La energía geotérmica es la energía generada por energía geotérmica . Las tecnologías en uso incluyen centrales eléctricas de vapor seco, centrales eléctricas de vapor flash y centrales eléctricas de ciclo binario. La generación de electricidad geotérmica se utiliza actualmente en 26 países, [1] [2] mientras que la calefacción geotérmica se utiliza en 70 países. [3]
A partir de 2019, la capacidad mundial de energía geotérmica asciende a 15,4 gigavatios (GW), de los cuales el 23,86 por ciento o 3,68 GW están instalados en los Estados Unidos . [4] Los mercados internacionales crecieron a una tasa anual promedio del 5 por ciento durante los tres años hasta 2015, y se espera que la capacidad global de energía geotérmica alcance los 14,5–17,6 GW para 2020. [5] Basado en el conocimiento y la tecnología geológicos actuales, la GEA revela, la Asociación de Energía Geotérmica (GEA) estima que hasta ahora solo se ha aprovechado el 6,9 por ciento del potencial global total, mientras que el IPCC informó que el potencial de energía geotérmica está en el rango de 35 GW a 2 TW . [3]Los países que generan más del 15 por ciento de su electricidad de fuentes geotérmicas incluyen El Salvador , Kenya , la Filipinas , Islandia , Nueva Zelanda , [6] y Costa Rica .
La energía geotérmica es considerado como un sostenible , renovable fuente de energía debido a la extracción de calor es pequeña en comparación con el contenido de calor de la Tierra . [7] Las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de las centrales eléctricas geotérmicas son en promedio 45 gramos de dióxido de carbono por kilovatio-hora de electricidad, o menos del 5 por ciento de las de las plantas convencionales de carbón. [8]
Como fuente de energía renovable tanto para energía como para calefacción, la geotermia tiene el potencial de satisfacer el 3-5% de la demanda global para 2050. Con incentivos económicos, se estima que para 2100 será posible cubrir el 10% de la demanda global. [6]
Historia y desarrollo
En el siglo XX, la demanda de electricidad llevó a considerar la energía geotérmica como fuente generadora. El príncipe Piero Ginori Conti probó el primer generador de energía geotérmica el 4 de julio de 1904 en Larderello , Italia. Encendió con éxito cuatro bombillas. [9] Más tarde, en 1911, se construyó allí la primera central eléctrica geotérmica comercial del mundo. Los generadores experimentales se construyeron en Beppu , Japón y Geysers , California, en la década de 1920, pero Italia fue el único productor industrial de electricidad geotérmica del mundo hasta 1958.
En 1958, Nueva Zelanda se convirtió en el segundo mayor productor industrial de electricidad geotérmica cuando se puso en marcha su estación Wairakei . Wairakei fue la primera estación en utilizar tecnología de vapor flash. [11] Durante los últimos 60 años, la producción neta de fluidos ha superado los 2,5 km 3 . El hundimiento en Wairakei-Tauhara ha sido un problema en una serie de audiencias formales relacionadas con los consentimientos ambientales para el desarrollo ampliado del sistema como fuente de energía renovable. [6]
En 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric comenzó a operar la primera central eléctrica geotérmica exitosa en los Estados Unidos en The Geysers en California. [12] La turbina original duró más de 30 años y produjo una potencia neta de 11 MW . [13]
La central eléctrica de ciclo binario se demostró por primera vez en 1967 en la Unión Soviética y luego se introdujo en los Estados Unidos en 1981, [12] tras la crisis energética de la década de 1970 y cambios significativos en las políticas regulatorias. Esta tecnología permite el uso de recursos de temperatura mucho más bajos que los recuperables anteriormente. En 2006, una estación de ciclo binario en Chena Hot Springs, Alaska , entró en funcionamiento, produciendo electricidad a partir de una temperatura de fluido récord de 57 ° C (135 ° F). [14]
Hasta hace poco, las estaciones eléctricas geotérmicas se han construido exclusivamente donde los recursos geotérmicos de alta temperatura están disponibles cerca de la superficie. El desarrollo de plantas de energía de ciclo binario y las mejoras en la tecnología de perforación y extracción pueden permitir sistemas geotérmicos mejorados en un rango geográfico mucho mayor. [15] Los proyectos de demostración están operativos en Landau-Pfalz , Alemania, y Soultz-sous-Forêts , Francia, mientras que un esfuerzo anterior en Basilea , Suiza se cerró después de que provocó terremotos. Se están construyendo otros proyectos de demostración en Australia , el Reino Unido y los Estados Unidos de América . [dieciséis]
