Recep Tayyip Erdoğan [a] (nacido el 26 de febrero de 1954) es un político turco que se desempeña como presidente actual de Turquía . Anteriormente se desempeñó como Primer Ministro de Turquía de 2003 a 2014 y como Alcalde de Estambul de 1994 a 1998. Fundó el Partido Justicia y Desarrollo (AKP) en 2001, lo que lo llevó a victorias electorales en 2002 , 2007 y 2011 antes de ser requerido dimitir tras su elección como presidente en 2014. Más tarde regresó a la dirección del AKP en 2017 tras el referéndum constitucional de ese año. Viniendo de un islamistaCon antecedentes políticos y autodescripción como un demócrata conservador , ha promovido políticas socialmente conservadoras y populistas durante su administración. [7] [8] [9]
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan | |
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12 ° presidente de Turquía | |
Asumió el cargo el 28 de agosto de 2014 | |
Primer ministro | Ahmet Davutoğlu (2014-2016) Binali Yıldırım (2016-2018) |
Vicepresidente | Fuat Oktay (2018-presente) |
Precedido por | Abdullah Gül |
Primer ministro de turquía | |
En el cargo 14 de marzo de 2003 - 28 de agosto de 2014 | |
presidente | Ahmet Necdet Sezer Abdullah Gül |
Diputado | Gabinete II (2007-2011)
Gabinete III (2011-2014)
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Precedido por | Abdullah Gül |
Sucesor | Ahmet Davutoğlu |
Líder del Partido Justicia y Desarrollo | |
Asumió el cargo el 21 de mayo de 2017 | |
Precedido por | Binali Yıldırım |
En el cargo 14 de agosto de 2001 - 27 de agosto de 2014 | |
Precedido por | Posición establecida |
Sucesor | Ahmet Davutoğlu |
Alcalde de estambul | |
En el cargo 27 de marzo de 1994 - 6 de noviembre de 1998 | |
Precedido por | Nurettin Sözen |
Sucesor | Ali Müfit Gürtuna |
Miembro de la Gran Asamblea Nacional | |
En funciones del 9 de marzo de 2003 al 28 de agosto de 2014 | |
Distrito electoral |
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Detalles personales | |
Nació | Kasımpaşa , Estambul , Turquía | 26 de febrero de 1954
Partido político | Partido Justicia y Desarrollo (2001-2014; 2017-presente) |
Otras afiliaciones políticas |
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Esposos) | Emine Gülbaran ( m. 1978 ) |
Niños |
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Padres |
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Parientes |
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Residencia | Complejo presidencial , Ankara |
alma mater | Universidad de Mármara [1] ( controvertido ) |
Firma | |
Sitio web | Sitio web del gobierno |
En las elecciones de 1994 como candidato del Partido del Bienestar Islámico , fue elegido alcalde de Estambul . Más tarde fue despojado de su cargo, expulsado de un cargo político y encarcelado durante cuatro meses por incitar al odio religioso, debido a la recitación de un poema de Ziya Gökalp . [10] [11] Erdoğan posteriormente abandonó la política abiertamente islamista, estableciendo el AKP conservador moderado en 2001, que luego llevó a una victoria aplastante en 2002. Con Erdoğan todavía técnicamente prohibido para ocupar el cargo, el cofundador del AKP, Abdullah Gül , en cambio, se convirtió en primer ministro y luego anuló la prohibición política de Erdogan. Después de ganar una elección parcial en Siirt en 2003, Erdoğan reemplazó a Gül como primer ministro, y Gül se convirtió en el candidato del AKP a la presidencia. [12] Erdogan llevó al AKP a dos victorias electorales más en 2007 y 2011 , antes de ser elegido presidente en 2014 y reelegido en 2018.
Los primeros años del mandato de Erdogan como primer ministro vieron avances en las negociaciones para la adhesión de Turquía a la Unión Europea , una recuperación económica tras una crisis financiera en 2001 e inversiones en infraestructura, incluidas carreteras , aeropuertos y una red de trenes de alta velocidad . También ganó dos referendos constitucionales exitosos en 2007 y 2010 . Sin embargo, su gobierno siguió siendo controvertido por sus estrechos vínculos con Fethullah Gülen y su Movimiento Gülen (desde entonces designado como organización terrorista por el estado turco) con quien el AKP fue acusado de orquestar purgas contra burócratas seculares y oficiales militares a través de los juicios de Balyoz y Ergenekon. . [13] [14] A finales de 2012, su gobierno inició negociaciones de paz con el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán (PKK) para poner fin al conflicto turco-kurdo (1978-presente) . El alto el fuego se rompió en 2015, lo que provocó una nueva escalada del conflicto . La política exterior de Erdogan ha sido descrita como neo-otomana y ha llevado a la participación turca en la Guerra Civil Siria , con su enfoque en evitar que las Fuerzas Democráticas Sirias ganen terreno en la frontera entre Siria y Turquía durante la Guerra Civil Siria .
En los años más recientes del gobierno de Erdogan, Turquía ha experimentado un retroceso democrático y corrupción. [8] [15] [16] [17] Comenzando con las protestas contra el gobierno en 2013, su gobierno impuso una creciente censura en la prensa y las redes sociales, restringiendo el acceso a sitios como YouTube , Twitter y Wikipedia . [18] Esto paralizó las negociaciones relacionadas con la adhesión de Turquía a la UE. Un escándalo de corrupción de 100.000 millones de dólares en 2013 provocó el arresto de los aliados cercanos de Erdoğan e incriminó a Erdoğan. [19] [20] [21] Después de un deterioro en las relaciones con Gülen, Erdogan procedió a purgar a sus partidarios de las posiciones judiciales, burocráticas y militares. Un fallido intento de golpe de Estado militar en julio de 2016 resultó en más purgas y un estado de emergencia . El gobierno afirmó que los líderes golpistas estaban vinculados a Gülen, pero él ha negado cualquier papel en él. [22] El gobierno de Erdogan se ha caracterizado por un creciente autoritarismo , expansionismo , censura y prohibición de partidos o disidencia. [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]
Como defensor desde hace mucho tiempo de cambiar el sistema de gobierno parlamentario de Turquía en una presidencia ejecutiva , [29] Erdogan formó una alianza con el Partido del Movimiento Nacionalista (MHP) de extrema derecha para establecer una presidencia ejecutiva en 2017, donde los cambios fueron aceptados en un referéndum constitucional . El nuevo sistema de gobierno entró en vigor formalmente después de las elecciones generales de 2018 , donde Erdogan y la nueva Alianza Popular AKP-MHP fueron reelegidos. Desde entonces ha estado abordando, pero también acusado de contribuir a, la moneda turca y la crisis de la deuda de 2018 , que ha causado una disminución significativa en su popularidad [30] [31] y se cree que ha contribuido a los resultados de 2019. elecciones locales , en las que el partido gobernante perdió el control de Ankara y Estambul por primera vez en 15 años. [32] [33] Tras la derrota, el gobierno turco ordenó una reelección en Estambul , en la que el partido gobernante volvió a perder las elecciones con un margen aún mayor. [34] [35] [36] Las dos derrotas sucesivas se consideraron derrotas significativas para Erdogan, quien una vez dijo que si su partido "perdía Estambul, perderíamos Turquía". [37]
En julio de 2020, Erdogan ordenó la reclasificación de Hagia Sophia como mezquita. [38] La nueva designación ha sido controvertida, invocando la condena de la oposición turca, la UNESCO , el Consejo Mundial de Iglesias y varios líderes internacionales. [39] [40] [41]
Vida familiar y personal
Vida temprana
Erdogan nació en Kasımpaşa , un barrio pobre de Estambul , al que su familia se había mudado desde la provincia de Rize en la década de 1930. La tribu Erdogan es originaria de Adjara, parte de la República de Georgia. [42] Sus padres eran Ahmet Erdoğan (1905-1988) y Tenzile Erdoğan ( de soltera Mutlu; 1924-2011). [43]
Erdogan pasó su primera infancia en Rize , donde su padre era capitán [44] de la Guardia Costera de Turquía . [45] Sus vacaciones de verano las pasó principalmente en Güneysu , Rize , donde se origina su familia. A lo largo de su vida, a menudo regresó a este hogar espiritual, y en 2015 abrió una gran mezquita en la cima de una montaña cerca de este pueblo. [46] La familia regresó a Estambul cuando Erdogan tenía 13 años. [45]
Cuando era adolescente, el padre de Erdogan le proporcionó una asignación semanal de 2,5 liras turcas, menos de un dólar. Con él, Erdogan compró postales y las volvió a vender en la calle. Vendió botellas de agua a conductores atrapados en el tráfico. Erdogan también trabajó como vendedor ambulante vendiendo simit (anillos de pan de sésamo), vistiendo una bata blanca y vendiendo el simit desde un carro rojo de tres ruedas con los rollos apilados detrás de un vidrio. [45] En su juventud, Erdogan jugó fútbol semiprofesional en un club local. [1] [47] [48] Fenerbahçe quería que se transfiriera al club, pero su padre se lo impidió. [49] El estadio del club de fútbol local en el distrito donde creció, Kasımpaşa SK lleva su nombre. [50] [51]
Erdoğan es miembro de la Comunidad de İskenderpaşa , una comunidad sufista turca de Naqshbandi tariqah . [52] [53]
En 2011, a Erdogan le diagnosticaron cáncer de colon , por lo que se sometió a tratamiento y cirugía. [54]
Educación
Erdogan se graduó de la escuela primaria Kasımpaşa Piyale en 1965, y de la escuela İmam Hatip , una escuela secundaria vocacional religiosa, en 1973. El mismo camino educativo fue seguido por otros cofundadores del partido AKP. [55] Una cuarta parte del plan de estudios de las escuelas de İmam Hatip implica el estudio del Corán , la vida del profeta islámico Mahoma y el idioma árabe . Erdogan estudió el Corán en un İmam Hatip, donde sus compañeros de clase comenzaron a llamarlo " hoca " ("maestro musulmán").
Erdoğan asistió a una reunión del grupo estudiantil nacionalista Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Turcos ( Milli Türk Talebe Birliği) , que buscaba formar una cohorte conservadora de jóvenes para contrarrestar el creciente movimiento de izquierdas en Turquía. Dentro del grupo, Erdoğan se distinguió por sus habilidades oratorias, desarrollando una inclinación por hablar en público y sobresaliendo frente a una audiencia. Ganó el primer lugar en un concurso de lectura de poesía organizado por la Comunidad de Pintores Técnicos Turcos y comenzó a prepararse para los discursos a través de la lectura y la investigación. Erdogan comentaría más tarde sobre estas competiciones como "reforzar nuestro coraje para hablar frente a las masas". [56]
Erdoğan quería realizar estudios avanzados en Mekteb-i Mülkiye , pero Mülkiye solo aceptaba estudiantes con diplomas de escuela secundaria regulares y no graduados de İmam Hatip. Mülkiye era conocido por su departamento de ciencias políticas, que capacitó a muchos estadistas y políticos en Turquía. Luego, Erdogan fue admitido en Eyüp High School, una escuela pública regular, y finalmente recibió su diploma de escuela secundaria de Eyüp.
