Charles XIV John ( sueco y noruego : Karl XIV Johan ; nacido Jean Bernadotte ; [1] 26 de enero de 1763 - 8 de marzo de 1844) fue rey de Suecia y Noruega desde 1818 hasta su muerte. En las listas de reyes noruegas modernas se le llama Carlos III Juan . Fue el primer monarca de la dinastía Bernadotte .
Carlos XIV Juan | ||||
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Rey de Suecia y Noruega | ||||
Reinado | 5 de febrero de 1818-8 de marzo de 1844 | |||
Coronaciones | 11 de mayo de 1818 ( Catedral de Estocolmo , Suecia) 7 de septiembre de 1818 ( Catedral de Nidaros , Noruega) | |||
Predecesor | Carlos XIII y II | |||
Sucesor | Oscar yo | |||
Príncipe de Pontecorvo | ||||
Reinado | 5 de junio de 1806-21 de agosto de 1810 | |||
Sucesor | Lucien Murat | |||
Nació | Jean Bernadotte, más tarde Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, más tarde Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte 26 de enero de 1763 Pau , Francia | |||
Fallecido | 8 de marzo de 1844 Estocolmo , Suecia | (81 años) |||
Entierro | 26 de abril de 1844 | |||
Cónyuge | ||||
Asunto | Oscar I de Suecia | |||
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casa | Bernadotte | |||
Padre | Henri Bernadotte | |||
Mamá | Juana de Saint-Jean | |||
Religión | Luterana anterior. católico romano | |||
Firma | ||||
Carrera militar | ||||
Lealtad | Reino de Francia Reino de Francia República francesa Imperio francés Reino de Suecia Reino Unido de Suecia-Noruega | |||
Años de servicio | 1780-1844 | |||
Rango | Mariscal del Imperio y Generalísimo de las Fuerzas Armadas Suecas | |||
Comandos retenidos | Gobernador de Hannover Gobernador de Ansbach Gobernador de las Ciudades Hanseáticas Ejército del Rin (1798) Ejército del Oeste I Cuerpo IX Cuerpo Ejército de Amberes Ejército Aliado del Norte Comandante Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas Suecas y de las Fuerzas Armadas Noruegas | |||
Batallas / guerras | Guerras revolucionarias francesas Guerras napoleónicas | |||
Premios | Gran Maestre Orden de los Serafines Gran Maestre Orden de la Espada Gran Maestre Orden de la Estrella Polar Gran Maestre Orden de Vasa Gran Collar Legión de Honor Gran Cruz de la Cruz de Hierro Orden de San Jorge Orden de Primera Clase de la Corona de Hierro Orden del Orden militar de elefantes de María Teresa Nombres inscritos bajo el Arco del Triunfo | |||
Otro trabajo | Consejero de Estado Embajador ante la Corte de Viena y Emperador del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico, Rey de Hungría | |||
Nacido en Pau, en el sur de Francia, Bernadotte se unió al Ejército Real francés en 1780. Tras el estallido de la Revolución Francesa , exhibió un gran talento militar, ascendió rápidamente en las filas y fue nombrado general de brigada en 1794. Sirvió con distinción en Italia y Alemania, y fue brevemente Ministro de Guerra. Su relación con Napoleón fue turbulenta; sin embargo, Napoleón lo nombró Mariscal del Imperio en la proclamación del Imperio Francés . Bernadotte jugó un papel importante en la victoria francesa en Austerlitz y fue nombrado príncipe de Pontecorvo como recompensa. Bernadotte era, a través del matrimonio con Désirée Clary , cuñado de Joseph Bonaparte y, por tanto, miembro de la extensa Familia Imperial.
En 1810, Bernadotte fue elegido inesperadamente como heredero presunto del rey Carlos XIII de Suecia , sin hijos , gracias a la defensa del barón Carl Otto Mörner , un cortesano sueco y miembro desconocido del Riksdag de los Estados . [2] Asumió el nombre de Charles John y se convirtió en el regente de facto y jefe de estado. En 1813, tras la repentina invasión francesa no provocada de la Pomerania sueca , el príncipe heredero Charles John jugó un papel decisivo en la creación de la Sexta Coalición al aliarse con el zar Alejandro y utilizar la diplomacia sueca para unir a Rusia y Gran Bretaña en una alianza. [3] [4] Luego fue el autor del Plan Trachenberg , el plan de campaña aliado ganador de la guerra, y comandó el Ejército Aliado del Norte que realizó el ataque decisivo el último día de la catastrófica derrota francesa en Leipzig . Charles John obligó al rey danés a ceder Noruega a Suecia después de la Guerra de la Sexta Coalición , lo que llevó a la guerra sueco-noruega de 1814, donde Noruega fue derrotada después de un solo conflicto de verano. Esto puso a Noruega en una unión con Suecia , que duró casi un siglo antes de ser disuelta pacíficamente en 1905. La guerra sueco-noruega de 1814 se considera el último conflicto y guerra directos de Suecia . [5]
Tras la muerte de Carlos XIII en 1818, Carlos Juan ascendió al trono. Presidió un período de paz y prosperidad, y reinó hasta su muerte en 1844.
