific project for the first time when Bibb observed a solar eclipse from a vantage point off Aulezavik, Labrador, on July 18, 1860, as part of an international effort to study the eclipse. Bibb became the first Coast Survey vessel to operate in subarctic waters.[23]
American Civil War
The outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861 caused a dramatic shift in direction for the Coast Survey. All U.S. Army officers were withdrawn from the Survey, as were all but two U.S. Navy officers. Since most men of the Survey had Union sympathies, all but seven of them stayed on with the Survey rather than resigning to serve the Confederate States of America, and their work shifted in emphasis to support of the Union Navy and Union Army. Civilian Coast Surveyors were called upon to serve in the field and provide mapping, hydrographic, and engineering expertise for Union forces. One of the individuals who excelled at this work was Joseph Smith Harris, who supported Rear Admiral David G. Farragut and his Western Gulf Blockading Squadron in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip in 1862; this survey work was particularly valuable to Commander David Dixon Porter and his mortar bombardment fleet. Coast Surveyors served in virtually all theaters of the war and were often in the front lines or in advance of the front lines carrying out mapping duties, and Coast Survey officers produced many of the coastal charts and interior maps used by Union forces throughout the war. Coast Surveyors supporting the Union Army were given assimilated military rank while attached to a specific command, but those supporting the U.S. Navy operated as civilians and ran the risk of being executed as spies if captured by the Confederates while working in support of Union forces.[25][7]
Post–Civil War
Army officers never returned to the Coast Survey, but after the war Navy officers did, and the Coast Survey resumed its peacetime duties. The acquisition of the Territory of Alaska in 1867 expanded its responsibilities, as did the progressive exploration, settlement, and enclosure of the continental United States.[6][25] George W. Blunt sold the copyright for the American Coast Pilot – the Blunt family publication which had appeared in 21 editions since 1796 and had come to consist almost entirely of public information produced by the Survey anyway – in 1867, and the Survey thus took responsibility for publishing it regularly for the first time, spawning a family of such publications for the various coasts of the United States and the Territory of Alaska in the coming years.[10] In 1888, the publications for the United States East and Gulf coasts took the name United States Coast Pilot for the first time, and the publications for the United States West Coast took this name 30 years later. NOAA produces the United States Coast Pilots to this day.[10]
In 1871, Congress officially expanded the Coast Survey's responsibilities to include geodetic surveys in the interior of the country,[6][25][7] and one of its first major projects in the interior was to survey the 39th Parallel across the entire country. Between 1874 and 1877, the Coast Survey employed the naturalist and author John Muir as a guide and artist during the survey of the 39th Parallel in the Great Basin of Nevada and Utah.[7] To reflect its acquisition of the mission of surveying the U.S. interior and the growing role of geodesy in its operations, the U.S. Coast Survey was renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (USC&GS) in 1878.[6][25][7]
The American Coast Pilot had long been lacking in current information when the Coast Survey took control of it in 1867, and the Survey had recognized that deficit but had been hindered by a lack of funding and the risks associated with mooring vessels in deep waters or along dangerous coasts in order to collect the information necessary for updates. The U.S. Congress specifically appropriated funding for such work in the 1875–1876 budget under which the 76-foot (23-meter) schooner Drift was constructed and sent out under U.S. Navy Acting Master and Coast Survey Assistant Robert Platt to the Gulf of Maine to anchor in depths of up to 140 fathoms (840 feet/256 meters) to measure currents.[26] The Survey's requirement to update sailing directions led to the development of early current measurement technology, particularly the Pillsbury current meter invented by John E. Pillsbury, USN, while on duty with the Survey. It was in connection with intensive studies of the Gulf Stream that the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS George S. Blake became such a pioneer in oceanography that she is one of only two U.S. ships with her name inscribed in the façade of the Oceanographic Museum (Musée Océanographique) in Monaco due to her being "the most innovative oceanographic vessel of the Nineteenth Century" with development of deep ocean exploration through introduction of steel cable for sounding, dredging and deep anchoring and data collection for the "first truly modern bathymetric map of a deep sea area."[27]
Crisis in the mid-1880s
By the mid-1880s, the Coast and Geodetic Survey had been caught up in the increased scrutiny of U.S. Government agencies by politicians seeking to reform governmental affairs by curbing the spoils system and patronage common among office holders of the time. One outgrowth of this movement was the Allison Commission – a joint commission of the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives – which convened in 1884 to investigate the scientific agencies of the U.S. Government, namely the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the United States Geological Survey, the United States Army Signal Corps (responsible for studying and predicting weather at the time), and the United States Navy's United States Hydrographic Office. The commission looked into three main issues: the role of geodesy in the U.S. Government's scientific efforts and whether responsibility for inland geodetics should reside in the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey or the U.S. Geological Survey; whether the Coast and Geodetic Survey should be removed from the Department of the Treasury and placed under the control of the Department of the Navy, as it had been previously from 1834 to 1836; and whether weather services should reside in a military organization or in the civilian part of the government, raising the broader issue of whether U.S. government scientific agencies of all kinds should be under military or civilian control.[28]