Según su biografía oficial, posteriormente estudió Administración de Empresas en la Escuela de Economía y Ciencias Comerciales Aksaray (en turco : Aksaray İktisat ve Ticaret Yüksekokulu ), ahora conocida como Facultad de Economía y Ciencias Administrativas de la Universidad de Mármara . [1] Varias fuentes turcas discuten que se graduó, o que incluso asistió. [57] [58] [59]
Familia
Erdogan se casó con Emine Gülbaran (n. 1955, Siirt ) el 4 de julio de 1978. [60] Tienen dos hijos, Ahmet Burak (n. 1979) y Necmettin Bilal (n. 1981), y dos hijas, Esra (n. 1983). y Sümeyye (n. 1985). [60] Su padre, Ahmet Erdoğan, murió en 1988 y su madre, Tenzile Erdoğan, murió en 2011 a la edad de 88 años [61].
Erdogan tiene un hermano, Mustafa (n. 1958), y una hermana, Vesile (n. 1965). [44] Desde el primer matrimonio de su padre con Havuli Erdoğan (m. 1980), tuvo dos medio hermanos: Mehmet (1926-1988) y Hasan (1929-2006). [62]
Carrera política temprana
En 1976, Erdogan se involucró en política al unirse a la Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Turcos, un grupo de acción anticomunista . En el mismo año, se convirtió en el jefe de la rama juvenil Beyoğlu del Partido Islámico de Salvación Nacional (MSP), [63] y más tarde fue ascendido a presidente de la rama juvenil del partido en Estambul.
Ocupó este cargo hasta 1980, se desempeñó como consultor y ejecutivo senior en el sector privado durante la era posterior al golpe militar de 1980 cuando se cerraron los partidos políticos.
En 1983, Erdogan siguió a la mayoría de los seguidores de Necmettin Erbakan al Partido del Bienestar Islámico . Se convirtió en el presidente del distrito de Beyoğlu del partido en 1984, y en 1985 se convirtió en el presidente de la sucursal de la ciudad de Estambul. Fue elegido para el parlamento en 1991, pero se le prohibió ocupar su escaño. [64]
Alcalde de Estambul (1994-1998)
En las elecciones locales del 27 de marzo de 1994 , Erdogan fue elegido alcalde de Estambul con el 25,19% del voto popular. Erdogan era un candidato a caballo oscuro de 40 años que había sido burlado por los principales medios de comunicación y tratado como un paleto por sus oponentes. [sesenta y cinco]
Fue pragmático en el cargo, abordando muchos problemas crónicos en Estambul, incluida la escasez de agua , la contaminación y el caos del tráfico . El problema de la escasez de agua se resolvió con la instalación de cientos de kilómetros de nuevas tuberías. El problema de la basura se resolvió con el establecimiento de instalaciones de reciclaje de última generación. Mientras Erdogan estaba en el cargo, la contaminación del aire se redujo a través de un plan desarrollado para cambiar a gas natural. Cambió los autobuses públicos por otros respetuosos con el medio ambiente. Los atascos de tráfico y transporte de la ciudad se redujeron con la construcción de más de cincuenta puentes, viaductos y carreteras. Tomó precauciones para prevenir la corrupción, utilizando medidas para asegurar que los fondos municipales se usaran con prudencia. Pagó una parte importante de la deuda de dos mil millones de dólares de la Municipalidad Metropolitana de Estambul e invirtió cuatro mil millones de dólares en la ciudad. [66]
Erdogan inició la primera mesa redonda de alcaldes durante la conferencia de Estambul , que condujo a un movimiento global organizado de alcaldes. Un jurado internacional de siete miembros de las Naciones Unidas otorgó por unanimidad a Erdoğan el premio ONU-Hábitat . [67]
Prisión
En 1998, el Partido del Bienestar fundamentalista fue declarado inconstitucional por amenazar el laicismo de Turquía y fue clausurado por el tribunal constitucional turco . Erdogan se convirtió en un orador destacado en las manifestaciones organizadas por sus colegas del partido. [68]
En diciembre de 1997 en Siirt , Erdogan recitó un poema de una obra escrita por Ziya Gökalp , un activista pan-turco de principios del siglo XX. [11] Su recitación incluyó versos traducidos como "Las mezquitas son nuestros cuarteles, las cúpulas nuestros cascos, los minaretes nuestras bayonetas y los fieles nuestros soldados ..." [45] que no están en la versión original del poema. Erdogan dijo que el poema había sido aprobado por el Ministerio de Educación para ser publicado en libros de texto. [69] En virtud del artículo 312/2 del código penal turco, su recitación se consideraba una incitación a la violencia y al odio religioso o racial. [70] Fue condenado a diez meses de prisión, de los cuales cumplió cuatro meses, desde el 24 de marzo de 1999 hasta el 27 de julio de 1999. [10] Debido a su condena, Erdogan se vio obligado a renunciar a su cargo de alcalde. La condena también estipuló una prohibición política, lo que le impidió participar en las elecciones parlamentarias. [71] Hizo un llamamiento para que la sentencia se convirtiera en una multa monetaria, pero en su lugar se redujo a 120 días. [72] En 2017, este período de la vida de Erdogan se convirtió en una película titulada Reis . [73]
Partido Justicia y Desarrollo
Erdogan era miembro de partidos políticos que seguían siendo prohibidos por el ejército o los jueces. Dentro de su Partido Virtud , hubo una disputa sobre el discurso apropiado del partido entre políticos tradicionales y políticos pro reforma. Este último imaginó un partido que podría operar dentro de los límites del sistema y, por lo tanto, no ser prohibido como sus predecesores, como el Partido del Orden Nacional , el Partido de Salvación Nacional y el Partido del Bienestar . Querían darle al grupo el carácter de un partido conservador ordinario siguiendo el ejemplo de los partidos democristianos europeos.
Cuando el Partido de la Virtud también fue prohibido en 2001, se produjo una escisión definitiva: los seguidores de Necmettin Erbakan fundaron el Partido de la Felicidad (SP) y los reformadores fundaron el Partido de la Justicia y el Desarrollo (AKP) bajo el liderazgo de Abdullah Gül y Erdoğan. Los políticos a favor de la reforma se dieron cuenta de que un partido estrictamente islámico nunca sería aceptado como partido de gobierno por el aparato estatal y creían que un partido islámico no atraía a más del 20 por ciento del electorado turco. El partido AK se posicionó enfáticamente como un partido conservador democrático amplio con nuevos políticos del centro político (como Ali Babacan y Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu ), respetando las normas y valores islámicos, pero sin un programa religioso explícito. Esto resultó ser un éxito ya que el nuevo partido obtuvo el 34% de los votos en las elecciones generales de 2002 . Erdogan se convirtió en primer ministro en marzo de 2003 después de que el gobierno de Gül pusiera fin a su prohibición política. [74]
Premiership (2003-2014)
Elecciones generales
Las elecciones de 2002 fueron las primeras elecciones en las que Erdogan participó como líder del partido. Todos los partidos elegidos previamente para el parlamento no obtuvieron suficientes votos para volver a ingresar al parlamento. El AKP ganó el 34,3% de los votos nacionales y formó el nuevo gobierno. Las acciones turcas subieron más del 7% el lunes por la mañana. Los políticos de la generación anterior, como Ecevit , Bahceli , Yılmaz y Çiller , dimitieron. El segundo partido más grande, el CHP, recibió el 19,4% de los votos. El AKP obtuvo una victoria aplastante en el parlamento, con casi dos tercios de los escaños. Erdogan no pudo convertirse en primer ministro ya que el poder judicial todavía lo prohibió de la política por su discurso en Siirt. En su lugar, Gül se convirtió en primer ministro. En diciembre de 2002, la Junta Suprema de Elecciones canceló los resultados de las elecciones generales de Siirt debido a irregularidades en la votación y programó una nueva elección para el 9 de febrero de 2003 . En ese momento, el líder del partido Erdoğan pudo postularse para el parlamento debido a un cambio legal hecho posible por el opositor Partido Republicano del Pueblo. El AKP incluyó debidamente a Erdogan como candidato para las elecciones reprogramadas, que ganó, convirtiéndose en primer ministro después de que Gül entregara el cargo. [75]
El 14 de abril de 2007, unas 300.000 personas marcharon en Ankara para protestar contra la posible candidatura de Erdogan en las elecciones presidenciales de 2007, temiendo que si era elegido presidente alteraría la naturaleza secular del estado turco. [76] Erdogan anunció el 24 de abril de 2007 que el partido había nominado a Abdullah Gül como candidato del AKP en las elecciones presidenciales. [77] Las protestas continuaron durante las próximas semanas, y se informó que más de un millón de personas asistieron a una manifestación del 29 de abril en Estambul, [78] decenas de miles en protestas separadas el 4 de mayo en Manisa y Çanakkale , [79] y un millón en Esmirna el 13 de mayo. [80]
El escenario de las elecciones de 2007 estaba listo para una lucha por la legitimidad a los ojos de los votantes entre su gobierno y el CHP. Erdogan utilizó el evento que tuvo lugar durante las desafortunadas elecciones presidenciales de unos meses antes como parte de la campaña electoral general de su partido. El 22 de julio de 2007, el AKP obtuvo una importante victoria sobre la oposición, obteniendo el 46,7% del voto popular. Las elecciones del 22 de julio marcaron solo la segunda vez en la historia de la República de Turquía en la que un partido gobernante en el poder ganó una elección al aumentar su participación en el apoyo popular. [81] El 14 de marzo de 2008, el fiscal jefe de Turquía pidió al Tribunal Constitucional del país que prohibiera al partido gobernante de Erdogan. [82] El partido escapó de una prohibición el 30 de julio de 2008, un año después de ganar el 46,7% de los votos en las elecciones nacionales, aunque los jueces recortaron la financiación pública del partido en un 50%. [83]
En las elecciones de junio de 2011, el partido gobernante de Erdoğan obtuvo 327 escaños (49,83% del voto popular), lo que convirtió a Erdoğan en el único primer ministro en la historia de Turquía en ganar tres elecciones generales consecutivas, y cada vez recibió más votos que la elección anterior. El segundo partido, el Partido Republicano del Pueblo (CHP), obtuvo 135 escaños (25,94%), el nacionalista MHP obtuvo 53 escaños (13,01%) y los Independientes recibieron 35 escaños (6,58%). [84]
Referéndums
Después de que los partidos de oposición bloquearon las elecciones presidenciales de 2007 boicoteando el parlamento, el gobernante AKP propuso un paquete de reforma constitucional. El paquete de reformas fue vetado por primera vez por el presidente Sezer. Luego presentó una solicitud al tribunal constitucional turco sobre el paquete de reformas, porque el presidente no puede vetar las enmiendas por segunda vez. El tribunal constitucional turco no encontró ningún problema en el paquete y el 68,95% de los votantes apoyó los cambios constitucionales. [85] Las reformas consistieron en elegir al presidente por voto popular en lugar de por el parlamento; reducir el período presidencial de siete a cinco años; permitir que el presidente se presente a la reelección para un segundo mandato; celebrar elecciones generales cada cuatro años en lugar de cinco; y reducir de 367 a 184 el quórum de legisladores necesario para las decisiones parlamentarias.