Vida temprana y familia
Bernadotte nació en Pau , Francia, como hijo de Jean Henri Bernadotte (1711-1780), fiscal en Pau, y su esposa (casada en Boeil , el 20 de febrero de 1754) Jeanne de Saint-Jean (1728-1809), sobrina de el abad laico de Sireix . El apellido de la familia era originalmente du Poey (o de Pouey), pero se cambió a Bernadotte, un apellido de una antepasada a principios del siglo XVII. [6] Poco después de su nacimiento, Baptiste fue agregado a su nombre, para distinguirlo de su hermano mayor Jean Évangeliste. Bernadotte mismo añadió Jules a sus nombres de pila como un tributo a la Imperio francés bajo Napoleón I . [6]
A la edad de 14 años, fue aprendiz de un abogado local. Sin embargo, la muerte de su padre cuando Bernadotte tenía solo 17 años impidió que el joven siguiera la carrera de su padre. [7]
Carrera militar temprana
Bernadotte se unió al ejército como soldado raso en el Régiment Royal – La Marine el 3 de septiembre de 1780, [8] y sirvió por primera vez en el territorio recién conquistado de Córcega . [6] Posteriormente, el Régiment estacionado en Besançon , Grenoble , Vienne , Marsella e Île de Ré . [9] [10] Enviado a la India, Bernadotte fue capturado en el Asedio de Cuddalore (1783). Alcanzó el rango de sargento en agosto de 1785 y fue apodado Sargento Belle-Jambe , por su elegante apariencia. [11] A principios de 1790 fue ascendido a Adjudant-Major , el rango más alto para suboficiales en el Antiguo Régimen. [12]
Guerras revolucionarias
Tras el estallido de la Revolución Francesa , sus eminentes cualidades militares le valieron un rápido ascenso. [6] Los ascensos de Bernadotte procedían tanto de la estima de sus comandantes como de sus hombres; habiendo sido elegido para el rango de teniente coronel y coronel por sus hombres, aunque rechazó ambas nominaciones a favor del avance tradicional. [13]
Fue durante este período de rápido avance que las cualidades militares por las que se hizo conocido, los asaltos atrevidos y las Gasconades, salieron a la luz. De este último, Bernadotte estaba dotado de su capacidad para inspirar a sus hombres a prodigiosas hazañas de valor. Como coronel y comandante de la 71.a semibrigada, Bernadotte reunió a sus hombres, que se retiraban en desorden antes de un ataque austríaco, arrancándose las charreteras, tirándolas al suelo ante sus hombres y gritando: “Si os deshonráis a vosotros mismos con la huida, ¡Me niego a seguir siendo su coronel! " Los soldados abandonaron las filas, recogieron sus charreteras, las presionaron en sus manos, formaron filas y reformaron la línea y contraatacaron. [14]
En 1794 fue ascendido a brigadier, adjunto al ejército de Sambre-et-Meuse . [6] Después de la victoria de Jourdan en Fleurus (26 de junio de 1794), donde se distinguió con un ataque decisivo y la toma de un terreno clave que condujo a la retirada de Austria, se convirtió en general de división. [15]
Bernadotte jugó papeles clave durante los siguientes 18 meses durante las tres invasiones francesas a Alemania; a menudo se emplea en el lugar de honor durante las ofensivas al frente de la vanguardia, y en la retirada como un especialista defensivo al mando de la retaguardia. [dieciséis]
En la batalla de Theiningen (1796), donde los austriacos superaban en número a los franceses por tres a uno, [17] la retaguardia de Bernadotte rechazó con éxito numerosos ataques mientras infligía grandes pérdidas al enemigo, evitando que el archiduque Carlos cortara la retirada de el ejército francés sobre el Rin después de su derrota por los austríacos en la batalla de Würzburg . [18]
A principios de 1797 el Directorio le ordenó marchar con 20.000 hombres como refuerzos al ejército de Napoleón Bonaparte en Italia. [19] Su exitoso cruce de los Alpes a través de la tormenta en pleno invierno fue muy elogiado pero recibido con frialdad por el ejército italiano. [20] [21] Al recibir insultos de Dominique Martin Dupuy , el comandante de Milán, Bernadotte debía arrestarlo por insubordinación. [22] Sin embargo, Dupuy era un amigo cercano de Louis-Alexandre Berthier y esto inició una disputa duradera entre Bernadotte y el Jefe de Estado Mayor de Napoleón. [23]
Tuvo su primera entrevista con Napoleón en Mantua y fue nombrado comandante de la 4ª división. [24] Durante la invasión de Friuli e Istria, Bernadotte se distinguió mucho en el paso del Tagliamento donde lideró la vanguardia, y en la toma de la fortaleza de Gradisca (19 de marzo de 1797). [19] Después del 18 Fructidor , Napoleón ordenó a sus generales que recogieran de sus respectivas divisiones los discursos a favor del golpe de Estado de ese día; pero Bernadotte envió una dirección al directorio diferente de la que deseaba Napoleón y sin transmitirla por las manos de Napoleón. [19]
Después del Tratado de Campo Formio , Napoleón le dio a Bernadotte una visita amistosa en su cuartel general en Udine, pero inmediatamente después lo privó de la mitad de su división del ejército del Rin y le ordenó que marchara la otra mitad de regreso a Francia. [19] Paul Barras , uno de los cinco directores, se mostró cauteloso ante la posibilidad de que Napoleón derrocara la República, por lo que nombró a Bernadotte comandante en jefe del ejército italiano para contrarrestar el poder de Napoleón. [25] Bernadotte estaba satisfecho con este nombramiento, pero Napoleón presionó a Talleyrand-Périgord , el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, para que lo nombrara en la embajada de Viena . [26] Bernadotte estaba muy descontento; finalmente aceptó el cargo en Viena, pero tuvo que renunciar debido a los disturbios causados por izar el tricolor sobre la embajada . [6] [19]
Después de regresar de Viena, residió en París. Se casó con Désirée Clary en agosto de 1798, hija de un comerciante de Marsella, y una vez comprometida con Napoleón y la cuñada de José Bonaparte . [19] En noviembre del mismo año fue nombrado comandante del ejército de observación en el Alto Rin. Aunque se lo pidieron Barras y José Bonaparte, no participó en el golpe de Estado del 30º Prairial . [27] Del 2 de julio al 14 de septiembre fue Ministro de Guerra , en cuyo cargo demostró una gran habilidad. [19] Sin embargo, su popularidad y contactos con los jacobinos radicales despertaron antipatía hacia él en el gobierno. [28] En la mañana del 13 de septiembre encontró anunciada su dimisión en el Moniteur antes de darse cuenta de que la había presentado. Este fue un truco; interpretado por Sieyès y Roger Ducos , los directores aliados de Napoleón. [19]
Aunque Bernadotte se negó a ayudar a Napoleón Bonaparte a organizar su golpe de Estado de noviembre de 1799 , Napoleón estaba decidido a ganarse al "Hombre Obstáculo" y lo colmó de honores. Napoleón reconoció la capacidad administrativa y la influencia de Bernadotte nombrándolo Consejero de Estado en febrero de 1800. En abril de 1800, a pesar de sus simpatías republicanas, a Bernadotte se le ofreció, y aceptó libremente, desde abril de 1800 hasta el 18 de agosto de 1801, el puesto de Comandante en Jefe. Jefe del Ejército de Occidente en la rebelde Vendée, donde recuperó con éxito la tranquilidad. [6] [19] Esto fue visto como un nombramiento de confianza ya que mientras Napoleón se embarcaba en su Campaña italiana de verano, donde finalmente prevaleció en la Batalla de Marengo , dejó Bernadotte no lejos de París con un ejército. En su nota de despedida a Bernadotte camino a Italia, Napoleón escribió: "Voy a lanzarme una vez más a los peligros de la guerra. No sabemos cómo puede resultar. Si caigo, te encontrarás con 40.000 hombres a las puertas de París. En tus manos estará el destino de la República ". Como Bernadotte era cuñado de José y amigo cercano de sus otros hermanos y hermanas, se cree que Napoleón ha estado considerando el bienestar de su familia en el posible caso de su muerte en el campo de batalla, así como el futuro de la guerra. país, al dejar a su antiguo rival en condiciones de tomar las riendas del gobierno ya que, de sus antiguos rivales, solo Bernadotte tenía la habilidad política y militar y la popularidad para mantener la República. [29]