At the Coast and Geodetic Survey, at least some scientists were not prone to following bureaucratic requirements related to the funding of their projects, and their lax financial practices led to charges of mismanagement of funds and corruption. When Grover Cleveland became president in 1885, James Q. Chenoweth became First Auditor of the Department of the Treasury, and he began to investigate improprieties at the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Geological Survey, and United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, more commonly referred to as the U.S. Fish Commission. He had little impact on the Geological Survey or the Fish Commission, but at the Coast and Geodetic Survey he found many improprieties. Chenoweth found that the Coast and Geodetic Survey had failed to account for government equipment it had purchased, continued to pay retired personnel as a way of giving them a pension even though the law did not provide for a pension system, paid employees whether they worked or not, and misused per diem money intended for the expenses of personnel in the field by paying per diem funds to employees who were not in the field as a way of augmenting their very low authorized wages and providing them with fair compensation. Chenoweth saw these practices as embezzlement. Chenoweth also suspected embezzlement in the Survey's practice of providing its employees with money in advance for large and expensive purchases when operating in remote areas because of the Survey's inability to verify that the expenses were legitimate. Moreover, the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Julius Hilgard, was exposed as a drunkard and forced to resign in disgrace along with four of his senior staff members at Survey headquarters.[29]
To address issues at the Coast and Geodetic Survey raised by the Allison Commission and the Chenoweth investigation, Cleveland made the Chief Clerk of the Internal Revenue Bureau, Frank Manly Thorn, Acting Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey on July 23, 1885, and appointed him as the permanent superintendent on September 1.[30][31] Thorn, a lawyer and journalist who was the first non-scientist to serve as superintendent, quickly concluded that the charges against Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel largely were overblown, and he set his mind to the issues of rebuilding the Survey's integrity and reputation and ensuring that it demonstrated its value to its critics. Ignorant of the Survey's operations and the scientific methods that lay behind them, he left such matters to his assistant, Benjamin J. Colonna, and focused instead on reforming the Survey's financial and budgetary procedures and improving its operations so as to demonstrate the value of its scientific program in performing accurate mapping while setting and meeting production deadlines for maps and charts.[32]
To the Survey's critics, Thorn and Colonna championed the importance of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's inland geodetic work and how it supported, rather than duplicated, the work of the Geological Survey and was in any event an important component of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's hydrographic work along the coasts. Thorn also advocated civilian control of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, pointing out to Cleveland and others that earlier experiments with placing it under U.S. Navy control had fared poorly.[33] Thorn described the Coast and Geodetic Survey's essential mission as, in its simplest form, to produce "a perfect map,".[34] and to this end he and Colonna championed the need for the Survey to focus on the broad range of geodetic disciplines Colonna identified as necessary for accurate chart- and mapmaking: triangulation, astronomical observations, levelling, tidal observations, physical geodesy, topography, hydrography, and magnetic observations.[35] To those who advocated transfer of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's work to the Navy Hydrographic Office, Thorn and Colonna replied that although the Navy could perform hydrography, it could not provide the full range of geodetic disciplines necessary for scientifically accurate surveying and mapping work.
In 1886, the Allison Commission wrapped up its investigation and published its final report. Although it determined that all topographic responsibility outside of coastal areas would henceforth reside in the U.S. Geological Survey, it approved of the Coast and Geodetic Survey continuing its entire program of scientific research, and recommended that the Coast and Geodetic Survey remain under civilian control rather than be subordinated to the U.S. Navy. It was a victory for Thorn and Colonna.[33] Another victory followed in 1887, when Thorn headed off a congressional attempt to subordinate the Survey to the Navy despite the Allison Commission's findings, providing Cleveland with information on the previous lack of success of such an arrangement.[33] When Thorn left the superintendency in 1889, the Coast and Geodetic Survey's position in the U.S. Government had become secure.