La reforma de la Constitución fue una de las principales promesas del AKP durante la campaña electoral de 2007. El principal partido de la oposición, el CHP, no estaba interesado en alterar la Constitución a gran escala, por lo que era imposible formar una Comisión Constitucional ( Anayasa Uzlaşma Komisyonu ). [86] Las enmiendas carecían de la mayoría de dos tercios necesaria para convertirse en ley al instante, pero aseguraron 336 votos en el parlamento de 550 escaños, suficiente para someter las propuestas a referéndum. El paquete de reformas incluía una serie de cuestiones como el derecho de las personas a apelar ante el tribunal más alto, la creación de la oficina del defensor del pueblo ; la posibilidad de negociar un contrato laboral a nivel nacional; igualdad de género; la capacidad de los tribunales civiles para condenar a miembros de las fuerzas armadas; el derecho de los funcionarios públicos a hacer huelga; una ley de privacidad; y la estructura del Tribunal Constitucional . El referéndum fue acordado por una mayoría del 58%. [87]
Política doméstica
Problema kurdo
En 2009, el gobierno del primer ministro Erdogan anunció un plan para ayudar a poner fin al conflicto entre Turquía y el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán que duró un cuarto de siglo y que había costado más de 40.000 vidas. El plan del gobierno, apoyado por la Unión Europea , tenía la intención de permitir que el idioma kurdo se usara en todos los medios de difusión y campañas políticas, y restableció los nombres kurdos en ciudades y pueblos que habían recibido los turcos . [88] Erdogan dijo: "Dimos un paso valiente para resolver problemas crónicos que constituyen un obstáculo para el desarrollo, la progresión y el empoderamiento de Turquía". [88] Erdogan aprobó una amnistía parcial para reducir las penas que enfrentan muchos miembros del movimiento guerrillero kurdo PKK que se habían rendido al gobierno. [89] El 23 de noviembre de 2011, durante una reunión televisada de su partido en Ankara, se disculpó en nombre del estado por la masacre de Dersim , en la que murieron muchos alevis y zazas . [90] En 2013, el gobierno de Erdogan inició un proceso de paz entre el Partido de los Trabajadores del Kurdistán (PKK) y el Gobierno turco, [91] mediado por parlamentarios del Partido Democrático de los Pueblos (HDP). [92] En 2015 decidió que el proceso de paz había terminado y apoyó el levantamiento de la inmunidad parlamentaria de los parlamentarios del HDP. [93]
Genocidio armenio
El primer ministro Erdogan expresó varias veces que Turquía reconocería los asesinatos en masa de hasta 1,5 millones de armenios durante la Primera Guerra Mundial como genocidio solo después de una investigación exhaustiva por parte de una comisión conjunta turco-armenia compuesta por historiadores, arqueólogos , politólogos y otros expertos. [94] [95] [96] En 2005, Erdogan y el principal líder del partido de oposición , Deniz Baykal, escribieron una carta al presidente armenio Robert Kocharian , proponiendo la creación de una comisión conjunta turco-armenia. [97] El ministro de Relaciones Exteriores de Armenia, Vartan Oskanian, rechazó la oferta porque afirmó que la propuesta en sí era "insincera y no seria". Añadió: "Este tema no se puede considerar a nivel histórico con los turcos, quienes politizaron el problema". [98] [99]
En diciembre de 2008, Erdogan criticó la campaña Pido disculpas de intelectuales turcos para reconocer el genocidio armenio, diciendo: "No acepto ni apoyo esta campaña. No cometimos un crimen, por lo tanto, no necesitamos disculparnos ... tiene otro beneficio que no sea provocar problemas, perturbar nuestra paz y deshacer los pasos que se han dado ". [100] En noviembre de 2009, dijo, "no es posible que quienes pertenecen a la fe musulmana cometan un genocidio". [101] [102]
En 2011, Erdogan ordenó el derribo de la Estatua de la Humanidad , un monumento a la amistad turco-armenia en Kars , que fue encargado en 2006 y representaba una metáfora del acercamiento de los dos países después de muchos años de disputas sobre los eventos de 1915. Erdogan justificó la remoción afirmando que el monumento estaba ofensivamente cerca de la tumba de un erudito islámico del siglo XI, y que su sombra arruinó la vista de ese sitio, mientras que los funcionarios del municipio de Kars dijeron que fue erigido ilegalmente en un área protegida. Sin embargo, el ex alcalde de Kars, que aprobó la construcción original del monumento, dijo que el municipio estaba destruyendo no solo un "monumento a la humanidad" sino "la humanidad misma". La demolición no tuvo oposición; entre sus detractores se encontraban varios artistas turcos. Dos de ellos, el pintor Bedri Baykam y su socio, el coordinador general de la Pyramid Art Gallery, Tugba Kurtulmus, fueron apuñalados después de una reunión con otros artistas en el centro cultural Akatlar de Estambul. [103]
El 23 de abril de 2014, la oficina de Erdogan emitió una declaración en nueve idiomas (incluidos dos dialectos del armenio), ofreciendo condolencias por los asesinatos en masa de armenios y declarando que los eventos de 1915 tuvieron consecuencias inhumanas. La declaración describió los asesinatos en masa como el dolor compartido de las dos naciones y dijo: "Habiendo experimentado eventos que tuvieron consecuencias inhumanas, como la reubicación, durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, (esto) no debe impedir que turcos y armenios se sientan compasivos y mutuamente humanos. actitudes entre unos y otros ". [104] El Parlamento otomano de 1915 había utilizado previamente el término "reubicación" para describir el propósito de la Ley Tehcir , que resultó en la muerte de entre 800.000 y más de 1.800.000 civiles armenios en lo que comúnmente se conoce como el Genocidio Armenio. [105]
El Papa Francisco en abril de 2015, en una misa especial en la Basílica de San Pedro con motivo del centenario de los eventos, describió las atrocidades cometidas contra civiles armenios en 1915-1922 como "el primer genocidio del siglo XX". En protesta, Erdogan llamó al embajador turco del Vaticano y convocó al embajador del Vaticano para expresar su "decepción" por lo que llamó un mensaje discriminatorio. Más tarde afirmó que "no llevamos una mancha o una sombra como el genocidio". El presidente de Estados Unidos, Barack Obama, pidió un "reconocimiento pleno, franco y justo de los hechos", pero nuevamente no llegó a etiquetarlo como "genocidio", a pesar de su promesa de campaña de hacerlo. [106] [107] [108]
Derechos humanos
Durante el tiempo de Erdogan como Primer Ministro, se redujeron los poderes de gran alcance de la Ley Antiterrorista de 1991 y se inició el proceso de iniciativa democrática , con el objetivo de mejorar los estándares democráticos en general y los derechos de las minorías étnicas y religiosas en particular. Sin embargo, después de que el intento de Turquía de unirse a la Unión Europea se estancó, los funcionarios europeos notaron un regreso a formas más autoritarias, [109] notablemente en la libertad de expresión , [110] [111] [112] libertad de prensa [113] [114] [115] y los derechos de las minorías kurdas . [116] [117] [118] [119] Los miembros del gobierno rechazaron públicamente las demandas de los activistas para el reconocimiento de los derechos LGBT , [120] y los miembros del gabinete insultaron a los miembros de la comunidad LGBT turca. [121]
Reporteros sin Fronteras observó una disminución continua en la libertad de prensa durante los últimos mandatos de Erdoğan, con una clasificación de alrededor de 100 en el Índice de Libertad de Prensa durante su primer mandato y una clasificación de 154 de un total de 179 países en 2013 [122]. Freedom House experimentó una ligera recuperación en los últimos años y otorgó a Turquía una puntuación de libertad de prensa de 55/100 en 2012 después de un punto bajo de 48/100 en 2006. [123] [124] [125] [126]
En 2011, el gobierno de Erdogan hizo reformas legales para devolver las propiedades de las minorías cristianas y judías que fueron confiscadas por el gobierno turco en la década de 1930. [127] El valor total de las propiedades devueltas alcanzó los $ 2 mil millones (USD). [128]
Bajo Erdogan, el gobierno turco endureció las leyes sobre la venta y el consumo de alcohol , prohibió toda la publicidad y aumentó el impuesto a las bebidas alcohólicas. [129]
Economía
En 2002, Erdogan heredó una economía turca que comenzaba a recuperarse de una recesión como resultado de las reformas implementadas por Kemal Derviş . [130] Erdogan apoyó al ministro de Finanzas, Ali Babacan, en la aplicación de políticas macroeconómicas. Erdogan intentó atraer a más inversores extranjeros a Turquía y levantó muchas regulaciones gubernamentales. El flujo de caja en la economía turca entre 2002 y 2012 provocó un crecimiento del 64% del PIB real y un aumento del 43% del PIB per cápita; Por lo general, se anunciaban cifras considerablemente más elevadas, pero no tenían en cuenta la inflación del dólar estadounidense entre 2002 y 2012. [131] El crecimiento medio anual del PIB per cápita fue del 3,6%. El crecimiento del PIB real entre 2002 y 2012 fue superior a los valores de los países desarrollados, pero se acercó al promedio cuando también se tienen en cuenta los países en desarrollo. La clasificación de la economía turca en términos de PIB se movió ligeramente de 17 a 16 durante esta década. Una consecuencia importante de las políticas entre 2002 y 2012 fue el aumento del déficit en cuenta corriente de 600 millones de dólares EE.UU. a 58 000 millones de dólares EE.UU. (estimación de 2013) [132]
Desde 1961, Turquía ha firmado 19 acuerdos de préstamo con el FMI. El gobierno de Erdogan satisfizo los requisitos presupuestarios y de mercado de los dos durante su administración y recibió todas las cuotas del préstamo, la única vez que un gobierno turco lo ha hecho. [133] Erdogan heredó una deuda de $ 23.5 mil millones con el FMI, que se redujo a $ 0.9 mil millones en 2012. Decidió no firmar un nuevo acuerdo. Por lo tanto, se declaró que la deuda de Turquía con el FMI estaba completamente pagada y anunció que el FMI podría pedir prestado a Turquía. [134] En 2010, los swaps de incumplimiento crediticio a cinco años de la deuda soberana de Turquía se negociaban a un mínimo histórico del 1,17%, por debajo de los nueve países miembros de la UE y Rusia. En 2002, el Banco Central de Turquía tenía 26.500 millones de dólares en reservas. Esta cantidad alcanzó los 92.200 millones de dólares en 2011. Durante el liderazgo de Erdogan, la inflación cayó del 32% al 9,0% en 2004. Desde entonces, la inflación turca ha seguido fluctuando alrededor del 9% y sigue siendo una de las tasas de inflación más altas del mundo. [135] La deuda pública turca como porcentaje del PIB anual disminuyó del 74 por ciento en 2002 al 39 por ciento en 2009. En 2012, Turquía tenía una relación entre la deuda pública y el PIB más baja que 21 de los 27 miembros de la Unión Europea y una déficit presupuestario / PIB que 23 de ellos. [136]