En 1802, Napoleón Bonaparte propuso que Bernadotte se dirigiera a Nueva Francia para servir como gobernador de Luisiana , que sería transferida de nuevo al control francés tras el Tercer Tratado de San Ildefonso . Al aceptar el puesto, Bernadotte solicitó soldados, colonos y fondos adicionales para apoyar a la colonia, pero Napoleón se negó. En respuesta, Bernadotte declinó el cargo y en su lugar fue nombrado embajador plenipotenciario en Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, su publicación fue cancelada después de la Venta de Luisiana . [30]
Mariscal del Imperio Francés
Con la introducción del Primer Imperio Francés , Bernadotte se convirtió en uno de los dieciocho mariscales del Imperio , y desde junio de 1804 hasta septiembre de 1805 se desempeñó como gobernador de la recientemente ocupada Hannover . En esta capacidad, así como durante su posterior mando del ejército del norte de Alemania, se creó una reputación de independencia, incorruptibilidad, moderación y capacidad administrativa. [19]
Durante la campaña de 1805, Bernadotte, con su cuerpo de ejército de Hannover formado en el I Cuerpo, comandó el Ala Izquierda del Gran Ejército que supervisaba el II Cuerpo de Marmont y tenía la mayoría del Ejército de Baviera adjunto a su mando; unos 65.000 hombres o una cuarta parte del Ejército. Bernadotte también tenía la tarea de asegurar al nuevo aliado de Francia, el elector de Baviera, Maximillian Joseph , que los austríacos serían expulsados de su país. [31] [32]
Bernadotte, con el III Cuerpo de Davout adjunto a su mando, y los bávaros, obtuvo una victoria sobre los austríacos expulsándolos de Munich el 12 de octubre, tomando unos 3000 prisioneros y 19 cañones e instalando a Maximillian Joseph de nuevo en su trono. [33] El I Cuerpo cooperó entonces en el gran movimiento que resultó en el cierre de Mack en la Batalla de Ulm . Las tropas de Bernadotte capturaron Salzburgo el 30 de octubre. [34]
En la batalla de Austerlitz (2 de diciembre de 1805) fue destinado con su cuerpo en el centro entre Soult y Lannes , y contribuyó a derrotar el intento del ala derecha de los aliados de flanquear al ejército francés. [19] Como recompensa por sus servicios en Austerlitz, se convirtió en el primer príncipe soberano de Ponte Corvo (5 de junio de 1806), un distrito de Nápoles anteriormente sujeto al Papa. [35] [19]
Sin embargo, durante la campaña contra Prusia , en el mismo año, Napoleón le reprochó severamente no participar con su cuerpo de ejército en las batallas de Jena y Auerstädt (14 de octubre de 1806). [35] Napoleón, en la noche del 13 de octubre, pensando que se había enfrentado a todo el ejército prusiano en Jena, envió órdenes a Davout , a través del mariscal Berthier, Davout transmitió la orden a Bernadotte a las 0400 del 14 de octubre con la orden que decía: "Si el Príncipe de Ponte Corvo [Bernadotte] está contigo, ambos pueden marchar juntos, pero el Emperador espera que esté en la posición que se había indicado en Dornburg ". [36] Esto estaba de acuerdo con el último conjunto de órdenes escritas de Bernadotte del 12 de octubre que le ordenaba a él ya Davout cruzar la línea de retirada prusiana. En cumplimiento de estas órdenes, Bernadotte, por separado de Davout, salió de Naumburg al amanecer de la mañana del 14 hacia Dornburg y marchó hacia Apolda , a donde llegó a las 16:00. Obstaculizado por el muy mal estado de las carreteras, y un desfiladero empinado dentro del cual se encuentra Dornburg y el estrecho puente que pasa sobre el Saale, que podría pasar sólo una pieza de artillería a la vez, según el general Dupont , no pudo participar en la Batalla de Jena, aunque efectivamente obligó a los prusianos a retirarse de ambos campos de batalla colocando sus tropas en las alturas de Apolda. [37] [38] [39]
The defile was such an obstacle that Bernadotte's 3rd Infantry division, commanded by Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon, was still in the midst of crossing the bridge well after nightfall, making it unlikely that Bernadotte could have intervened at Auerstädt in any event.[40] Afterwards, Bernadotte was accused of deliberately refusing to support Davout, who had unexpectedly encountered the Prussian main army at Auerstädt, out of jealousy, and Napoleon, if reminiscences from St. Helena may be believed, once intended to put Bernadotte before a court-martial.[41][42] In fact, he did what he had been ordered to do, and more fundamental responsibility for his absence rests upon the ambiguous and indirect orders issued by Berthier and Napoleon's unawareness of the Prussian position.[43][44] Documentary evidence supports Bernadotte's assertion that he was ordered to Dornberg as no orders from Napoleon to Bernadotte to march with Davout were ever found in French Imperial Archives while Berthier's order of October 14 were confirmed.[45][46]
After the Battle of Jena, Bernadotte crushed the Prussian Reserve Army, all fresh troops fortified behind a marsh and the River Saale, under Duke Eugen of Württemberg at Halle (17 October 1806), though Imperial Headquarters did not much appreciate this victory.[47] When visiting Halle after the battle, and commenting on the degree of difficulty of storming a fortified position accessible only by a single bridge, Napoleon enigmatically commented "Bernadotte stops at nothing. Someday the Gascon will get caught."[48] Subsequently, Bernadotte pursued, conjointly with Soult and Murat (known as the "Pursuit of the Three Marshals"), Prussian general Blücher's Corps to Lübeck, where his troops stormed the Prussian defenses, taking the city[49] and forcing Blücher's capitulation at Radkow (7 November 1806).[19] When the French forced their way to Lübeck, the city became the target of large-scale looting and rampage by the French soldiers. Bernadotte, struggling desperately to prevent his men from sacking, was given six horses from the Council of Lübeck as their appreciation.[50][51] He also treated captured 1600 Swedish soldiers, under the command of Colonel Count Gustave Mörner, with courtesy and allowed them to return to their home country. The impressed Swedes went home with a tale of Bernadotte's fairness in maintaining order within the city. Count Mörner would later play a prominent role in the election of Bernadotte as Crown Prince of Sweden.[52][53]
Thereafter he marched to Poland in command of the French Left Wing, composed of his I Corps and Ney's VI Corps. Left unsupported by Ney's unexpected movement toward Königsberg, the Russians under Levin August von Bennigsen, passed over to the offensive and attempted to destroy Bernadotte's and Ney's isolated Corps.[54] Napoleon, having received word of the Russian offensive, gave word to Bernadotte to retreat West as to draw the Russians toward him so that Napoleon could then cut-off and surround the Russians. Bernadotte moved West as ordered, pursued by Bennigsen where he ably defeated the numerically superior Russian vanguard at Mohrungen (25 January 1807).