Before Thorn left the superintendency, the United States Congress passed a bill requiring that henceforth the president would select the superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey with the consent of the U.S. Senate. This practice has continued for senior positions in the Coast and Geodetic Survey and its successor organizations ever since.[36]
Later 19th century and early 20th century
In the 1890s, while attached to the Coast and Geodetic Survey as commanding officer of George S. Blake, Lieutenant Commander Charles Dwight Sigsbee, USN, Assistant in the Coast Survey,[note 1] developed the Sigsbee sounding machine while conducting the first true bathymetric surveys in the Gulf of Mexico.
With the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, the U.S. Navy again withdrew its officers from Coast and Geodetic Survey duty. As a result of the war, which ended in August 1898, the United States took control of the Philippine Islands and Puerto Rico, and surveying their waters became part of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's duties.[25] The Survey opened a field office in Seattle, Washington in 1899, to support survey ships operating in the Pacific Ocean as well as survey field expeditions in the western United States; this office eventually would become the modern National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Marine Center.[7]
The system of U.S. Navy officers and men crewing the Survey's ships that had prevailed for most of the 19th century came to an end when the appropriation law approved on June 6, 1900, provided for "all necessary employees to man and equip the vessels" instead of Navy personnel. The law went into effect on July 1, 1900; at that point, all Navy personnel assigned to the Survey's ships remained aboard until the first call at each ship's home port, where they transferred off, with the Survey reimbursing the Navy for their pay accrued after July 1, 1900.[37] Thereafter, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated as an entirely civilian organization until May 1917.
In 1901, the Office of Weights and Measures was split off from the Coast and Geodetic Survey to become the separate National Bureau of Standards. It became the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1988.[38]
In 1904, the Coast and Geodetic Survey introduced the wire-drag technique into hydrography, in which a wire attached to two ships or boats and set at a certain depth by a system of weights and buoys was dragged between two points. This method revolutionized hydrographic surveying, as it allowed a quicker, less laborious, and far more complete survey of an area than did the use of lead lines and sounding poles that had preceded it, and it remained in use until the late 1980s.[39]
World War I
Although some personnel aboard Coast and Geodetic Survey ships wore uniforms virtually identical to those of the U.S. Navy, the Survey operated as a completely civilian organization from 1900 until after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. To avoid the dangerous situation Coast Survey personnel had faced during the American Civil War, when they could have been executed as spies if captured by the enemy, a new Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created on May 22, 1917, giving the Survey's officers a commissioned status that protected them from treatment as spies if captured, as well as providing the United States armed forces with a ready source of officers skilled in surveying that could be rapidly assimilated for wartime support of the armed forces.[25]
Over half of all Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officers served in the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps during World War I, and Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel were active as artillery orienteering officers, as minelaying officers in the North Sea (where they supported the laying of the North Sea Mine Barrage), as troop transport navigators, as intelligence officers, and as officers on the staff of General John "Black Jack" Pershing.[25]
Interwar period
During the period between the world wars, the Coast and Geodetic Survey returned to its peaceful scientific and surveying pursuits, including land surveying, sea floor charting, coastline mapping, geophysics, and oceanography.[25] In 1923 and 1924, it began the use of acoustic sounding systems and developed radio acoustic ranging, which was the first marine navigation system in history that did not rely on a visual means of position determination. These developments led to the Survey's 1924 discovery of the sound fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel or deep sound channel (DSC) – a horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound is at its minimum – and to the development of telemetering radio sonobuoys and marine seismic exploration techniques.[38] The Air Commerce Act, which went into effect on May 20, 1926, among other things directed that the airways of the United States be charted for the first time and assigned this mission to the Coast and Geodetic Survey.[38]