En 2003, el gobierno de Erdogan impulsó la Ley Laboral, una reforma integral de las leyes laborales de Turquía. La ley amplió enormemente los derechos de los empleados, estableciendo una semana laboral de 45 horas y limitando el trabajo de horas extras a 270 horas al año, brindó protección legal contra la discriminación por sexo, religión o afiliación política, prohibió la discriminación entre trabajadores permanentes y temporales, empleados con derecho rescindidos sin "causa válida" de compensación, y contratos por escrito obligatorios para acuerdos laborales que duran un año o más. [137] [138]
Educación
Erdogan aumentó el presupuesto del Ministerio de Educación de 7.500 millones de liras en 2002 a 34.000 millones de liras en 2011, la parte más alta del presupuesto nacional otorgada a un ministerio. [139] Antes de su cargo de primer ministro, los militares recibieron la mayor parte del presupuesto nacional. La educación obligatoria se incrementó de ocho a doce años. [140] En 2003, el gobierno turco, junto con UNICEF , inició una campaña llamada "¡Vamos niñas, [vamos] a la escuela!" ( Turco : Haydi Kızlar Okula! ). El objetivo de esta campaña era cerrar la brecha de género en la matriculación en la escuela primaria mediante la provisión de una educación básica de calidad para todas las niñas, especialmente en el sureste de Turquía. [141]
En 2005, el parlamento otorgó una amnistía a los estudiantes expulsados de las universidades antes de 2003. La amnistía se aplicó a los estudiantes despedidos por motivos académicos o disciplinarios. [142] En 2004, los libros de texto pasaron a ser gratuitos y desde 2008 cada provincia de Turquía tiene su propia universidad. [143] Durante la Premiership de Erdogan, el número de universidades en Turquía casi se duplicó, de 98 en 2002 a 186 en octubre de 2012. [144]
El Primer Ministro cumplió sus promesas de campaña al poner en marcha el proyecto Fatih en el que todas las escuelas públicas, desde preescolar hasta bachillerato, recibieron un total de 620.000 pizarrones inteligentes, mientras que se distribuyeron tablets a 17 millones de estudiantes y aproximadamente a un millón de profesores y administradores. [145]
En junio de 2017, Erdogan aprobó un borrador de propuesta del ministerio de educación, en el que el plan de estudios para escuelas excluía la enseñanza de la teoría de la evolución de Charles Darwin para 2019. A partir de entonces, la enseñanza se pospondrá y comenzará a nivel de pregrado. [146]
Infraestructura
Bajo el gobierno de Erdogan, el número de aeropuertos en Turquía aumentó de 26 a 50. [147] Entre la fundación de la República de Turquía en 1923 y 2002, se habían creado 6.000 km de carreteras de doble calzada . Entre 2002 y 2011 se construyeron otros 13.500 km de autovía. Debido a estas medidas, el número de accidentes automovilísticos se redujo en un 50 por ciento. [148] Por primera vez en la historia de Turquía, se construyeron líneas ferroviarias de alta velocidad y el servicio de trenes de alta velocidad del país comenzó en 2009. [149] En 8 años, se construyeron 1.076 km de vías férreas y se renovaron 5.449 km de vías férreas. La construcción de Marmaray , un túnel ferroviario submarino bajo el estrecho del Bósforo , comenzó en 2004. Fue inaugurado en el 90 aniversario de la República de Turquía el 29 de octubre de 2013. [150] La inauguración del Puente Yavuz Sultan Selim , el tercer puente sobre el Bósforo , fue el 26 de agosto de 2016. [151]
Justicia
En marzo de 2006, la Junta Suprema de Jueces y Fiscales (HSYK) celebró una conferencia de prensa para protestar públicamente por la obstrucción del nombramiento de jueces en los tribunales superiores durante más de 10 meses. El HSYK dijo que Erdogan quería cubrir los puestos vacantes con sus propios designados. Erdogan fue acusado de crear una brecha con el tribunal de apelación más alto de Turquía, el Yargıtay , y el tribunal administrativo superior, el Danıştay . Erdoğan declaró que la constitución otorgaba el poder de asignar estos puestos a su partido electo. [152]
En mayo de 2007, el jefe del Tribunal Superior de Turquía pidió a los fiscales que consideraran si Erdogan debería ser acusado por comentarios críticos sobre la elección de Abdullah Gül como presidente. [152] Erdogan dijo que el fallo era "una vergüenza para el sistema de justicia" y criticó al Tribunal Constitucional que había invalidado un voto presidencial porque un boicot de otros partidos significaba que no había quórum . Los fiscales investigaron sus comentarios anteriores, incluso diciendo que había disparado una "bala contra la democracia". Tülay Tuğcu , presidente del Tribunal Constitucional, condenó a Erdoğan por "amenazas, insultos y hostilidad" hacia el sistema judicial. [153]
Relaciones cívico-militares
El ejército turco ha tenido un historial de intervención en la política, después de haber destituido a gobiernos electos cuatro veces en el pasado . Durante el gobierno de Erdogan, la relación civil-militar avanzó hacia la normalización en la que la influencia de los militares en la política se redujo significativamente. [154] El gobernante Partido Justicia y Desarrollo a menudo se ha enfrentado a los militares, ganando poder político desafiando un pilar del sistema laicista del país.
El tema más significativo que causó profundas fisuras entre el ejército y el gobierno fue el memorando electrónico de medianoche publicado en el sitio web del ejército en el que se objetaba la selección del canciller Abdullah Gül como candidato del partido gobernante a la presidencia en 2007. El ejército argumentó que el La elección de Gül, cuya esposa lleva un pañuelo islámico, podría socavar el orden laicista del país. Contrariamente a las expectativas, el gobierno respondió con dureza al memorando electrónico del ex jefe del Estado Mayor General Yaşar Büyükanıt , afirmando que los militares no tenían nada que ver con la selección del candidato presidencial. [155]
Cuidado de la salud
Después de asumir el poder en 2003, el gobierno de Erdogan se embarcó en un amplio programa de reforma del sistema de salud turco, llamado Programa de Transformación de la Salud (HTP), para aumentar en gran medida la calidad de la atención médica y proteger a todos los ciudadanos de los riesgos financieros. Su introducción coincidió con el período de crecimiento económico sostenido, lo que permitió al gobierno turco realizar mayores inversiones en el sistema de salud. Como parte de las reformas, el programa "Tarjeta Verde", que proporciona beneficios de salud a los pobres, se amplió en 2004. [156] El programa de reforma tenía como objetivo aumentar la proporción de atención médica privada a estatal, que, junto con las colas en los hospitales estatales, dieron como resultado el aumento de la atención médica privada en Turquía, lo que obligó a los hospitales estatales a competir aumentando la calidad.
En abril de 2006, Erdogan dio a conocer un paquete de reforma de la seguridad social exigido por el Fondo Monetario Internacional en virtud de un acuerdo de préstamo. La medida, que Erdogan calificó como una de las reformas más radicales de la historia, fue aprobada con una feroz oposición. Los tres organismos de seguridad social de Turquía se unieron bajo un mismo techo, brindando servicios de salud y beneficios de jubilación iguales para los miembros de los tres organismos. El sistema anterior había sido criticado por reservar la mejor atención médica para los funcionarios públicos y relegar a otros a esperar en largas colas. Según el segundo proyecto de ley, todas las personas menores de 18 años tienen derecho a servicios de salud gratuitos, independientemente de que paguen primas a alguna organización de seguridad social. El proyecto de ley también prevé un aumento gradual de la edad de jubilación: a partir de 2036, la edad de jubilación aumentará a 65 en 2048 tanto para mujeres como para hombres. [157]
En enero de 2008, el Parlamento turco aprobó una ley para prohibir fumar en la mayoría de los lugares públicos. Erdogan es francamente anti-tabaco. [158]
La política exterior
La política exterior turca durante el mandato de Erdogan como primer ministro se ha asociado con el nombre de Ahmet Davutoğlu . Davutoğlu fue el principal asesor de política exterior del primer ministro Recep Tayyip Erdoğan antes de ser nombrado ministro de Asuntos Exteriores en 2009. La base de la política exterior de Erdoğan se basa en el principio de "no hacer enemigos, hacer amigos" [159] y la búsqueda de "cero problemas" con los países vecinos. [160]
Erdogan es cofundador de la Alianza de Civilizaciones de las Naciones Unidas (AOC). La iniciativa busca impulsar la acción internacional contra el extremismo a través del diálogo y la cooperación internacionales, interculturales e interreligiosos.
Unión Europea
Cuando Erdogan llegó al poder, continuó con la larga ambición de Turquía de unirse a la Unión Europea . El 3 de octubre de 2005 se iniciaron las negociaciones para la adhesión de Turquía a la Unión Europea . [161] Erdoğan fue nombrado "El europeo del año 2004" por el periódico European Voice por las reformas en su país para lograr la adhesión de Turquía a la Unión Europea . Dijo en un comentario que "la adhesión de Turquía muestra que Europa es un continente donde las civilizaciones se reconcilian y no chocan". [162] El 3 de octubre de 2005, las negociaciones para la adhesión de Turquía a la UE comenzaron formalmente durante el mandato de Erdogan como Primer Ministro. [161]
La Comisión Europea apoya en general las reformas de Erdogan, pero sigue siendo crítica con sus políticas. Las negociaciones sobre una posible adhesión a la UE se paralizaron en 2009 y 2010, cuando los puertos turcos se cerraron a los barcos chipriotas. El gobierno turco continúa negándose a reconocer a Chipre , estado miembro de la UE .