During the battle Bernadotte's personal wagon was captured by the Russians and he was accused, by the Cossacks who looted his baggage, of having extorted a large quantity of silver plate from minor German states, however the claim was never substantiated and ran contrary to Bernadotte's reputation.[55][56] Bernadotte was known throughout the Army for his probity and honesty in the conduct of his affairs on campaign and he refrained from the looting and brigandage that many of his fellow marshals engaged in. As a consequence, Bernadotte's table fare was considered poor by his brother marshals and while others dined on fine service and employed chefs, Bernadotte habitually used his own money to pay for food for his troops, and to give money awards to those who merited recognition.[57][58] Bernadotte held his troops to the same high standard and punished looting and raping severely and was known to intervene with his sword drawn against those engaged in pillaging, as was the case following the capture of Lübeck.[50][51]
[19] Due to the capture of a courier carrying the Emperor's latest orders, Bernadotte was not informed of a change of strategy to move East toward the rest of the French Army. As a consequence, Bernadotte's I Corps was too far away to take part in the Battle of Eylau (7 to 8 February 1807). Napoleon rebuked him for his absence but it became acknowledged that it was not due to Bernadotte, but Berthier's carelessness in dispatching the orderly.[59] The Russians resumed the offensive that summer and Bernadotte was attacked by, and defeated, a strong Prussian Corps at Spanden, preserving the French bridgehead over the Pasłęka, where he was nearly killed when a spent ball struck him in the neck.[60] Due to this near fatal wound, Bernadotte was invalided to the rear and missed the remainder of the Polish Campaign.
After the Peace of Tilsit, in 1808, as well-liked governor of the Hanseatic towns, where he once again proved his administrative and diplomatic abilities,[61] he was to direct the expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to naught because of the want of transports and the defection of the Spanish contingent, which went back to Spain to fight against Napoleon at the start of the Peninsular War.[6] Pursuant to the projected invasion of Sweden, and by virtue of Denmark becoming an ally of France in 1808, Bernadotte found himself de facto head of a French occupation of Denmark. However, Bernadotte maintained strict discipline amongst his troops and his good treatment of the Danes made him popular with the populace and Danish Royal Family. Upon his departure from Denmark he was one of few Frenchmen of the period to be awarded the Order of the Elephant.[62]
During Bernadotte's time as governor of the Hanseatic cities, the Abdications of Bayonne occurred, an event that triggered the Peninsular War that would play so large a role in Napoleon's defeat. For a time Napoleon considered the notion of placing Bernadotte on the Spanish throne; going so far as to hint at it in a letter to him. However, Bernadotte made it known to Napoleon that he didn't want the Spanish Crown.[63] Joseph Bonaparte, Bernadotte's friend and brother-in-law, was chosen instead. It was not the first, or last time, that Napoleon thought of placing Bernadotte on a foreign throne. Indeed, Napoleon on several occasions, both during his days as First Consul and then as Emperor, thought of naming Bernadotte (Napoleon also considered Murat) as his successor by adoption. Despite their rivalry, Napoleon felt that Bernadotte alone had the popularity, administrative and military skill to safeguard the Empire he had built. However, the birth of the King of Rome put an end to Napoleon's need for an heir.[64] Ironically, Bernadotte did eventually wear a crown, not through the auspices of Napoleon, but as an enemy of France.[65]
Being recalled to Germany to assist in the new war between France and Austria, he received the command of the 9th Corps, which was mainly composed of Saxons.[19] Further difficulties with Berthier, and being saddled with ill-prepared Saxons, combined with an illness, compelled Bernadotte to beg for release from service.[44] Bernadotte wrote to Napoleon that "I see my efforts perpetually paralyzed by a hidden force over which I can not prevail."[66] Napoleon disregarded these appeals and Bernadotte proceeded with the campaign, commanding mostly foreign troops with few French troops under his command.[67] At the Battle of Wagram (5 July 1809), he entered battle with his Saxon corps, to which the division of Dupas was attached and which formed his reserve. Resting on the French Left, Bernadotte's corps was battered during the night but resisted the full fury of the Austrian attack facing superior numbers. At a critical moment he ordered Dupas forward to his support; the latter replied that he had orders from the emperor to remain where he was. Having been badly mauled, and fully exposed ahead of the main French line, IX Corps withdrew from the village of Aderklaa against Napoleon's orders. On the second day of battle, 6 July 1809, IX Corps, having been mauled the night before, wherein Bernadotte struggled to rally his demoralized Saxons, was attacked by two Austrian corps, as part of Archduke Charles's effort to break the French line. This time Bernadotte's depleted forces - he had only 6,000 infantry left - broke and fled (Bernadotte's Corps was not the only one to have broken that day, Masséna's troops were also routed by the attack). The routed Saxons retreated in disorder toward Raasdorf as Bernadotte attempted to rally his men, where he encountered Napoleon. IX Corps rallied and played a further role in the battle. Rumors that Napoleon relieved Bernadotte of command on the spot at Raasdorf have long been the stuff of legend, but are not verified.[68] After the battle, Bernadotte complained to Napoleon for having, in violation of all military rules, ordered Dupas to act independently of his command, and for having thereby caused great loss of life to the Saxons, and tendered his resignation. Napoleon accepted after he had become aware of an order of the day issued by Bernadotte in which he gave the Saxons credit for their courage in terms inconsistent with the emperor's official bulletin.[19] Accounts of Bernadotte's role at Wagram are contradictory. While it is true that IX Corps broke on 6 July, as did other French formations, they later rallied and played a part in the victory. Moreover, Bernadotte fought with exceptional personal courage, at the head of his troops, and narrowly averted death when attacked by Austrian cavalry. It is likely that IX Corps' poor performance would have been forgotten, and Bernadotte would have retained his command, had he never published the controversial Order of the Day.[69] However, Bernadotte's praise for the Saxons, as well as his mild and courteous treatment of them while under his command, was never forgotten by the Saxon officers and this would later have disastrous consequences for the French when a whole Saxon division defected to Bernadotte's Army of the North during a key moment of the Battle of Leipzig.[70]
With Bernadotte having returned to Paris, the Walcheren Campaign (July 1809) caused the French ministry in the absence of the emperor to entrust him with the defense of Antwerp with both regular French and Dutch troops along with the National Guard.[71] Bernadotte took command of a chaotic situation wherein troops from all over the Empire and its vassal states, and raw conscripts, were sent to Holland under divided command. He re-organized and trained his forces, named by the Emperor as the Army of Antwerp, by instilling discipline in old soldiers too long at the depots and teaching raw conscripts their trade. Everywhere he instilled a fighting spirit, making an army out of a mob, and thus he rapidly brought the defenses of Antwerp to a high order of readiness.[72] With Antwerp bristling with cannon and numerous defenders, and with the Army of Antwerp whipped into fighting shape, the British, vexed by poor leadership and with half the army immobilized with fever thanks to the insalubrious islands upon which they were quartered, realized that it was no longer possible to close the Scheldt, or take Antwerp, and withdrew their forces.[73] In a proclamation issued to his troops at Antwerp he made an implied charge against Napoleon of having neglected to prepare the proper means of defense for the Belgian coast. A displeased Napoleon relieved Bernadotte of command of his ad hoc army, and ordered his return to Paris to leave for Catalonia and take command of the Army there.[74][75] Refusing to comply with the order, he was summoned to Vienna, and after an interview with Napoleon at Schönbrunn accepted the general government of the Roman states.[19]
Oferta del trono sueco
In 1810 Bernadotte was about to enter his new post as governor of Rome when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King Charles XIII of Sweden.[35] The problem of Charles's successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier. He was 61 years old and in poor health. He was also childless; Queen Charlotte had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. It was apparent almost as soon as Charles XIII was crowned that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with him. The king had adopted a Danish prince, Charles August, as his son soon after his coronation, but he had died just a few months after his arrival.[76] Despite the fact that Napoleon favored his ally Danish King Frederick VI, Danish Prince Frederick Christian initially had the most support to become Swedish Crown Prince as well.[77]