La eficiencia térmica de las centrales eléctricas geotérmicas es baja, alrededor del 7-10%, [17] porque los fluidos geotérmicos se encuentran a baja temperatura en comparación con el vapor de las calderas. Según las leyes de la termodinámica, esta baja temperatura limita la eficiencia de los motores térmicos en la extracción de energía útil durante la generación de electricidad. El calor de escape se desperdicia, a menos que pueda usarse directa y localmente, por ejemplo, en invernaderos, aserraderos y calefacción urbana. La eficiencia del sistema no afecta los costos operativos como lo haría para una planta de carbón u otro combustible fósil, pero sí influye en la viabilidad de la estación. Para producir más energía de la que consumen las bombas, la generación de electricidad requiere campos geotérmicos de alta temperatura y ciclos de calor especializados. [ cita requerida ] Debido a que la energía geotérmica no depende de fuentes variables de energía, a diferencia de, por ejemplo, la eólica o la solar, su factor de capacidad puede ser bastante grande: se ha demostrado hasta un 96%. [18] Sin embargo, el factor de capacidad medio mundial fue del 74,5% en 2008, según el IPCC . [19]
Recursos
El contenido de calor de la Tierra es de aproximadamente 1 × 10 19 TJ (2,8 × 10 15 TWh) . [3] Este calor fluye naturalmente a la superficie por conducción a una tasa de 44,2 TW [20] y se repone por desintegración radiactiva a una tasa de 30 TW. [7] Estas tarifas de energía son más del doble del consumo actual de energía de la humanidad a partir de fuentes primarias, pero la mayor parte de esta energía es demasiado difusa (aproximadamente 0,1 W / m 2 en promedio) para ser recuperable. La corteza terrestre actúa efectivamente como una manta aislante gruesa que debe ser perforada por conductos de fluidos (de magma , agua u otros) para liberar el calor que se encuentra debajo.
La generación de electricidad requiere recursos de alta temperatura que solo pueden provenir de las profundidades del subsuelo. El calor debe llevarse a la superficie mediante la circulación de fluidos, ya sea a través de conductos de magma , fuentes termales , circulación hidrotermal , pozos de petróleo , pozos de agua perforados o una combinación de estos. Esta circulación a veces existe de forma natural donde la corteza es delgada: los conductos de magma acercan el calor a la superficie y las aguas termales lo llevan a la superficie. Si no hay aguas termales disponibles, se debe perforar un pozo en un acuífero caliente . Lejos de los límites de las placas tectónicas, el gradiente geotérmico es de 25 a 30 ° C por kilómetro (km) de profundidad en la mayor parte del mundo, por lo que los pozos deberían tener varios kilómetros de profundidad para permitir la generación de electricidad. [3] La cantidad y calidad de los recursos recuperables mejora con la profundidad de perforación y la proximidad a los límites de las placas tectónicas.
En suelos calientes pero secos, o donde la presión del agua es inadecuada, el líquido inyectado puede estimular la producción. Los desarrolladores perforan dos agujeros en un sitio candidato y fracturan la roca entre ellos con explosivos o agua a alta presión. Luego bombean agua o dióxido de carbono licuado por un pozo y sube por el otro pozo en forma de gas. [15] Este enfoque se denomina energía geotérmica de roca seca caliente en Europa o sistemas geotérmicos mejorados en América del Norte. Este enfoque puede ofrecer un potencial mucho mayor que el de la explotación convencional de acuíferos naturales. [15]
Las estimaciones del potencial de generación de electricidad de la energía geotérmica varían de 35 a 2000 GW dependiendo de la escala de las inversiones. [3] Esto no incluye el calor no eléctrico recuperado por cogeneración, bombas de calor geotérmicas y otros usos directos. Un informe de 2006 del Instituto de Tecnología de Massachusetts (MIT) que incluyó el potencial de los sistemas geotérmicos mejorados estimó que invertir mil millones de dólares en investigación y desarrollo durante 15 años permitiría la creación de 100 GW de capacidad de generación eléctrica para 2050 en los Estados Unidos. solo. [15] El informe del MIT estimó que más de 200 × 10 9 TJ (200 ZJ; 5,6 × 10 7 TWh) serían extraíbles, con el potencial de aumentar esto a más de 2000 ZJ con mejoras tecnológicas, suficientes para proporcionar toda la energía actual del mundo. necesidades durante varios milenios . [15]
En la actualidad, los pozos geotérmicos rara vez tienen más de 3 km (1,9 millas) de profundidad. [3] Las estimaciones más altas de los recursos geotérmicos asumen pozos de hasta 10 km (6,2 millas) de profundidad. La perforación cerca de esta profundidad ahora es posible en la industria del petróleo, aunque es un proceso costoso. El pozo de investigación más profundo del mundo, el Kola Superdeep Borehole (KSDB-3), tiene 12,261 km (7,619 mi) de profundidad. [21] Este récord ha sido imitado recientemente por pozos de petróleo comerciales, como el pozo Z-12 de Exxon en el campo Chayvo, Sakhalin . [22] Los pozos perforados a profundidades superiores a 4 km (2,5 millas) generalmente incurren en costos de perforación de decenas de millones de dólares. [23] Los desafíos tecnológicos son perforar agujeros anchos a bajo costo y romper grandes volúmenes de roca.
Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content, but extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion.[7] Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, individual wells may cool down or run out of water. The three oldest sites, at Larderello, Wairakei, and the Geysers have all reduced production from their peaks. It is not clear whether these stations extracted energy faster than it was replenished from greater depths, or whether the aquifers supplying them are being depleted. If production is reduced, and water is reinjected, these wells could theoretically recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958,[24] and at the Geysers field in California since 1960.[25]
Tipos de centrales eléctricas
Geothermal power stations are similar to other steam turbine thermal power stations in that heat from a fuel source (in geothermal's case, the Earth's core) is used to heat water or another working fluid. The working fluid is then used to turn a turbine of a generator, thereby producing electricity. The fluid is then cooled and returned to the heat source.
Dry steam power stations
Dry steam stations are the simplest and oldest design. This type of power station is not found very often, because it requires a resource that produces dry steam, but is the most efficient, with the simplest facilities.[26] In these sites, there may be liquid water present in the reservoir, but no water is produced to the surface, only steam.[26] Dry Steam Power directly uses geothermal steam of 150 °C or greater to turn turbines.[3] As the turbine rotates it powers a generator which then produces electricity and adds to the power field.[27] Then, the steam is emitted to a condenser. Here the steam turns back into a liquid which then cools the water.[28] After the water is cooled it flows down a pipe that conducts the condensate back into deep wells, where it can be reheated and produced again. At The Geysers in California, after the first 30 years of power production, the steam supply had depleted and generation was substantially reduced. To restore some of the former capacity, supplemental water injection was developed during the 1990s and 2000s, including utilization of effluent from nearby municipal sewage treatment facilities.[29]
Flash steam power stations
Flash steam stations pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-pressure tanks and use the resulting flashed steam to drive turbines. They require fluid temperatures of at least 180 °C, usually more. This is the most common type of station in operation today. Flash steam plants use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360 °F (182 °C). The hot water flows up through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam may be injected back into the reservoir, making this a potentially sustainable resource.[30][31]
Binary cycle power stations
Binary cycle power stations are the most recent development, and can accept fluid temperatures as low as 57 °C.[14] The moderately hot geothermal water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to flash vaporize, which then drives the turbines. This is the most common type of geothermal electricity station being constructed today.[32] Both Organic Rankine and Kalina cycles are used. The thermal efficiency of this type of station is typically about 10–13%.[citation needed]
Producción mundial
The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has reported that 10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power in 24 countries is online, which is expected to generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010.[1][2] This represents a 20% increase in geothermal power online capacity since 2005. IGA projected this would grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to the large number of projects that were under consideration, often in areas previously assumed to have little exploitable resource.[1]
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of installed capacity from 77 power stations;[33] the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California.[34] The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1,904 MW of capacity online; geothermal power makes up approximately 27% of the country's electricity generation.[33]
Al Gore said in The Climate Project Asia Pacific Summit that Indonesia could become a super power country in electricity production from geothermal energy.[35] India has announced a plan to develop the country's first geothermal power facility in Chhattisgarh.[36]
Canada is the only major country on the Pacific Ring of Fire which has not yet developed geothermal power. The region of greatest potential is the Canadian Cordillera, stretching from British Columbia to the Yukon, where estimates of generating output have ranged from 1,550 MW to 5,000 MW.[37]
Utility-grade stations
The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States.[38] As of 2004, five countries (El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica) generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.[3]
Geothermal electricity is generated in the 24 countries listed in the table below. During 2005, contracts were placed for an additional 500 MW of electrical capacity in the United States, while there were also stations under construction in 11 other countries.[15] Enhanced geothermal systems that are several kilometres in depth are operational in France and Germany and are being developed or evaluated in at least four other countries.