Disputa entre Grecia y Chipre
Las relaciones entre Grecia y Turquía se normalizaron durante el mandato de Erdogan como primer ministro. En mayo de 2004, Erdogan se convirtió en el primer primer ministro turco en visitar Grecia desde 1988, y el primero en visitar la minoría turca de Tracia desde 1952. En 2007, Erdogan y el primer ministro griego Kostas Karamanlis inauguraron el gasoducto greco-turco que da a Caspian gas su primera salida occidental directa. [163] Turquía y Grecia firmaron un acuerdo para crear una Unidad Operativa Conjunta Combinada en el marco de la OTAN para participar en Operaciones de Apoyo a la Paz. [164] Erdogan y su partido apoyaron firmemente el referéndum respaldado por la UE para reunificar Chipre en 2004. [165] Las negociaciones sobre una posible adhesión a la UE se paralizaron en 2009 y 2010, cuando los puertos turcos se cerraron a los barcos chipriotas como consecuencia de el aislamiento económico de la república turca del norte de Chipre, no reconocida internacionalmente, y el fracaso de la UE para poner fin al aislamiento, como había prometido en 2004. [166] El gobierno turco continúa negándose a reconocer a la República de Chipre. [167]
Armenia
Armenia es el único vecino de Turquía que Erdogan no ha visitado durante su mandato. La frontera turco-armenia ha estado cerrada desde 1993 debido al conflicto de Nagorno-Karabaj con el aliado cercano de Turquía, Azerbaiyán .
Los esfuerzos diplomáticos dieron como resultado la firma de protocolos entre los Ministros de Relaciones Exteriores de Turquía y Armenia en Suiza para mejorar las relaciones entre los dos países. Uno de los puntos del acuerdo fue la creación de una comisión mixta sobre el tema. El Tribunal Constitucional de Armenia decidió que la comisión contradice la constitución armenia . Turquía respondió diciendo que el fallo de la corte armenia sobre los protocolos no es aceptable, lo que resultó en una suspensión del proceso de rectificación por parte de Turquía. [168]
Erdogan ha dicho que el presidente armenio, Serzh Sargsyan, debería disculparse por pedir a los escolares que vuelvan a ocupar el este de Turquía. Cuando un estudiante le preguntó en una ceremonia de concurso de literatura si los armenios podrán recuperar sus "territorios occidentales" junto con el monte. Ararat, Sarksyan dijo: "Esta es la tarea de tu generación". [169]
Rusia
En diciembre de 2004, el presidente Putin visitó Turquía, convirtiéndola en la primera visita presidencial en la historia de las relaciones turco-rusas además de la del presidente del Soviet Supremo de la URSS , Nikolai Podgorny en 1972. En noviembre de 2005, Putin asistió a la inauguración de un gasoducto Blue Stream de construcción conjunta en Turquía. Esta secuencia de visitas de alto nivel ha puesto en primer plano varias cuestiones bilaterales importantes. Los dos países consideran que su objetivo estratégico es lograr una "cooperación multidimensional", especialmente en los campos de la energía, el transporte y el ejército. Específicamente, Rusia tiene como objetivo invertir en las industrias de combustible y energía de Turquía, y también espera participar en licitaciones para la modernización de las fuerzas armadas de Turquía. [170] Las relaciones durante este tiempo son descritas por el presidente Medvedev como "Turquía es uno de nuestros socios más importantes con respecto a los asuntos regionales e internacionales. Podemos decir con confianza que las relaciones ruso-turcas han avanzado al nivel de una asociación estratégica multidimensional ". [171]
En mayo de 2010, Turquía y Rusia firmaron 17 acuerdos para mejorar la cooperación en energía y otros campos, incluidos pactos para construir la primera planta de energía nuclear de Turquía y otros planes para un oleoducto desde el Mar Negro hasta el Mar Mediterráneo . Los líderes de ambos países también firmaron un acuerdo sobre viajes sin visa, que permite a los turistas ingresar al otro país de forma gratuita y permanecer allí hasta por 30 días. [ cita requerida ]
Estados Unidos
Cuando Barack Obama se convirtió en presidente de Estados Unidos , realizó su primera reunión bilateral en el extranjero con Turquía en abril de 2009.
En una conferencia de prensa conjunta en Turquía, Obama dijo: "Estoy tratando de hacer una declaración sobre la importancia de Turquía, no solo para Estados Unidos sino para el mundo. Creo que donde hay más promesas de construir Estados Unidos más fuertes ... Las relaciones turcas se basan en el reconocimiento de que Turquía y Estados Unidos pueden construir una asociación modelo en la que una nación predominantemente cristiana , una nación predominantemente musulmana , una nación occidental y una nación que se extiende a ambos continentes ", continuó," que podemos crear un una comunidad internacional moderna que sea respetuosa, que sea segura, que sea próspera, que no haya tensiones, tensiones inevitables entre culturas, lo que creo que es extraordinariamente importante ". [172]
Irak
Turquía bajo Erdogan fue nombrada por la Administración Bush como parte de la " coalición de los dispuestos " que fue fundamental para la invasión de Irak en 2003 . [173] El 1 de marzo de 2003, el Parlamento turco anuló una moción que permitía a los militares turcos participar en la invasión de Irak por parte de la coalición liderada por Estados Unidos, junto con el permiso para que las tropas extranjeras estuvieran estacionadas en Turquía con este fin. [174]
Después de la caída de Saddam Hussein , Irak y Turquía firmaron 48 acuerdos comerciales sobre temas que incluyen seguridad, energía y agua. El gobierno turco intentó enmendar las relaciones con el Kurdistán iraquí abriendo una universidad turca en Erbil y un consulado turco en Mosul . [175] El gobierno de Erdogan fomentó las relaciones económicas y políticas con Irbil , y Turquía comenzó a considerar al gobierno regional del Kurdistán en el norte de Irak como un aliado contra el gobierno de Maliki. [176]
Israel
Erdogan visitó Israel el 1 de mayo de 2005, un gesto inusual para un líder de un país de mayoría musulmana. [177] Durante su viaje, Erdogan visitó el Yad Vashem , el monumento oficial de Israel a las víctimas del Holocausto . [177] El presidente de Israel, Shimon Peres, se dirigió al parlamento turco durante una visita en 2007, la primera vez que un líder israelí se dirigió a la legislatura de una nación predominantemente musulmana. [178]
Su relación empeoró en la conferencia del Foro Económico Mundial de 2009 por las acciones de Israel durante la Guerra de Gaza . [179] Erdoğan fue interrumpido por el moderador mientras respondía a Peres. Erdogan declaró: "Señor Peres, usted es mayor que yo. Tal vez se sienta culpable y por eso está levantando la voz. Cuando se trata de matar, lo sabe demasiado bien. Recuerdo cómo mató a los niños en las playas. .. "Tras el recordatorio del moderador de que tenían que levantarse para la cena, Erdoğan abandonó el panel, acusando al moderador de darle a Peres más tiempo que todos los demás panelistas juntos. [180]
Las tensiones aumentaron aún más tras la incursión de la flotilla de Gaza en mayo de 2010. Erdogan condenó enérgicamente la incursión, describiéndola como "terrorismo de estado", y exigió una disculpa israelí. [181] En febrero de 2013, Erdogan llamó al sionismo un "crimen contra la humanidad", comparándolo con la islamofobia, el antisemitismo y el fascismo. [182] Más tarde se retractó de la declaración, diciendo que había sido malinterpretado. Dijo que "todos deberían saber" que sus comentarios estaban dirigidos a las "políticas israelíes", especialmente en lo que respecta a "Gaza y los asentamientos". [183] [184] Las declaraciones de Erdogan fueron criticadas por el secretario general de la ONU, Ban Ki-moon, entre otros. [185] [186] En agosto de 2013, el Hürriyet informó que Erdogan había afirmado tener pruebas de la responsabilidad de Israel por la destitución de Morsi de su cargo en Egipto . [187] Los gobiernos de Israel y Egipto rechazaron la sugerencia. [188]
En respuesta al conflicto Israel-Gaza de 2014 , Erdogan acusó a Israel de llevar a cabo un " terrorismo de estado " y un "intento de genocidio" contra los palestinos. [189] También afirmó que "si Israel continúa con esta actitud, definitivamente será juzgado en tribunales internacionales". [190]
Siria
Durante el mandato de Erdogan, las relaciones diplomáticas entre Turquía y Siria se deterioraron significativamente. En 2004, el presidente Bashar al-Assad llegó a Turquía para la primera visita oficial de un presidente sirio en 57 años. A finales de 2004, Erdogan firmó un acuerdo de libre comercio con Siria. Las restricciones de visado entre los dos países se levantaron en 2009, lo que provocó un auge económico en las regiones cercanas a la frontera siria. [191] Sin embargo, en 2011 la relación entre los dos países se tensó tras el estallido del conflicto en Siria . Recep Tayyip Erdogan dijo que estaba tratando de "cultivar una relación favorable con cualquier gobierno que tomara el lugar de Assad". [192] Sin embargo, comenzó a apoyar a la oposición en Siria, después de que las manifestaciones se volvieran violentas, creando un grave problema de refugiados sirios en Turquía. [193] La política de Erdogan de proporcionar entrenamiento militar a los combatientes anti-Damasco también ha creado un conflicto con el aliado de Siria y un vecino de Turquía, Irán. [194]
Arabia Saudita
En agosto de 2006, el rey Abdullah bin Abdulaziz as-Saud realizó una visita a Turquía . Esta fue la primera visita de un monarca saudí a Turquía en las últimas cuatro décadas. La monarca realizó una segunda visita el 9 de noviembre de 2007. El volumen de comercio turco-saudita superó los 3.200 millones de dólares EE.UU. en 2006, casi el doble de la cifra alcanzada en 2003. En 2009, esta cantidad alcanzó los 5.500 millones de dólares EE.UU. y la meta para el año 2010 fue de US $ 10 mil millones. [195]
Erdogan condenó la intervención liderada por Arabia Saudita en Bahréin y caracterizó al movimiento saudí como "una nueva Karbala ". Exigió la retirada de las fuerzas saudíes de Bahréin . [196]
Egipto
Erdogan había realizado su primera visita oficial a Egipto el 12 de septiembre de 2011, acompañado de seis ministros y 200 empresarios. [197] Esta visita se realizó muy poco después de que Turquía expulsó a los embajadores israelíes, cortando todas las relaciones diplomáticas con Israel porque Israel se negó a disculparse por la incursión de la flotilla de Gaza que mató a ocho turcos y un turco-estadounidense. [197]
La visita de Erdogan a Egipto fue recibida con mucho entusiasmo por los egipcios . CNN informó que algunos egipcios dijeron "Lo consideramos el líder islámico en el Medio Oriente", mientras que otros apreciaron su papel en el apoyo a Gaza. [197] Erdogan fue honrado más tarde en la plaza Tahrir por miembros de la Unión Juvenil de la Revolución Egipcia, y los miembros de la embajada turca recibieron un escudo de armas en reconocimiento al apoyo del Primer Ministro a la Revolución Egipcia. [198]
Erdogan declaró en una entrevista de 2011 que apoyaba el secularismo en Egipto, lo que generó una reacción airada entre los movimientos islámicos, especialmente el partido Libertad y Justicia, el ala política de los Hermanos Musulmanes . [198] Sin embargo, los comentaristas sugieren que al formar una alianza con la junta militar durante la transición de Egipto a la democracia, Erdogan puede haber inclinado la balanza a favor de un gobierno autoritario. [198]
Erdogan condenó la masacre de Rabaa en Egipto , que tuvo lugar el 14 de agosto de 2013, cuando las fuerzas de seguridad egipcias mataron a más de 1000 personas durante la violenta dispersión de sentadas masivas contra el gobierno en las plazas Rabaa al-Adawiya y al-Nahda de El Cairo . [199] En julio de 2014, un año después de la destitución de Mohammed Morsi , Erdogan describió al presidente egipcio Abdel Fattah el-Sisi como un "tirano ilegítimo". [200]
Somalia
Erdoğan's administration maintains strong ties with the Somali government. During the drought of 2011, Erdoğan's government contributed over $201 million to humanitarian relief efforts in the impacted parts of Somalia.[201] Following a greatly improved security situation in Mogadishu in mid-2011, the Turkish government also re-opened its foreign embassy with the intention of more effectively assisting in the post-conflict development process.[202] It was among the first foreign governments to resume formal diplomatic relations with Somalia after the civil war.[203]
In May 2010, the Turkish and Somali governments signed a military training agreement, in keeping with the provisions outlined in the Djibouti Peace Process.[204] Turkish Airlines became the first long-distance international commercial airline in two decades to resume flights to and from Mogadishu's Aden Adde International Airport.[203] Turkey also launched various development and infrastructure projects in Somalia including building several hospitals and helping renovate the National Assembly building.[203]
Protests
2013 Gezi Park protests against the perceived authoritarianism of Erdoğan and his policies, starting from a small sit-in in Istanbul in defense of a city park.[205] After the police's intense reaction with tear gas, the protests grew each day. Faced by the largest mass protest in a decade, Erdoğan made this controversial remark in a televised speech: "The police were there yesterday, they are there today, and they will be there tomorrow". After weeks of clashes in the streets of Istanbul, his government at first apologized to the protestors[206] and called for a plebiscite, but then ordered a crackdown on the protesters.[205][207]
Presidencia (2014-presente)
Erdoğan took the oath of office on 28 August 2014 and became the 12th president of Turkey. He administered the new Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu's oath on 29 August. When asked about his lower-than-expected 51.79% share of the vote, he allegedly responded, "there were even those who did not like the Prophet. I, however, won 52%".[208] Assuming the role of President, Erdoğan was criticized for openly stating that he would not maintain the tradition of presidential neutrality.[209] Erdoğan has also stated his intention to pursue a more active role as president, such as utilising the President's rarely used cabinet-calling powers.[210] The political opposition has argued that Erdoğan will continue to pursue his own political agenda, controlling the government, while his new Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu would be docile and submissive.[7] Furthermore, the domination of loyal Erdoğan supporters in Davutoğlu's cabinet fuelled speculation that Erdoğan intended to exercise substantial control over the government.[211]
Presidential elections
On 1 July 2014, Erdoğan was named the AKP's presidential candidate in the Turkish presidential election. His candidacy was announced by the Deputy President of the AKP, Mehmet Ali Şahin.