The Swedish court initially sounded out the emperor for his preferences on candidates for crown prince, whereupon Napoleon made it clear he preferred his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais, one of his nephews or one of his brothers. However, Eugène, serving as viceroy in Italy, did not wish to convert to Lutheranism, a prerequisite for accepting the Swedish offer. Moreover, none of Napoleon's brothers were interested in going to Sweden and his nephews were too young, as the Swedes did not want the hazards of minority rule in the event King Charles died prematurely.[78] The matter was decided by an obscure Swedish courtier, Baron Karl Otto Mörner (nephew of Count Gustav Mörner, the commander of the Swedish force captured by Bernadotte at Lübeck), who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated Mörner's offer to Napoleon who at first treated the situation as an absurdity, but later came around to the idea and diplomatically and financially supported Bernadotte's candidacy.[79]
Although the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810[35] he was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates in Örebro to be the new crown prince,[35] and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King.[80][81] Bernadotte was elected partly because a large part of the Swedish Army, in view of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier, and partly because he was also personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners in Lübeck.[82] Another factor which favored Bernadotte's election was his (presumed) close ties to French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte,[83] who had recently defeated Sweden in the Franco-Swedish War.[84]
Before freeing Bernadotte from his allegiance to France, Napoleon asked him to agree never to take up arms against France. Bernadotte refused to make any such agreement, upon the ground that his obligations to Sweden would not allow it; Napoleon exclaimed "Go, and let our destinies be accomplished" and signed the act of emancipation unconditionally.[85] Many were also optimistic that Sweden would capture Finland under Charles John.[77] The Swedish crown prince even unsuccessfully sought Napoleon's support to assist Sweden in conquering Norway.[77]
Príncipe heredero y regente
On 2 November 1810 Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan).[35] At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court; Swedish law required the monarch to be Lutheran.[86]
Charles John, address to the Estates, 5 November 1810.[87]
The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden and quickly impressed his adoptive father. Following his first meeting with his new heir, Charles XIII (who had initially opposed Bernadotte's candidacy) remarked to his aide-de-camp count Charles de Suremain "My dear Suremain, I have gambled heavily, and I believe that after all I have won."[88] He also made himself well liked by Queen Charlotte, who regarded him a "gentleman in every sense of the word",[89] and established a net of contact within the Swedish aristocracy, befriending in particular the Brahe family through his favorite Magnus Brahe and countess Aurora Wilhelmina Brahe, whose cousin Mariana Koskull became his lover.[89]
The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of foreign policy, entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the acquisition of Norway as a compensation for the loss of Finland and Bernadotte proved anything but a puppet of France.[35] Many Swedes expected him to reconquer Finland, which had been ceded to Russia; however, the Crown Prince was aware of its difficulty for reasons of the desperate situation of the state finance and the reluctance of the Finnish people to return to Sweden.[90] Even if Finland was regained, he thought, it would put Sweden into a new cycle of conflicts with a powerful neighbor because there was no guarantee Russia would accept the loss as final.[91] Therefore, he made up his mind to make a united Scandinavian peninsula, which was easier to defend, by taking Norway (intentionally without the ancient and remote provinces of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands) from Denmark and uniting her to Sweden. He tried to divert public opinion from Finland to Norway, by arguing that to create a compact peninsula, with sea for its natural boundary, was to inaugurate an era of peace, and that waging war with Russia would lead to ruinous consequences.[92]
Soon after Charles John's arrival in Sweden, Napoleon compelled him to accede to the Continental System and declare war against the United Kingdom; otherwise, Sweden would have to face the determination of France, Denmark and Russia. This demand would mean a hard blow to the national economy and the Swedish population. Sweden reluctantly declared war against the UK but it was treated by both countries as being merely nominal, although Swedish imports of British goods decreased from £4,871 million in 1810 to £523 million in the following year.[93][94]
In January 1812, French troops suddenly invaded Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.[95] The decisive reason was that Napoleon, before marching to Moscow, had to secure his rear and dared not trust a Swedish continental foothold behind him.[96] To render it the more insulting, Napoleon scheduled it for the Crown Prince's birthday.[97] The initially amicable relationship which Charles John had with Napoleon soon changed because of this invasion.[83] The invasion was a clear violation of international law as well as an act of war so public opinion in Sweden was understandably outraged.[96][98] Moreover, it antagonized the pro-French faction at the Swedish court.[99] Thereafter, the Crown Prince declared the neutrality of Sweden and opened negotiations with the UK and Russia.[100]
In 1812, he allied Sweden with its traditional enemy Russia, and sought to make peace with the United Kingdom with whom Sweden was technically at war. Charles John's personal diplomacy served as the bridge between Russia and the UK as on 18 July 1812 the Treaty of Örebro formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and Britain and Russia and formed an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden; creating the Sixth Coalition. The treaty stipulated that Sweden would land an army of no less than 25,000 on the continent for the express purpose of fighting France, as well as liberating Swedish Pomerania, and in exchange, Russia and the UK would diplomatically and militarily support the cession of Norway from the doggedly French-allied Denmark to Sweden. Throughout summer and fall 1812, Bernadotte sought to add more allies to the Coalition, and negotiated a treaty with the Spanish Bourbons against his own brother-in-law who was currently King of Spain. He corresponded with the King of Prussia, despite Napoleon forcing Frederick Wilhelm III to break off relations with Sweden, encouraging him to renounce the forced alliance with France and join the Coalition. Following the Convention of Tauroggen, which broke the Prussian/French Alliance, Frederick Wilhelm signed the Treay of Kalisz with Russia, and then a separate peace treaty with Sweden, on the basis of Prussian recognition of the Norwegian cession to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pomerania, thus formally joining the Coalition in spring 1813.[101][102]
After the defeats at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the Trachenberg Plan, the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the Truce of Pläswitz.[35]
Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to Berlin and was victorious in battle against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September at the Battles of Großbeeren and Dennewitz. Bernadotte's Army of the North would continue to guard Berlin and keep watch on Davout's forces in Hamburg while the Allies, in accordance with the plan conceived at Trachenberg, maneuvered toward Napoleon's army at Leipzig. With the other Allied armies engaged in battle on 17 October, Bernadotte's army finally crossed the Elbe and joined in the Battle of Leipzig on 19 October. His fresh troops, reinforced by 30,000 Prussians, joined the fray against the already battered French lines where Swedish forces entered battle in numbers for the first time in the campaign. At a critical moment an entire Saxon division went over to his army in response to a proclamation released a week prior in which Bernadotte invited the Saxons to join their old commander in defeating Napoleon.[103] The Army of the North committed the coup de grâce on the already depleted French and Bernadotte was the first of the Allied sovereigns to enter Leipzig.[104]
After the Battle of Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to secure Norway,[35] defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable Treaty of Kiel, which transferred Norway to Swedish control.[86]
However, the Norwegians were unwilling to accept Swedish control. They declared independence, adopted a liberal constitution and elected Danish crown prince Christian Frederick to the throne. The ensuing war was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship.[86][105] The military operations in 1814 were to be Sweden's last war to this day.[106] Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Norwegian constitution and its own political autonomy.[86][105] This paved the way for Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden later that year.[35]
During the period of the Allied invasion of France in the winter and spring of 1814, when it was unclear who would rule France after the war, the Russian Tsar Alexander I, with support from French liberals like Benjamin Constant and Madame de Staël, advocated placing Charles John on the French throne in place of Napoleon. He would rule France as a Constitutional Monarch and leave Oscar as Regent in Sweden and Norway.[107] Ultimately the British and Austrians vetoed the idea, and the Allies agreed that if Napoleon were to be deposed, the only acceptable alternative was the restoration of the House of Bourbon.