In 1933, the Coast and Geodetic Survey opened a ship base in Norfolk, Virginia. From 1934 to 1937, it organized surveying parties and field offices to employ over 10,000 people, including many unemployed engineers, during the height of the Great Depression.[38][40]
World War II
When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, all of this work was suspended as the Survey dedicated its activities entirely to support of the war effort. Over half of the Coast and Geodetic Corps commissioned officers were transferred to either the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, or United States Army Air Forces, while those who remained in the Coast and Geodetic Survey also operated in support of military and naval requirements. About half of the Survey's civilian work force, slightly over 1,000 people, joined the armed services.[25]
Officers and civilians of the Survey saw service in North Africa, Europe, and the Pacific and in the defense of North America and its waters, serving as artillery surveyors, hydrographers, amphibious engineers, beachmasters (i.e., directors of disembarkation), instructors at service schools, and in a wide range of technical positions. Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel also worked as reconnaissance surveyors for a worldwide aeronautical charting effort, and a Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officer was the first commanding officer of the Army Air Forces Aeronautical Chart Plant at St. Louis, Missouri. Coast and Geodetic Survey civilians who remained in the United States during the war produced over 100 million maps and charts for the Allied forces. Three Coast and Geodetic Survey officers and eleven members of the agency who had joined other services were killed during the war.[25]
Post–World War II
Following World War II, the Coast and Geodetic Survey resumed its peacetime scientific and surveying efforts. In 1945 it adapted the British Royal Air Force's Gee radio navigation system to hydrographic surveying, ushering in a new era of marine electronic navigation. In 1948 it established the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Honolulu Hawaii.[38] The onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s led the Survey also to make a significant effort in support of defense requirements, such as conducting surveys for the Distant Early Warning Line and for rocket ranges, performing oceanographic work for the U.S. Navy, and monitoring nuclear tests.[38]
In 1955, the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS Pioneer (OSS 31) conducted a survey in the Pacific Ocean off the United States West Coast towing a magnetometer invented by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The first such survey in history, it discovered magnetic striping on the seafloor, a key finding in the development of the theory of plate tectonics.[38]
The Coast and Geodetic Survey participated in the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958. During the IGY, 67 countries cooperated in a worldwide effort to collect, share, and study data on eleven Earth sciences – aurora and airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determinations for precision mapping, meteorology, oceanography, seismology, and solar activity.[38]
In 1959, the Coast and Geodetic Survey's charter was extended to give it the responsibility for U.S. Government oceanographic studies worldwide.[25] In 1963, it became the first U.S. Government scientific agency to take part in an international cooperative oceanographic/meteorological project when the survey ship USC&GS Explorer (OSS 28) made a scientific cruise in support of the EQUALANT I and EQUALANT II subprojects of the International Cooperative Investigations of the Tropical Atlantic (ICITA) project.[41][42][43] A Coast and Geodetic Survey ship operated in the Indian Ocean for the first time in 1964, when Pioneer conducted the International Indian Ocean Expedition.[44]
ESSA and NOAA years
On July 13, 1965, the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA), was established and became the new parent organization of both the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the United States Weather Bureau.[6][38] At the same time, the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was removed from the Survey's direct control, subordinated directly to ESSA, and renamed the Environmental Science Services Administration Corps, or "ESSA Corps." As the ESSA Corps, it retained the responsibility of providing commissioned officers to man Coast and Geodetic Survey ships.[6][25][38]
On October 3, 1970, ESSA was expanded and reorganized to form the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Coast and Geodetic Survey ceased to exist as it merged with other government scientific agencies to form NOAA, but its constituent parts lived on, with its geodetic responsibilities assigned to the new National Geodetic Survey, its hydrographic survey duties to NOAA's new Office of Coast Survey, and its ships to the new NOAA fleet, while the ESSA Corps became the new National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps, or "NOAA Corps". In 2009, former NOAA Corps officer Juliana P. Blackwell was named as Director of the National Geodetic Survey and become the first woman to head the oldest U.S Federal science agency.