Erdoğan made a speech after the announcement and used the 'Erdoğan logo' for the first time. The logo was criticised because it was very similar to the logo that U.S. President Barack Obama used in the 2008 presidential election.[212]
Erdoğan was elected as the President of Turkey in the first round of the election with 51.79% of the vote, obviating the need for a run-off by winning over 50%. The joint candidate of the CHP, MHP and 13 other opposition parties, former Organisation of Islamic Co-operation general secretary Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu won 38.44% of the vote. The pro-Kurdish HDP candidate Selahattin Demirtaş won 9.76%.[213]
The 2018 Turkish presidential election took place as part of the 2018 general election, alongside parliamentary elections on the same day. Following the approval of constitutional changes in a referendum held in 2017, the elected President will be both the head of state and head of government of Turkey, taking over the latter role from the to-be-abolished office of the Prime Minister.[214]
Incumbent president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan declared his candidacy for the People's Alliance (Turkish: Cumhur İttifakı) on 27 April 2018.[citation needed] Erdoğan's main opposition, the Republican People's Party, nominated Muharrem İnce, a member of the parliament known for his combative opposition and spirited speeches against Erdoğan.[215] Besides these candidates, Meral Akşener, the founder and leader of İyi Party,[216] Temel Karamollaoğlu, the leader of the Felicity Party and Doğu Perinçek, the leader of the Patriotic Party, have announced their candidacies and collected the 100,000 signatures required for nomination. The alliance which Erdoğan was candidate for won 52.59% of the popular vote.
Referendum
In April 2017, a constitutional referendum was held, where the voters in Turkey (and Turkish citizens abroad) voted on a set of 18 proposed amendments to the Constitution of Turkey. The amendments include the replacement of the existing parliamentary system with a presidential system. The post of Prime Minister would be abolished, and the presidency would become an executive post vested with broad executive powers. The parliament seats would be increased from 550 to 600 and the age of candidacy to the parliament was lowered from 25 to 18. The referendum also called for changes to the Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors.[217]
Local elections
In the 2019 local elections, the ruling party AKP lost control of Istanbul and Ankara for the first time in 25 years, as well as 5 of Turkey's 6 largest cities. The loss has been widely attributed to Erdoğan's mismanagement of the Turkish economic crisis, rising authoritarianism as well as the alleged government inaction on the Syrian refugee crisis.[32][33] Soon after the elections, Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey ordered a re-election in Istanbul, cancelling Ekrem İmamoğlu's mayoral certificate. The decision led to a significant decrease of Erdoğan's and AKP's popularity and his party lost the elections again in June with a greater margin.[34][218][35][36] The result was seen as a huge blow to Erdoğan, who had once said that if his party 'lost Istanbul, we would lose Turkey.'[37] The opposition's victory was characterised as 'the beginning of the end' for Erdoğan,[219][220][221] with international commentators calling the re-run a huge government miscalculation that led to a potential İmamoğlu candidacy in the next scheduled presidential election.[219][221] It is suspected that the scale of the government's defeat could provoke a cabinet reshuffle and early general elections, currently scheduled for June 2023.[222][223]
The New Zealand and Australian governments and opposition CHP party have criticized Erdoğan after he repeatedly showed video taken by the Christchurch mosque shooter to his supporters at campaign rallies for 31 March local elections and said Australians and New Zealanders who came to Turkey with anti-Muslim sentiments "would be sent back in coffins like their grandfathers" at Gallipoli.[224][225]
Domestic policy
Presidential palace
Erdoğan has also received criticism for the construction of a new palace called Ak Saray (pure white palace), which occupies approximately 50 acres of Atatürk Forest Farm (AOÇ) in Ankara.[226][227] Since the AOÇ is protected land, several court orders were issued to halt the construction of the new palace, though building work went on nonetheless.[228] The opposition described the move as a clear disregard for the rule of law.[229] The project was subject to heavy criticism and allegations were made; of corruption during the construction process, wildlife destruction and the complete obliteration of the zoo in the AOÇ in order to make way for the new compound.[230] The fact that the palace is technically illegal has led to it being branded as the 'Kaç-Ak Saray', the word kaçak in Turkish meaning 'illegal'.[231]
Ak Saray was originally designed as a new office for the Prime Minister. However, upon assuming the presidency, Erdoğan announced that the palace would become the new Presidential Palace, while the Çankaya Mansion will be used by the Prime Minister instead. The move was seen as a historic change since the Çankaya Mansion had been used as the iconic office of the presidency ever since its inception. The Ak Saray has almost 1,000 rooms and cost $350 million (€270 million), leading to huge criticism at a time when mining accidents and workers' rights had been dominating the agenda.[232][233]
On 29 October 2014, Erdoğan was due to hold a Republic Day reception in the new palace to commemorate the 91st anniversary of the Republic of Turkey and to officially inaugurate the Presidential Palace. However, after most invited participants announced that they would boycott the event and a mining accident occurred in the district of Ermenek in Karaman, the reception was cancelled.[234]
The media
President Erdoğan and his government continue to press for court action against the remaining free press in Turkey. The latest newspaper that has been seized is Zaman, in March 2016.[235] After the seizure Morton Abramowitz and Eric Edelman, former U.S. ambassadors to Turkey, condemned President Erdoğan's actions in an opinion piece published by The Washington Post: "Clearly, democracy cannot flourish under Erdoğan now".[236] "The overall pace of reforms in Turkey has not only slowed down but in some key areas, such as freedom of expression and the independence of the judiciary, there has been a regression, which is particularly worrying", rapporteur Kati Piri said in April 2016 after the European Parliament passed its annual progress report on Turkey.[237]
On 22 June 2016, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that he considered himself successful in "destroying" Turkish civil groups "working against the state",[238] a conclusion that had been confirmed some days earlier by Sedat Laçiner, Professor of International Relations and rector of the Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University: "Outlawing unarmed and peaceful opposition, sentencing people to unfair punishment under erroneous terror accusations, will feed genuine terrorism in Erdoğan’s Turkey. Guns and violence will become the sole alternative for legally expressing free thought".[239]
After the coup attempt, over 200 journalists were arrested and over 120 media outlets were closed. Cumhuriyet journalists were detained in November 2016 after a long-standing crackdown on the newspaper. Subsequently, Reporters Without Borders called Erdoğan an "enemy of press freedom" and said that he "hides his aggressive dictatorship under a veneer of democracy".[240]
In April 2017, Turkey blocked all access to Wikipedia over a content dispute.[241] The Turkish government lifted a two-and-a-half-year ban on Wikipedia on 15 January 2020, restoring access to the online encyclopedia a month after Turkey's top court ruled that blocking Wikipedia was unconstitutional.