Rey de Suecia y Noruega
Charles John had been regent and de facto head of state upon his arrival, and took an increasing role in government from 1812 onward, with Charles XIII reduced to a mute witness in government councils following a stroke.
Upon Charles's death on 5 February 1818, Charles John ascended the throne. He was initially popular in both countries.[35] The democratic process and forces steadily matured under the King's restrained executive power.[108]
Speech of the King on the day of taking the oaths of allegiance and homage, 19 May 1818.[109]
The foreign policy applied by Charles John in the post-Napoleonic era was characterized by the maintenance of balance between the Great Powers and non-involvement into conflicts that took place outside of the Scandinavian peninsula.[110] It made a sharp contrast with Sweden's previous hegemonic expansionism resulting in uninterrupted wars with neighboring countries for centuries, and he successfully kept his kingdoms in a state of peace from 1814 until his death.[86][111] He was especially concerned about the conflict between the UK and Russia. In 1834, when the relationship between the two countries strained regarding the Near East Crisis, he sent memoranda to British and Russian governments and proclaimed neutrality in advance. It is pointed out as the origin of Swedish neutrality.[112]
His domestic policy particularly focused on promotion of economy and investment in social overhead capital, and the long peace since 1814 led to an increased prosperity for the country.[113] During his long reign of 26 years (34 years if one counts his time as regent of the Kingdom from 1810 to 1818), the population of the Kingdom was so increased that the inhabitants of Sweden alone became equal in number to those of Sweden and Finland before the latter province was torn from the former, the national debt was paid off, a civil and a penal code were proposed for promulgation, education was promoted, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures prospered, and the means of internal communication were increased.[113][114]
On the other hand, radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily rightward over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. However, his dynasty never faced serious danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation.[86][35]
He also faced challenges in Norway. The Norwegian constitution gave the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, more power than any legislature in Europe. While Charles John had the power of absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspensive veto in Norway. He demanded that the Storting give him the power of absolute veto, but was forced to back down.[105] Charles John's difficult relationship with Norway was also demonstrated by the Storting's unwillingness to grant funds for the construction of a Royal Palace in the Norwegian capital Oslo. The construction began in 1825, but the Storting halted the funding after the costly foundation was laid and demanded that the appointed architect, Hans Linstow, construct a simpler palace. This was seen by many as a protest against unnecessary spending and the king's authority. The palace itself was not completed until 1849, long after the death of Charles John, and was inaugurated by Oscar I.[115] The main street in Oslo, Slottsgaten, would later be named after Charles John as Karl Johans gate.[116]
His popularity decreased for a time in the 1830s, culminating in the Rabulist riots after the Lèse-majesté conviction of the journalist Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe, and some calls for his abdication.[86] Charles John survived the abdication controversy and he went on to have his silver jubilee, which was celebrated with great enthusiasm on 18 February 1843. He reigned as King of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 until his death in 1844.[35]
Muerte
On 26 January 1844,[35] his 81st birthday, Charles John was found unconscious in his chambers having suffered a stroke. While he regained consciousness, he never fully recovered and died on the afternoon of 8 March.[117] On his deathbed, he was heard to say:
"Nobody has had a career in life like mine.[113] I could perhaps have been able to agree to become Napoleon’s ally: but when he attacked the country that had placed its fate in my hands, he could find in me no other than an opponent. The events that shook Europe and that gave her back her freedom are known. It is also known which part I played in that."[118]
His remains were interred after a state funeral in Stockholm's Riddarholm Church.[117] He was succeeded by his only son, Oscar I.[19]
Honores
- The main street of Oslo, Karl Johans gate, was named after him in 1852.
- The main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was also named after him in 1854.
- The Karlsborg Fortress (Swedish: Karlsborgs fästning), located in present-day Karlsborg Municipality in Västra Götaland County, was also named in honour of him.
- The Caserne Bernadotte , a French military building located in Pau, was also named after him in 1875.