The National Geodetic Survey, Office of Coast Survey, and NOAA fleet all fell under control of NOAA's new National Ocean Service.[6][25]
Liderazgo en levantamientos costeros y geodésicos
Superintendents (1816–1919)
Source[45]
- Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1816–1818 and 1832–1843)
- Alexander Dallas Bache (1843–1867)
- Benjamin Peirce (1867–1874)
- Carlile Pollock Patterson (1874–1881)
- Julius Erasmus Hilgard (1881–1885)
- Frank Manly Thorn (1885–1889), the first non-scientist to hold the position
- Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1889–1894)
- William Ward Duffield (1894–1897)
- Henry Smith Pritchett (1897–1900)
- Otto Hilgard Tittmann (1900–1915)
- Ernest Lester Jones (1915–1919)
Directors (1919–1970)
Source[45]
- Colonel Ernest Lester Jones (1919–1929)
- Captain/Rear Admiral Raymond Stanton Patton (1929–1937)
- Rear Admiral Leo Otis Colbert (1938–1950)
- Rear Admiral Robert Francis Anthony Studds (1950–1955)
- Rear Admiral Henry Arnold Karo (1955–1965)
- Rear Admiral James C. Tison, Jr. (1965–1968)
- Rear Admiral Don A. Jones (1968–1970)
Superintendents of Weights and Measures
- Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (c. 1818–1843)
- Joseph Saxton (1843–1873)
Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps (1917–1965)
- Colonel Ernest Lester Jones (1917–1929)
- Captain/Rear Admiral Raymond Stanton Patton (1929–1937)
- Rear Admiral Leo Otis Colbert (1938–1950)
- Rear Admiral Robert Francis Anthony Studds (1950–1955)
- Rear Admiral Henry Arnold Karo (1955–1965)
Bandera
The Coast and Geodetic Survey was authorized its own flag on January 16, 1899. The flag, which remained in use until the Survey merged with other agencies to form NOAA on October 3, 1970, was blue, with a central white circle and a red triangle centered within the circle. It was intended to symbolize the triangulation method used in surveying. The flag was flown by ships in commission with the Coast and Geodetic Survey at the highest point on the forwardmost mast, and served as a distinguishing mark of the Survey as a separate seagoing service from the Navy, with which the Survey shared a common ensign.
The ESSA flag, in use from 1965 to 1970, was adapted from the Coast and Geodetic Survey flag by adding a blue circle to the center of the Survey flag, with a stylized, diamond-shaped map of the world within the blue circle. The blue circle containing the map lay entirely within the red triangle.[46][47]
The NOAA flag, in use today, also was adapted from the Coast and Geodetic Survey flag by adding the NOAA emblem – a circle divided into two parts by the white silhouette of a flying seagull, with the roughly triangular portion above the bird being dark blue and the portion below it a lighter blue – to the center of the old Survey flag. The NOAA symbol lies entirely within the red triangle.[48]
Rangos
- Relative rank of officers 1918
Grade | Title | Rank with and after |
---|---|---|
1 | Hydrographic and Geodetic Engineers | Colonels |
2 | Hydrographic and Geodetic Engineers | Lieutenant Colonels |
3 | Hydrographic and Geodetic Engineers | Majors |
4 | Hydrographic and Geodetic Engineers | Captains |
5 | Junior Hydrographic and Geodetic Engineers | First Lieutenants |
6 | Aids | Second Lieutenants |
Source: | [49] |
- Ranks 1943
Commissioned Officers | Ship's Officers | |
---|---|---|
Rear Admiral | - | |
Captain | - | |
Commander | - | |
Lieutenant Commander | - | |
Lieutenant | Chief Marine Engineer Surgeon | |
Lieutenant Junior Grade | Mate | |
Ensign | Deck Officer | |
Source: | [50] |
Petty Officers were Chiefs, First Class, Second Class, and Third Class.[50]
Buques
The Survey of the Coast's first ship, the schooner Jersey, was acquired for it in 1834 by the U.S. Department of the Navy. By purchasing commercial vessels, through transfers from the U.S. Navy and U.S. Revenue Cutter Service, and later through construction of ships built specifically for the Survey, the Coast Survey and later the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated a fleet of ships until the formation of NOAA in October 1970.
The first of the Survey's ships to see U.S. Navy service was the brig USRC Washington during the Mexican War. During the American Civil War, Spanish–American War, World War I, and World War II, some of the Survey's ships saw service in the U.S. Navy and United States Coast Guard, while others supported the war effort as a part of the Survey's fleet.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey applied the abbreviation "USC&GS" as a prefix to the names of its ships, analogous to the "USS" abbreviation employed by the U.S. Navy. In the 20th century, the Coast and Geodetic Survey also instituted a hull classification symbol system similar to the one that the U.S. Navy began using in 1920. Each ship was classified as an "ocean survey ship" (OSS), "medium survey ship" (MSS), "coastal survey ship" (CSS), or "auxiliary survey vessel" (ASV), and assigned a unique hull number, the abbreviation for its type and its unique hull number combining to form its individual hull code. For example, the ocean survey ship Oceanographer that served from 1930 to 1942 was USC&GS Oceanographer (OSS 26), while the Oceanographer that served from 1966 to 1970 was USC&GS Oceanographer (OSS 01).