Country | Capacity (MW) 2007[10] | Capacity (MW) 2010[39] | Capacity (MW) 2013[40] | Capacity (MW) 2015[41] | Capacity (MW) 2018[42] | Capacity (MW) 2019[4] | Share of national generation (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
USA | 2687 | 3086 | 3389 | 3450 | 3591 | 3676 | 0.3 |
Indonesia | 992 | 1197 | 1333 | 1340 | 1948 | 2133 | 3.7 |
Philippines | 1969.7 | 1904 | 1894 | 1870 | 1868 | 1918 | 27.0 |
Turkey | 38 | 82 | 163 | 397 | 1200 | 1526 | 0.3 |
New Zealand | 471.6 | 628 | 895 | 1005 | 1005 | 1005 | 14.5[43] |
Mexico | 953 | 958 | 980 | 1017 | 951 | 962.7 | 3.0 |
Italy | 810.5 | 843 | 901 | 916 | 944 | 944 | 1.5 |
Kenya | 128.8 | 167 | 215 | 594 | 676 | 861 | 38[44] |
Iceland | 421.2 | 575 | 664 | 665 | 755 | 755 | 30.0 |
Japan | 535.2 | 536 | 537 | 519 | 542 | 601 | 0.1 |
Costa Rica | 162.5 | 166 | 208 | 207 | 14.0 | ||
El Salvador | 204.4 | 204 | 204 | 204 | 25.0[45][46] | ||
Nicaragua | 79 | 82 | 97 | 82 | 9.9 | ||
Russia | 79 | 79 | 82 | 82 | |||
Guatemala | 53 | 52 | 42 | 52 | |||
Papua New Guinea | 56 | 56 | 56 | 50 | |||
Portugal | 23 | 29 | 28 | 29 | |||
China | 27.8 | 24 | 27 | 27 | |||
Germany | 8.4 | 6.6 | 13 | 27 | |||
France | 14.7 | 16 | 15 | 16 | |||
Ethiopia | 7.3 | 7.3 | 8 | 7.3 | |||
Austria | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1 | 1.2 | |||
Australia | 0.2 | 1.1 | 1 | 1.1 | |||
Thailand | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | |||
Total | 9,731.9 | 10,709.7 | 11,765 | 12,635.9 | 14,369 | 15,406 | – |
Impacto medioambiental
Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably carbon dioxide (CO
2), hydrogen sulfide (H
2S), methane (CH
4), ammonia (NH
3), and radon (Rn). If released, these pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, radiation, and noxious smells.[failed verification]
Existing geothermal electric stations, that fall within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies reviewed by the IPCC, produce on average 45 kg of CO
2 equivalent emissions per megawatt-hour of generated electricity (kg CO
2eq/MW·h). For comparison, a coal-fired power plant emits 1,001 kg of CO
2 equivalent per megawatt-hour when not coupled with carbon capture and storage (CCS).[8]
Stations that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust. Geothermal stations can also inject these gases back into the earth as a form of carbon capture and storage, such as in the CarbFix project in Iceland.
Other stations like the Kızıldere geothermal power plant, exhibit the capability to utilize geothermal fluids to process carbon dioxide gas into dry ice at two nearby plants resulting in very little environmental impact.[47]
In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals, such as mercury, arsenic, boron, antimony, and salt.[48] These chemicals come out of solution as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.
Station construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence has occurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand.[49] Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes due to water injection. The project in Basel, Switzerland was suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the Richter Scale occurred over the first 6 days of water injection.[50] The risk of geothermal drilling leading to uplift has been experienced in Staufen im Breisgau.
Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermal stations use 404 square meters per GW·h versus 3,632 and 1,335 square meters for coal facilities and wind farms respectively.[49] They use 20 litres of freshwater per MW·h versus over 1000 litres per MW·h for nuclear, coal, or oil.[49]
Geothermal power stations can also disrupt the natural cycles of geysers. For example, the Beowawe, Nevada geysers, which were uncapped geothermal wells, stopped erupting due to the development of the dual-flash station.
Local climate cooling is possible as a result of the work of the geothermal circulation systems. However, according to an estimation given by Leningrad Mining Institute in 1980s, possible cool-down will be negligible compared to natural climate fluctuations.[51]
Ciencias económicas
Geothermal power requires no fuel; it is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations. However, capital costs tend to be high. Drilling accounts for over half the costs, and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks. A typical well doublet in Nevada can support 4.5 megawatts (MW) of electricity generation and costs about $10 million to drill, with a 20% failure rate.[23] In total, electrical station construction and well drilling costs about 2–5 million € per MW of electrical capacity, while the levelised energy cost is 0.04–0.10 € per kW·h.[10] Enhanced geothermal systems tend to be on the high side of these ranges, with capital costs above $4 million per MW and levelized costs above $0.054 per kW·h in 2007.[52]
Geothermal power is highly scalable: a small power station can supply a rural village, though initial capital costs can be high.[53]
The most developed geothermal field is the Geysers in California. In 2008, this field supported 15 stations, all owned by Calpine, with a total generating capacity of 725 MW.[38]
Ver también
- Enhanced geothermal system
- Geothermal heating
- Hot dry rock geothermal energy
- Iceland Deep Drilling Project
- List of renewable energy topics by country
Referencias
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enlaces externos
- Articles on Geothermal Energy
- The Geothermal Collection by the University of Hawaii at Manoa
- GRC Geothermal Library