National
- French Empire: Knight Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, 2 February 1805[119]
- Kingdom of Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Iron Crown[119]
- Sweden:
- Knight and Commander of the Order of the Seraphim, 21 August 1810
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, 1st Class, 21 August 1810[120]
- Commander Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa, 28 January 1813[121]
- Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star, 21 August 1810
- Knight of the Order of Charles XIII, 21 August 1810
He became Lord and Master of all Swedish orders of chivalry upon his accession to the throne.[119]
Foreign
- Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of the Order of St. Hubert, 1805[119]
- Kingdom of Prussia:[119]
- Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 7 April 1805[122]
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle, 7 April 1805
- Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, 1813
- Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 15 October 1808[119]
- Kingdom of Saxony:[119][123]
- Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry, 1809
- Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown, 1832
- Russia:[119][124]
- Knight of the Order of St. Andrew, 30 August 1812
- Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, 30 August 1812
- Knight of the Order of St. Anna, 1st Class
- Knight of the Order of St. George, 1st Class, 30 August 1813
- Austrian Empire: Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1813[119][125]
- Spain: Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 2 September 1822[119][126]
- Baden:[119][127]
- Knight Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1830
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Zähringer Lion, 1830
- Kingdom of Portugal: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword[128]
- United Kingdom: Knight of the Order of St. Patrick[119]
Arms and monogram
Prince of Pontecorvo | Coat of arms of Crown Prince Charles John according to the armorial of Knights of the order of the Seraphim | Coat of arms of King Charles XIV John of Sweden and Norway |
Representaciones de ficción
Louis-Émile Vanderburch and Ferdinand Langlé's 1833 play Le Camarade de lit ("The Bedfellow") depicts Bernadotte as King of Sweden; an old grenadier claims that, as a young man, Bernadotte received a tattoo of a scandalous republican motto: either Mort aux Rois ("Death to kings"), or Mort aux tyrans ("Death to tyrants"), or Mort au Roi ("Death to the king"). The tattoo is finally revealed to read Vive la république ("Long live the Republic") and a Phrygian cap: a highly ironic image and text for the skin of a king.[129] This play was so popular that the idea that King Charles XIV John had a tattoo reading "Death to kings" is often repeated as fact, although there is no basis to it.[130][131][132] However, it is true that Bernadotte, for reasons of discretion publicly, proclaimed himself in 1797 "a Republican both by principle and conviction" who would “to the moment of my death, oppose all Royalists and enemies to the Directory".[133]
Désirée Clary's relationships with Bonaparte and Bernadotte were the subject of the novel Désirée by Annemarie Selinko.[134]
The novel was filmed as Désirée in 1954, with Marlon Brando as Napoleon, Jean Simmons as Désirée, and Michael Rennie as Bernadotte.[135]
Bernadotte is a primary supporting character in the historical fiction novel by New York Times Bestselling author Allison Pataki A Queen's Fortune: A Novel of Desiree, Napoleon, and the Dynasty that outlasted the Empire, that tells the life story of his wife (and Queen of Sweden and Norway) Desiree Clary.[136]
Ver también
- Swedish–Norwegian War (1814)
- Union between Sweden and Norway
- Napoleonic Wars
- War of the Sixth Coalition
- War of the Seventh Coalition
Notas
- ^ Ulf Ivar Nilsson in Allt vi trodde vi visste men som faktiskt är FEL FEL FEL!, Bokförlaget Semic 2007 ISBN 978-91-552-3572-7 p. 40
- ^ Cronholm 1902, pp. 249–71.
- ^ Barton, Dunbar (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King 1810-1844. Pp. 53-57. John Murray, London.
- ^ Scott, Franklin (1935). Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon. Pp. 19-20, 33-35.
- ^ https://www.thelocal.se/20140815/sweden-celebrates-200-years-of-peace
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bain 1911, p. 931.
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 6
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 5
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 8–13
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 14
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 11
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 15
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1914). Bernadotte: The First Phase. pp. 50–52, 70–71.
- ^ Barton (1914), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1914). Bernadotte: The First Phase. pp. 92–94
- ^ Barton (1914). pp. 98–101
- ^ Barton (1914)., 110-114.
- ^ Barton (1914). Pp. 110-114.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Ripley & Dana 1879, p. 571.
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 42
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 42
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 42–43
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 44
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 43
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 60–61
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 61
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 84
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 88
- ^ Barton, D. Plunket (1930) Pp. 14-19
- ^ Olivier, Jean-Marc (2010). "Bernadotte, Bonaparte, and Louisiana: the last dream of a French Empire in North America" (PDF). In Belaubre, Christope; Dym, Jordana; Savage, John (eds.). Napoleon's Atlantic: The Impact of Napoleonic Empire in the Atlantic World. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. 141–50. ISBN 978-9004181540. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
- ^ Maude, F.A (1912) pp. 150-151
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 106-109
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 108-109
- ^ Maude, F.A (1912) pp. 222-226
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bain 1911, p. 932.
- ^ Barton, (1921). Pp. 148-156.
- ^ Titeux 1903, pp. 86–104.
- ^ Foucart 1887, pp. 694–97.
- ^ Alison 1836, pp. 758, 764–65.
- ^ Barton (1921) P. 143.
- ^ Favier 2010, pp. 137–39.
- ^ Palmer 1990, p. 135.
- ^ Alison 1836, p. 765.
- ^ a b Scott 1962, p. 284.
- ^ Dunn-Pattinson, R.P. (1909) Napoleon's Marshals. P. 81. Methuen & Co. London.
- ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunkett (1921). Bernadotte and Napoleon. Pp. 148-156. John Murray, London.
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 193
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 135
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 165–71.
- ^ a b Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). pp. 198–99
- ^ a b Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 132–37
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 136–37
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 169-170, 256-257.
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 172–76
- ^ Chandler, David G. (1987) Napoleon's Marshals. P. XLV. MacMillan, New York
- ^ Barton (1921), P. 179
- ^ Chandler, P. XLV
- ^ Barton (1921), P. 179.
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 140–41
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 178–83
- ^ Barton, pp. 197–201
- ^ Barton, pp. 194–96
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921) pp. 192–93.
- ^ Ibid. p. 209.
- ^ Ibid, pp. 192–95
- ^ Barton 1930, pp. 216–17.
- ^ Scott 1962, pp. 284–85.
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921). pp. 223–25.
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921). pp. 227–28.
- ^ Smith, Digby (2001). pp. 225–29
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 153
- ^ Barton, Plunkett (1921). pp. 237–40
- ^ Howard, Martin (2012). pp. 139–47.
- ^ Palmer, Alan( 1990). pp. 153–54
- ^ Favier, Franck (2010). p. 158
- ^ "Charles XIII – king of Sweden".
- ^ a b c Planert, Ute (2015). Napoleon's Empire: European Politics in Global Perspective. p. 221. ISBN 978-1137455475. Retrieved 27 December 2018.
- ^ Barton, D. Plunkett (1921). pp. 250–56, 268–72.
- ^ Ibid. pp. 268–78.
- ^ Ancienneté och Rang-Rulla öfver Krigsmagten år 1813 (in Swedish). 1813.
- ^ Barton, sir Dunbar Plunket (1925). Pp. 4-6.
- ^ Favier, Franck (2010). p. 12
- ^ a b "Napoleonic Marshals : Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte : Napoleonic Wars : France".
- ^ Carl Ploetz (1911). Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern History. p. 473. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
- ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1930). pp. 245–46
- ^ a b c d e f g "Charles XIV John – king of Sweden and Norway".
- ^ Meredith, William George (1829). pp. 105–06
- ^ Barton, Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 251
- ^ a b Hedvig Elisabet Charlotta, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlottas dagbok. 9, 1812–1817, Norstedt, Stockholm, 1942
- ^ Berdah, Jean-Francois (2009). p. 39
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). p. 181
- ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1930). pp. 257–58
- ^ Berdah, Jean-Francois (2009). pp. 40–41
- ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 259
- ^ Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1930). p. 265
- ^ a b Scott, Franklin D. (1988). p. 307
- ^ Palmer, Alan (1990). pp. 185–86
- ^ Favier, Franck (2010). pp. 206–07
- ^ Griffiths, Tony (2004). p. 19
- ^ Berdah, Jean-Francois (2009). p. 45
- ^ Barton, Dunbar (1925). Pp. 53-58
- ^ Scott, Franklin (1935). Pp. 33-38.