When NOAA was created on October 3, 1970 and the Coast and Geodetic Survey was dissolved, its ships were combined with the fisheries research ships of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service's Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to form the new NOAA fleet. For a time, NOAA continued to use the Coast and Geodetic Survey's classification system for its survey ships, but it later abandoned it and instituted a new classification scheme.
A partial list of the Survey's ships:
- USC&GS A. D. Bache (1871) (in service ca. 1871–1900)
- USC&GS A. D. Bache (1901) (in service 1901–1917; 1919–1927)
- USCS Active (in service 1852–1861)
- USC&GS Arago (1854) (in service 1854–1881)
- USC&GS Arago (1871) (in service 1871–1890)
- USCS Arctic (in service 1856–1858)
- USC&GS Audwin (in service 1919–1927)
- USCS Baltimore (in service 1851–1858)
- USCS Bancroft (in service 1846–1862)
- USC&GS Barataria (in service 1867–1885)
- USC&GS Baton Rouge (in service 1875–1880)
- USCS Belle (in service 1848–1857)
- USCS Benjamin Peirce (in service 1855–1868)
- USCS Bowditch (in service 1854–1874)
- USC&GS Bowie (CSS 27) (in service 1946–1967)
- USC&GS Carlile P. Patterson (in service 1884–1918)
- USC&GS Cosmos (in service 1887–1927)
- USC&GS Dailhache (in service 1919–1934)
- USC&GS Davidson (1925) (in service 1933–1935)
- USC&GS Davidson (CSS 31) (in service 1967–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1989)
- USC&GS Discoverer (1918) (in service 1922–1941)
- USC&GS Discoverer (OSS 02) (in service 1967–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1996)
- USC&GS Drift (in service 1876–1893)
- USC&GS Eagre (in service ca. 1870s–1903)
- USC&GS Elsie III (in service 1919–1944)
- USC&GS Explorer (1904) (in service 1904–1918; 1919–1939)
- USC&GS Explorer (OSS 28) (in service 1940–1968)
- USC&GS Fairweather (MSS 20) (in service 1968–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1989 and 2004–present)
- USC&GS Fathomer (1871) (in service 1871–1881)
- USC&GS Fathomer (1904) (in service 1905–1942)
- USC&GS Ferrel (ASV 92) (in service 1968–1970, then with NOAA 1970–2002)
- USRC Gallatin (1830) (in service 1840–1848 and from 1849)
- USC&GS George S. Blake (in service 1874–1905; famous as pioneer ship in deep-ocean survey and oceanography)
- USC&GS Gilbert (in service 1930–1962)
- USC&GS Guide (1918) (in service 1923–1941)
- USC&GS Guide (1929) (in service 1941–1942)
- Hassler (in service 1871–1895)
- USC&GS Heck (ASV 91) (in service 1967–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1995)
- USC&GS Helianthus (in service 1919–1939)
- USC&GS Hilgard (ASV 82) (in service 1942–1967)
- USC&GS Hodgson (CSS 26) (in service 1946–1967)
- USC&GS Hydrographer (1901) (in service 1901–1917; 1919–1928)
- USC&GS Isis (in service 1915–1917; 1919–1920)
- USC&GS Lester Jones (ASV-79) (in service 1940–1967)
- USC&GS Lydonia (CS 302) (in service 1919–1947)
- USCS Madison (in service 1850–1858)
- USC&GS Marindin (in service 1919–1944)
- USC&GS Marinduque (in service 1905–1932)
- USC&GS Marmer (in service 1957–1968)
- USC&GS Matchless (in service 1885–1919)
- USC&GS McArthur (1874) (in service 1876–1915)
- USC&GS McArthur (MSS 22) (in service 1966–1970, then with NOAA 1970–2003)
- USCS Meredith (in service 1851–1872)
- USC&GS Mikawe (in service 1920–1939)
- USC&GS Mitchell (in service 1919–1944)
- USCS Morris (in service 1849–1855)
- USC&GS Mount Mitchell (MSS 22) (in service 1968–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1995)
- USC&GS Natoma (in service 1919–1935)
- USC&GS Oceanographer (OSS 26) (in service 1930–1942)
- USC&GS Oceanographer (OSS 01) (in service 1966–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1996)
- USC&GS Ogden (in service 1919–1944)
- USC&GS Onward (in service 1919–1920)
- USC&GS Pathfinder (1898) (in service 1899–1942, renamed USC&GS Researcher 1941)
- USC&GS Pathfinder (OSS 30) (in service 1946–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1971)
- USC&GS Patton (ASV-80) (in service 1941–1967)