On 1 July 2020, in a statement made to his party members, Erdoğan announced that the government would introduce new measures and regulations to control or shut down social media platforms such as YouTube, Twitter and Netflix. Through these new measures, each company would be required to appoint an official representative in the country to respond to legal concerns. The decision comes after a number of Twitter users insulted his daughter Esra after she welcomed her fourth child.[242]
State of emergency and purges
On 20 July 2016, President Erdoğan declared the state of emergency, citing the coup d'état attempt as justification.[243] It was first scheduled to last three months. The Turkish parliament approved this measure.[244] The state of emergency was later extended for another three months, amidst the ongoing 2016 Turkish purges including comprehensive purges of independent media and detention of tens of thousands of Turkish citizens politically opposed to Erdoğan.[245] More than 50,000 people have been arrested and over 160,000 fired from their jobs by March 2018.[246]
In August 2016, Erdoğan began rounding up journalists who had been publishing, or who were about to publish articles questioning corruption within the Erdoğan administration, and incarcerating them.[247] The number of Turkish journalists jailed by Turkey is higher than any other country, including all of those journalists currently jailed in North Korea, Cuba, Russia, and China combined.[248] In the wake of the coup attempt of July 2016 the Erdoğan administration began rounding up tens of thousands of individuals, both from within the government, and from the public sector, and incarcerating them on charges of alleged "terrorism".[249][250][251] As a result of these arrests, many in the international community complained about the lack of proper judicial process in the incarceration of Erdoğan's opposition.[252]
In April 2017 Erdoğan successfully sponsored legislation effectively making it illegal for the Turkish legislative branch to investigate his executive branch of government.[253] Without the checks and balances of freedom of speech, and the freedom of the Turkish legislature to hold him accountable for his actions, many have likened Turkey's current form of government to a dictatorship with only nominal forms of democracy in practice.[254][255] At the time of Erdoğan's successful passing of the most recent legislation silencing his opposition, United States President Donald Trump called Erdoğan to congratulate him for his "recent referendum victory".[256]
On 29 April 2017 Erdoğan's administration began an internal Internet block of all of the Wikipedia online encyclopedia site via Turkey's domestic Internet filtering system. This blocking action took place after the government had first made a request for Wikipedia to remove what it referred to as "offensive content". In response, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales replied via a post on Twitter stating, "Access to information is a fundamental human right. Turkish people, I will always stand with you and fight for this right."[257][258]
In January 2016, more than a thousand academics signed a petition criticizing Turkey's military crackdown on ethnic Kurdish towns and neighborhoods in the east of the country, such as Sur (a district of Diyarbakır), Silvan, Nusaybin, Cizre and Silopi, and asking an end to violence.[259] Erdoğan accused those who signed the petition of "terrorist propaganda", calling them "the darkest of people". He called for action by institutions and universities, stating, "Everyone who benefits from this state but is now an enemy of the state must be punished without further delay".[260] Within days, over 30 of the signatories were arrested, many in dawn-time raids on their homes. Although all were quickly released, nearly half were fired from their jobs, eliciting a denunciation from Turkey's Science Academy for such "wrong and disturbing" treatment.[261] Erdoğan vowed that the academics would pay the price for "falling into a pit of treachery".[262]
On 8 July 2018, Erdoğan sacked 18,000 officials for alleged ties to US based cleric Fethullah Gülen, shortly before renewing his term as an executive president. Of those removed, 9000 were police officers with 5000 from the armed forces with the addition of hundreds of academics.[263]
Foreign policy
Europe
In February 2016, Erdoğan threatened to send the millions of refugees in Turkey to EU member states,[264] saying: "We can open the doors to Greece and Bulgaria anytime and we can put the refugees on buses ... So how will you deal with refugees if you don't get a deal?"[265]
In an interview to the news magazine Der Spiegel, German minister of defence Ursula von der Leyen said on 11 March 2016 that the refugee crisis had made good cooperation between EU and Turkey an "existentially important" issue. "Therefore it is right to advance now negotiations on Turkey's EU accession".[266]
In its resolution "The functioning of democratic institutions in Turkey" from 22 June 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that "recent developments in Turkey pertaining to freedom of the media and of expression, erosion of the rule of law and the human rights violations in relation to anti-terrorism security operations in south-east Turkey have ... raised serious questions about the functioning of its democratic institutions".[267][268]
On 20 August 2016, Erdoğan told his Ukrainian counterpart Petro Poroshenko that Turkey would not recognize the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea; calling it "Crimea's occupation".[269]
In January 2017, Erdoğan said that the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Northern Cyprus is "out of the question" and Turkey will be in Cyprus "forever".[270]
There is a long-standing dispute between Turkey and Greece in the Aegean Sea. Erdoğan warned that Greece will pay a "heavy price" if Turkey's gas exploration vessel – in what Turkey said are disputed waters – is attacked.[271]
In September 2020, Erdoğan declared his government's support for Azerbaijan following clashes between Armenian and Azeri forces over a disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh.[272] He dismissed demands for a ceasefire.[273]
Diaspora
In March 2017, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated to the Turks in Europe, "Make not three, but five children. Because you are the future of Europe. That will be the best response to the injustices against you." This has been interpreted as an imperialist call for demographic warfare.[274]
According to The Economist, Erdoğan is the first Turkish leader to take the Turkish diaspora seriously, which has created friction within these diaspora communities and between the Turkish government and several of its European counterparts.[275]
The Balkans
In February 2018, President Erdoğan expressed Turkish support of the Republic of Macedonia's position during negotiations over the Macedonia naming dispute saying that Greece's position is wrong.[276]
In March 2018, President Erdoğan criticized the Kosovan Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj for dismissing his Interior Minister and Intelligence Chief for failing to inform him of an unauthorized and illegal secret operation conducted by the National Intelligence Organization of Turkey on Kosovo's territory that led to the arrest of six people allegedly associated with the Gülen movement.[277][278]
On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck the Durrës region of Albania. President Erdoğan expressed his condolences.[279] and citing close Albanian-Turkish relations, he committed Turkey to reconstructing 500 earthquake destroyed homes and other civic structures in Laç, Albania.[280][281][282] In Istanbul, Erdoğan organised and attended a donors conference (8 December) to assist Albania that included Turkish businessmen, investors and Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama.[283]
United Kingdom
In May 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May welcomed Erdoğan to the United Kingdom for a three-day state visit. Erdoğan declared that the United Kingdom is "an ally and a strategic partner, but also a real friend. The cooperation we have is well beyond any mechanism that we have established with other partners."[284]
Israel
Relations between Turkey and Israel began to normalize after Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu officially apologized for the death of the nine Turkish activists during the Gaza flotilla raid.[285] However, in response to the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Erdoğan accused Israel of being "more barbaric than Hitler",[286] and conducting "state terrorism" and a "genocide attempt" against the Palestinians.[287]
In December 2017, President Erdoğan issued a warning to Donald Trump, after the U.S. President acknowledged Jerusalem as Israel's capital.[288] Erdoğan stated, "Jerusalem is a red line for Muslims", indicating that naming Jerusalem as Israel's capital would alienate Palestinians and other Muslims from the city, undermining hopes at a future capital of a Palestinian State.[289] Erdoğan called Israel a "terrorist state".[290] Naftali Bennett dismissed the threats, claiming "Erdoğan does not miss an opportunity to attack Israel".[289]
In April 2019, Erdoğan said the West Bank belongs to Palestinians, after Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said he would annex Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories if he is re-elected.[291]
Erdoğan condemned the Israel–UAE peace agreement, stating that Turkey was considering suspending or cutting off diplomatic relations with the United Arab Emirates in retaliation.[292]
Syrian Civil War
Amid allegations of Turkish collaboration with the Islamic State, the 2014 Kobanî protests broke out near the Syrian border city of Kobanî, in protest against the government's perceived facilitation of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant during the Siege of Kobanî.[293] 42 protestors were killed during a brutal police crackdown.[294][295] Asserting that aid to the Kurdish-majority People's Protection Units (YPG) fighters in Syria would assist the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) (then on ceasefire) in Turkey, Erdoğan held bilateral talks with Barack Obama regarding IS during the 5–6 September 2014 NATO summit in Newport, Wales.[296][297] In early October, United States Vice President Joe Biden criticised the Turkish government for supplying jihadists in Syria and said Erdoğan had expressed regret to him about letting foreign jihadists transit through Turkey en route to Syria.[298] Erdoğan angrily responded, "Biden has to apologize for his statements" adding that if no apology is made, Biden would become "history to me." Biden subsequently apologised.[299] In response to the U.S. request to use İncirlik Air Base to conduct air strikes against IS, Erdoğan demanded that Bashar al-Assad be removed from power first.[300] Turkey lost its bid for a Security Council seat in the United Nations during the 2014 election;[301] the unexpected result[302] is believed to have been a reaction to Erdoğan's hostile treatment of the Kurds fighting ISIS on the Syrian border[303][304] and a rebuke of his willingness to support IS-aligned insurgents opposed to Syrian president Bashar al-Assad.[303][304]
In 2015, there were consistent allegations that Erdoğan maintained financial links with the Islamic State, including allegation of his son-in-law Berat Albayrak's involvement with oil production and smuggling in ISIL. Revelations that the state was supplying arms to militant groups in Syria in the 2014 National Intelligence Organisation lorry scandal led to accusations of high treason.[305][306][307] In July 2015, Turkey became involved in the international military intervention against ISIL, simultaneously launching airstrikes against PKK bases in Iraqi Kurdistan.[308]
As of 2015, Turkey began openly supporting the Army of Conquest,[309] a coalition of Syrian rebel groups that included al-Nusra Front and Ahrar al-Sham.[310][311] In late November 2016, Erdoğan said that the Turkish military launched its operations in Syria to end Assad's rule,[312] but retracted this statement shortly afterwards.[313]
In January 2018, the Turkish military and its Syrian National Army and Sham Legion allies began the Turkish military operation in Afrin in the Kurdish-majority Afrin Canton in Northern Syria, against the YPG.[314][315] On 10 April, Erdoğan rejected a Russian demand to return Afrin to Syrian government control.[316]
In October 2019, after Erdoğan spoke to him, U.S. President Donald Trump gave the go-ahead to the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria, despite recently agreeing to a Northern Syria Buffer Zone. U.S. troops in northern Syria were withdrawn from the border to avoid interference with the Turkish operation.[317] After the U.S. pullout, Turkey proceeded to attack the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria.[318] Rejecting criticism of the invasion, Erdoğan claimed that NATO and European Union countries "sided with terrorists, and all of them attacked us".[319]
China
Bilateral trade between Turkey and China increased from $1 billion a year in 2002 to $27 billion annually in 2017.[320] Erdoğan has stated that Turkey might consider joining the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation instead of the European Union.[321]
Qatar blockade
In June 2017 during a speech, Erdoğan called the isolation of Qatar as "inhumane and against Islamic values" and that "victimising Qatar through smear campaigns serves no purpose".[322]
Myanmar
In September 2017, Erdoğan condemned the persecution of Muslims in Myanmar and accused Myanmar of "genocide" against the Muslim minority.[323]
United States
Over time, Turkey began to look for ways to buy its own missile defense system and also to use that procurement to build up its own capacity to manufacture and sell an air and missile defense system. Turkey got serious about acquiring a missile defense system early in the first Obama administration when it opened a competition between the Raytheon Patriot PAC 2 system and systems from Europe, Russia, and even China.[324]
Taking advantage of the new low in U.S.-Turkish relations, Putin saw his chance to use an S-400 sale to Turkey, so in July 2017, he offered the air defense system to Turkey. In the months that followed, the United States warned Turkey that a S-400 purchase jeopardized Turkey's F-35 purchase. Integration of the Russian system into the NATO air defense net was also out of the question. Administration officials, including Mark Esper, warned that Turkey had to choose between the S-400 and the F-35. That they couldn't have both.