- ^ Barton, Dunbar (1925). p. 94,
- ^ Ibid, pp. 101–08.
- ^ a b c "Norway – Facts, Points of Interest, Geography, & History".
- ^ Hårdstedt 2016, p. 222.
- ^ Barton, Pp. 110-131.
- ^ Scott 1962, p. 286.
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- ^ Killham, Edward L.(1993). pp. 17–19
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- ^ Alm, Mikael; Johansson, Brittinger (Eds) (2008). p. 12
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- ^ Posttidningar Archived 27 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine magasin.kb.se.
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- ^ Library of Congress # 52033733
- ^ "NY Times: Désirée". Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times. Baseline & All Movie Guide. 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
- ^ Pataki, Allison.(2020) "A Queen's Fortune: A Novel of Desiree, Napoleon, and the Dynasty that outlasted the Empire." Ballantine Books, New York ISBN 978-0-593-12818-3.
Referencias
- Agius, Christine (2006). The social construction of Swedish neutrality: Challenges to Swedish Identity and Sovereignty, Manchester University Press, Manchester. ISBN 0-7190-7152-6
- Alison, Sir Archibald (1836). History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution Volume V. William Blakewood and Sons, Edinghburg; Thomas Cadell, London.
- Alm, Mikael; Johansson, Brittinger (Eds) (2008). Script of Kingship: Essays on Bernadotte and Dynastic Formation in an Age of Revolution, Reklam & katalogtryck AB, Uppsala. ISBN 978-91-977312-2-5
- Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1921). Bernadotte and Napoleon: 1763–1810. London: John Murray.
- Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1925). Bernadotte Prince and King 1810–1844, John Murray, London.
- Barton, Sir Dunbar Plunket (1930). The Amazing Career of Bernadotte 1763–1844. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
- Berdah, Jean-Francois (2009). "The Triumph of Neutrality : Bernadotte and European Geopolitics (1810–1844)", Revue D’ Histoire Nordique, No. 6–7.
- Cronholm, Neander N. (1902). "39". A History of Sweden from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Chicago, New York [etc.] The author. pp. 249–71.
- Favier, Franck (2010). Bernadotte: Un marechal d'empire sur le trone de Suede. Paris: Ellipses Edition Marketing. ISBN 978-2340006058.
- Foucart, Paul Jean (1887). Campagne de Prusse (1806). Paris: Berger-Levraut.
- Griffiths, Tony (2004). Scandinavia. London: C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 1-85065-317-8.
- Hårdstedt, Martin (2016). "Decline and Consolidation: Sweden, the Napoleonic Wars and Geopolitical Restructuring in Northern Europe". Napoleon's Empire: European Politics in Global Perspective. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-45547-5.
- Howard, Martin R (2012). Walachren 1809: The Scandalous Destruction of a British Army. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-84884-468-1.
- Killham, Edward L. (1993). The Nordic Way : A Path to Baltic Equilibrium. Washington, DC: The Compass Press. ISBN 0-929590-12-0.
- Meredith, William George (1829). Memorials of Charles John, King of Sweden and Norway. London: Henry Colburn.
- Palmer, Alan (1990). Bernadotte : Napoleon's Marshal, Sweden's King. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-4703-4.
- Scott, Franklin D. (1962). "Charles XIV John". Encyclopædia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge Volume 5 (1962). pp. 283–86.
- Scott, Franklin D. (1988). Sweden, The Nation's History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-8093-1489-4.
- Six, Georges (1934). "Bernadotte (Jean-Baptiste-Jules de, prince de Ponte-Corvo)". Dictionnaire biographique des généraux et amiraux français de la Révolution et de l'Empire: 1792–1814 (in French). 1. Paris: Librairie Historique et Nobilaire. pp. 81–82.
- Sjostrom, Olof. "Karl XIV Johan" (PDF). Ambassade de France en Suede. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
- Smith, Digby (2001). 1813 Leipzig. Napoleon and the Battle of Nations. Greenhill, London. ISBN 1-85367-435-4
- Titeux, Eugene (1903). "Le Maréchal Bernadotte et la manoeuvre d'Jena (d'après les archives de la Guerre et les papiers du general Dupont)". Revue Napoleonienne. 4 (1903): 68–152.
- Wahlbäck, Krister (1986). The Roots of Swedish Neutrality, The Swedish Institute, Stockholm.
Attribution
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). "Charles XIV.". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 931–32.
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Ripley, George; Dana, Charles A., eds. (1879). . The American Cyclopædia.
Otras lecturas
- Alm, Mikael and Britt-Inger Johansson, eds. Scripts of Kingship: Essays on Bernadotte and Dynastic Formation in an Age of Revolution (Uppsala: Swedish Science Press, 2008)
- Review by Rasmus Glenthøj, English Historical Review (2010) 125#512 pp. 205–08.
- Barton, Dunbar B.: The amazing career of Bernadotte, 1930; condensed one-volume biography based on Barton's detailed 3 vol biography 1914–1925, which contained many documents
- Koht, Halvdan. "Bernadotte and Swedish-American Relations, 1810–1814," Journal of Modern History (1944) 16#4 pp. 265–85 in JSTOR
- Kurtz, Harold. "Sergeant, Marshal and King: Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, 1763-1844" History Today (Jan 1964) 14#1 pp 3–13 and part 2, . (Mar 1964) 14#3 pp171–180
- Lord Russell of Liverpool: Bernadotte: Marshal of France & King of Sweden, 1981
- Jean-Marc Olivier. "Bernadotte Revisited, or the Complexity of a Long Reign (1810–1844)", in Nordic Historical Review, n°2, 2006.
- Scott, Franklin D. Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon (1935); scholarly analysis
- Moncure, James A. ed. Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450–Present (4 vol. 1992); vol. 1, pp. 126–34
enlaces externos
- Media related to Charles XIV John of Sweden at Wikimedia Commons
- "Marshal Bernadotte". The Napoleon Series.
- . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Charles XIV/III John House of Bernadotte Born: 26 January 1763 Died: 8 March 1844 | ||
Regnal titles | ||
---|---|---|
Preceded by Charles XIII/II | King of Sweden and Norway 5 February 1818 – 8 March 1844 | Succeeded by Oscar I |
New title | Prince of Pontecorvo 5 June 1806 – 21 August 1810 | Vacant Title next held by Lucien Murat |
Political offices | ||
Preceded by Louis de Mureau | Minister of War of France 2 July 1799 – 14 September 1799 | Succeeded by Edmond Dubois-Crancé |