- USC&GS Peirce (CSS 28) (in service 1963–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1992)
- USCS Phoenix (in service 1845–1857)
- USC&GS Pioneer (1918) (in service 1922–1941)
- USC&GS Pioneer (1929) (in service 1941–1942)
- USC&GS Pioneer (OSS 31) (in service 1946–1966)
- USC&GS Ranger (in service 1919–1930 or 1931)
- USC&GS Research (1901) (in service 1901–1918)
- USC&GS Researcher (OSS 03) (in service 1970, then with NOAA 1970–1996)
- USCS Robert J. Walker (in service 1848–1860)
- USC&GS Romblon (in service 1905–1921)
- USC&GS Silliman (in service 1871–1888)
- USC&GS Surveyor (1917) (in service 1917 and 1919–1956)
- USC&GS Surveyor (OSS 32) (in service 1960–1970, then with NOAA 1970–1995 or 1996)
- USC&GS Taku (in service 1898–1917)
- USRC Taney (1833) (in service 1847–1850)
- USC&GS Thomas R. Gedney (in service 1875–1915)
- USCS Vanderbilt (in service 1842–1855)
- USCS Varina (in service 1854–1875)
- USS Vixen (1861) )(in service 1860s)
- USC&GS Wainwright (ASV 83) (in service 1942–1967)
- USC&GS Westdahl (in service 1929–1946)
- USC&GS Whiting (CSS 29) (in service 1963–1970, then with NOAA 1970–2003)
- USC&GS Wildcat (1919) (in service 1919–1941)
- USC&GS Yukon (1873) (in service 1873–1894)
- USC&GS Yukon (1898) (in service 1898–1923)
Ver también
- Awards and decorations of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
- Height Modernization
- Herbert Grove Dorsey
- Hydrographic survey#United States
- Hydrography
- International maritime signal flags
- Lists of flags
- Radio acoustic ranging
- Nautical chart
- Seconds pendulum
- Surveying
- Topography
Notas
- ^ The formal title given these officers in reports is for example: "Lieut. Commander John A. Howell, U.S.N., Assistant in the Coast Survey" with "Assistant" being a title for both high office and topographic survey management positions and ship's commanding officers.
Referencias
- ^ "National Geodetic Survey – What We Do". National Geodetic Survey Website. Retrieved May 27, 2013.
- ^ "New Datums". National Geodetic Survey. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
- ^ a b US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Geodetic Survey. "Naming Conventions, New Datums". geodesy.noaa.gov.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Geodetic Survey. "xGEOID16 Evaluation Computation". beta.ngs.noaa.gov.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ "National Geodetic Survey – What We Do". National Geodetic Survey Website. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g NOAA, Coast and Geodetic Survey Heritage Archived December 19, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l noaa.gov NOAA History: NOAA Legacy Timeline 1807–1899
- ^ a b c Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "THE HASSLER LEGACY: FERDINAND RUDOLPH HASSLER and the UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY: THE EARLY YEARS," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived September 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Howe, Daniel W. (2007). What hath God Wrought, The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford University Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7.
- ^ a b c d noaa.gov, Theberge, Albert E., Captain, NOAA Corps, "The United States Coast Pilot – A Short History".
- ^ U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1877). Report Of The Superintendent of the Coast And Geodetic Survey Showing The Progress Of The Survey During The Year 1874. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3.
- ^ a b c d Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "THE HASSLER LEGACY: FERDINAND RUDOLPH HASSLER and the UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY: THE REBIRTH OF THE SURVEY," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived November 9, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Peirce, Charles Sanders. "Appendix No. 21. On the Theory of Errors of Observation". Report of the Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey Showing the Progress of the Survey During the Year 1870: 200–224.
1870 [published 1873]
. NOAA PDF Eprint (goes to Report p. 200, PDF's p. 215). U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Annual Reports links for years 1837–1965. Reprinted in Writings of Charles S. Peirce, v. 3, pp. 140–160. - ^ Peirce, C. S. (1876 [published 1879]), "Appendix No. 14. Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research" in Report of the Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey Showing the Progress of the Survey for Fiscal Year Ending with June 1876, pp. 197–201, NOAA PDF Eprint, goes to p. 197, PDF's page 222. Reprinted in Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, v. 7, paragraphs 139–157 and in Operations Research v. 15, n. 4, July–August 1967, pp. 643–648, abstract at JSTORPeirce, C. S. (1967). "Note on the Theory of the Economy of Research". Operations Research. 15 (4): 643–648. doi:10.1287/opre.15.4.643.
- ^ Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "THE BACHE YEARS: CHANGING THE GUARD," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived February 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "BACHE's EARLY YEARS," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived October 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Alexander Agassiz (1888). "Three Cruises of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer "Blake": In the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and Along the Atlantic Coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880". Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston & New York. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
- ^ a b Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "THE FIELD WORK," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived November 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "THE INFORMATION FACTORY," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived November 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "BACHE's GOLDEN YEARS 1850–1860," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived October 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ NOAA History, A Science Odyssey: Tools of the Trade: Ships: Coast and Geodetic Survey Ships: Robert J. Walker
- ^ noaa.gov The Story of the Coast Survey Steamer Robert J. Walker
- ^ Theberge, Captain Albert E., The Coast Survey 1807–1867: Volume I of the History of the Commissioned Corps of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "LIFE IN THE FIELD," no publisher listed, NOAA History, 1998. Archived July 14, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Series I, Volume 18, p. 362.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m NOAA History: NOAA Corps and the Coast and Geodetic Survey
- ^ U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1877). Report Of The Superintendent of the Coast And Geodetic Survey Showing The Progress Of The Work for the Fiscal Year Ending With June, 1877. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 9.
- ^ "George S. Blake". NOAA History: Coast and Geodetic Survey Ships. National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), NOAA Central Library. 2006. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind: Superintendent Thorn Rescues the Coast and Geodetic Survey (1885–1889), p. 2. Archived July 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind, p. 4
- ^ Anonymous, Centennial Celebration of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1916, p. 139.
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind, pp. 5, 8–10.
- ^ a b c Sailing Close to the Wind, p. 11.
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind, p. 13.
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Sailing Close to the Wind, pp. 41–42.
- ^ U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (1901). Report Of The Superintendent of the Coast And Geodetic Survey Showing The Progress Of Work From July 1, 1900 To June 30, 1901. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 15, 17, 109.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j noaa.gov NOAA History: NOAA Legacy Timeline 1900–1969
- ^ noaa.gov History of Hydrographic Surveying
- ^ Theberge, Albert "Skip" (August 20, 2016). "Some Notes From Lieutenant Charles Pierce Part 1: The California Coast 1932–1933". The American Surveyor. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved September 19, 2016.
- ^ NOAA History, A Science Odyssey: Tools of the Trade: Ships: Coast and Geodetic Survey Ships: Explorer
- ^ nmfs.noaa.gov EQUALANT
- ^ nmfs.noaa.gov SHIP & CRUISE SUMMARY Archived September 24, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ NOAA History, A Science Odyssey: Tools of the Trade: Ships: Coast and Geodetic Survey Ships: Pioneer
- ^ a b noaa.gov Leaders of Coast Survey
- ^ NOAA Photo Library Image ID: cgs00970
- ^ NOAA Photo Library Image ID: cgs00971
- ^ Sea Flags: National Oceanic and Atmoshperic Administration at Verizon Archived December 24, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Williams, Dion (1918). Army and Navy Uniforms and Insignia. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, pp. 186-187.
- ^ a b Bunkley J. W. (1943). Military and Naval Recognition Book. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, pp. 230-231.
enlaces externos
- National Geodetic Survey website
- early history of the Coast Survey
- NOAA Office of Coast Survey
- U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Annual Reports, years 1837–1965
- United States Coast & Geodetic Survey at ArlingtonCemetery•net, an unofficial website
- Explanation of survey monuments
- 1858 map: Preliminary chart of entrance to Brazos River hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
- 1853 map: Preliminary chart of San Luis Pass, Texas hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
- 1854 map: Preliminary survey of the entrance to the Rio Grande, Texas hosted by the Portal to Texas History.