The S-400 deliveries to Turkey began on 12 July. On 16 July, Trump mentioned to reporters that withholding the F-35 from Turkey was unfair. Said the president, "So what happens is we have a situation where Turkey is very good with us, very good, and we are now telling Turkey that because you have really been forced to buy another missile system, we’re not going to sell you the F-35 fighter jets".[325]
The U.S. Congress has made clear on a bipartisan basis that it expects the president to sanction Turkey for buying Russian equipment.[326] Out of the F-35, Turkey now considers buying Russian fifth-generation jet fighter Su-57.
On 1 August 2018, the U.S. Department of Treasury sanctioned two senior Turkish government ministers who were involved in the detention of American pastor Andrew Brunson.[327] Erdoğan said that the U.S. behavior will force Turkey to look for new friends and allies.[328] The U.S.–Turkey tensions appear to be the most serious diplomatic crisis between the NATO allies in years.[329][330]
Trump's former national security adviser John Bolton claimed that President Donald Trump told Erdoğan he would 'take care' of investigation against Turkey's state-owned bank Halkbank accused of bank fraud charges and laundering up to $20 billion on behalf of Iranian entities.[331] Turkey criticized Bolton's book, saying it included misleading accounts of conversations between Trump and Erdoğan.[332]
In August 2020, the former Vice President and presidential candidate Joe Biden called for a new U.S. approach to the "autocrat" President Erdoğan and support for Turkish opposition parties.[333][334] In September 2020, Biden demanded that Erdoğan "stay out" of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia, in which Turkey has supported the Azeris.[335]
Venezuela
Relations with Venezuela were strengthened with recent developments and high level mutual visits. The first official visit between the two countries at presidential level was in October 2017 when Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro visited Turkey. In December 2018, Erdoğan visited Venezuela for the first time and expressed his will to build strong relations with Venezuela and expressed hope that high-level visits "will increasingly continue."[336]
Reuters reported that in 2018 23 tons of mined gold were taken from Venezuela to Istanbul.[337] In the first nine months of 2018, Venezuela's gold exports to Turkey rose from zero in the previous year to US$900 million.[338]
During the Venezuelan presidential crisis, Erdoğan voiced solidarity with Venezuela's President Nicolás Maduro and criticized U.S. sanctions against Venezuela, saying that "political problems cannot be resolved by punishing an entire nation."[339][340]
Following the 2019 Venezuelan uprising attempt, Erdoğan condemned the actions of lawmaker Juan Guaidó, tweeting "Those who are in an effort to appoint a postmodern colonial governor to Venezuela, where the President was appointed by elections and where the people rule, should know that only democratic elections can determine how a country is governed".[341][342]
Events
Coup d'état attempt
On 15 July 2016, a coup d'état was attempted by the military, with aims to remove Erdoğan from government. By the next day, Erdoğan's government managed to reassert effective control in the country.[343] Reportedly, no government official was arrested or harmed, which, among other factors, raised the suspicion of a false flag event staged by the government itself.[344][345]
Erdoğan, as well as other government officials, has blamed an exiled cleric, and a former ally of Erdoğan, Fethullah Gülen, for staging the coup attempt.[346] Süleyman Soylu, Minister of Labor in Erdoğan's government, accused the US of planning a coup to oust Erdoğan.[347]
Erdoğan, as well as other high-ranking Turkish government officials, has issued repeated demands to the US to extradite Gülen.[348][349]
Following the coup attempt, there has been a significant deterioration in Turkey-US relations. European and other world leaders have expressed their concerns over the situation in Turkey, with many of them warning Erdoğan not to use the coup attempt as an excuse to crack down on his opponents.[350]
The rise of ISIS and the collapse of the Kurdish peace process had led to a sharp rise in terror incidents in Turkey until 2016. Erdoğan was accused by his critics of having a 'soft corner' for ISIS.[351] However, after the attempted coup, Erdoğan ordered the Turkish military into Syria to combat ISIS and Kurdish militant groups.[352] Erdoğan's critics have decried purges in the education system and judiciary as undermining the rule of law[353] however Erdoğan supporters argue this is a necessary measure as Gulen-linked schools cheated on entrance exams, requiring a purge in the education system and of the Gulen followers who then entered the judiciary.[354][355]
Erdoğan's plan is "to reconstitute Turkey as a presidential system. The plan would create a centralized system that would enable him to better tackle Turkey's internal and external threats. One of the main hurdles allegedly standing in his way is Fethullah Gulen's movement ..."[356] In the aftermath of the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, a groundswell of national unity and consensus emerged for cracking down on the coup plotters with a National Unity rally held in Turkey that included Islamists, secularists, liberals and nationalists.[357][358] Erdoğan has used this consensus to remove Gulen's followers from the bureaucracy, curtail their role in NGOs, Turkey's Ministry of Religious Affairs and the Turkish military, with 149 Generals discharged.[359] In a foreign policy shift Erdoğan ordered the Turkish Armed Forces into battle in Syria and has liberated towns from IS control.[360] As relations with Europe soured over in the aftermath of the attempted coup, Erdoğan developed alternative relationships with Russia,[361][362] Saudi Arabia[363] and a "strategic partnership" with Pakistan,[364][365] with plans to cultivate relations through free trade agreements and deepening military relations for mutual co-operation with Turkey's regional allies.[366][367][368]
2018 currency and debt crisis
The Turkish currency and debt crisis of 2018 was caused by the Turkish economy's excessive current account deficit and foreign-currency debt, in combination with Erdoğan's increasing authoritarianism and his unorthodox ideas about interest rate policy.[369][370][371] Economist Paul Krugman described the unfolding crisis as "a classic currency-and-debt crisis, of a kind we’ve seen many times", adding: "At such a time, the quality of leadership suddenly matters a great deal. You need officials who understand what's happening, can devise a response and have enough credibility that markets give them the benefit of the doubt. Some emerging markets have those things, and they are riding out the turmoil fairly well. The Erdoğan regime has none of that".[372]
Ideología e imagen pública
Early during his premiership, Erdoğan was praised as a role model for emerging Middle Eastern nations due to several reform packages initiated by his government which expanded religious freedoms and minority rights as part of accession negotiations with the European Union.[373] However, his government underwent several crises including the Sledgehammer coup and the Ergenekon trials, corruption scandals, accusations of media intimidation, as well as the pursuit of an increasingly polarizing political agenda; the opposition accused the government of inciting political hatred throughout the country.[374] Critics say that Erdoğan's government legitimizes homophobia, as Erdoğan has said that empowering LGBT people in Turkey was "against the values of our nation".[375]
Neo-Ottomanism
As President, Erdoğan has overseen a revival of Ottoman tradition,[376][377]greeting Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas with an Ottoman-style ceremony in the new presidential palace, with guards dressed in costumes representing founders of 16 Great Turkish Empires in history.[378] While serving as the Prime Minister of Turkey, Erdoğan's AKP made references to the Ottoman era during election campaigns, such as calling their supporters 'grandsons of Ottomans' (Osmanlı torunu).[379] This proved controversial, since it was perceived to be an open attack against the republican nature of modern Turkey founded by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In 2015, Erdoğan made a statement in which he endorsed the old Ottoman term külliye to refer to university campuses rather than the standard Turkish word kampüs.[380] Many critics have thus accused Erdoğan of wanting to become an Ottoman sultan and abandon the secular and democratic credentials of the Republic.[381][382][383][384] One of the most cited scholars alive, Noam Chomsky, said that "Erdogan in Turkey is basically trying to create something like the Ottoman Caliphate, with him as caliph, supreme leader, throwing his weight around all over the place, and destroying the remnants of democracy in Turkey at the same time".[385]
When pressed on this issue in January 2015, Erdoğan denied these claims and said that he would aim to be more like Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom rather than like an Ottoman sultan.[386]
In July 2020, after the Council of State annulled the Cabinet's 1934 decision to establish the Hagia Sophia as museum and revoking the monument's status, Erdoğan ordered its reclassification as a mosque.[387][38] The 1934 decree was ruled to be unlawful under both Ottoman and Turkish law as Hagia Sophia's waqf, endowed by Sultan Mehmed II, had designated the site a mosque; proponents of the decision argued the Hagia Sophia was the personal property of the sultan.[388] This redesignation is controversial, invoking condemnation from the Turkish opposition, UNESCO, the World Council of Churches, the Holy See, and many other international leaders.[39][40][41] In August 2020, he also signed the order that transferred the administration of the Chora Church to the Directorate of Religious Affairs to open it for worship as a mosque.[389] Initially converted to a mosque by the Ottomans, the building had then been designated as a museum by the government since 1934.[390][391]
Authoritarianism
Erdoğan has served as the de facto leader of Turkey since 2002.[b][392][393][394] In response to criticism, Erdoğan made a speech in May 2014 denouncing allegations of dictatorship, saying that the leader of the opposition, Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, who was there at the speech, would not be able to "roam the streets" freely if he were a dictator.[395] Kılıçdaroğlu responded that political tensions would cease to exist if Erdoğan stopped making his polarising speeches for three days.[396] One observer said it was a measure of the state of Turkish democracy that Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu could openly threaten, on 20 December 2015, that, if his party did not win the election, Turkish Kurds would endure a repeat of the era of the "white Toros", the Turkish name for the Renault 12, "a car associated with the gendarmarie’s fearsome intelligence agents, who carried out thousands of extrajudicial executions of Kurdish nationalists during the 1990s".[397] In February 2015, a 13-year-old was testified by a prosecutor after allegedly insulting Erdoğan on Facebook.[398][399] In 2016, a waiter was arrested for insulting Erdoğan by allegedly saying "If Erdoğan comes here, I will not even serve tea to him.".[400]
In April 2014, the President of the Constitutional Court, Haşim Kılıç, accused Erdoğan of damaging the credibility of the judiciary, labelling Erdoğan's attempts to increase political control over the courts as 'desperate'.[401] During the chaotic 2007 presidential election, the military issued an E-memorandum warning the government to keep within the boundaries of secularism when choosing a candidate. Regardless, Erdoğan's close relations with Fethullah Gülen and his Cemaat Movement allowed his government to maintain a degree of influence within the judiciary through Gülen's supporters in high judicial and bureaucratic offices.[402][403] Shortly after, an alleged coup plot codenamed Sledgehammer became public and resulted in the imprisonment of 300 military officers including İbrahim Fırtına, Çetin Doğan and Engin Alan. Several opposition politicians, journalists and military officers also went on trial for allegedly being part of an ultra-nationalist organisation called Ergenekon.
Both cases were marred by irregularities and were condemned as a joint attempt by Erdoğan and Gülen to curb opposition to the AKP.[404] The original Sledgehammer document containing the coup plans, allegedly written in 2003, was found to have been written using Microsoft Word 2007.[405] Despite both domestic and international calls for these irregularities to be addressed in order to guarantee a fair trial, Erdoğan instead praised his government for bringing the coup plots to light.[406] When Gülen publicly withdrew support and openly attacked Erdoğan in late 2013, several imprisoned military officers and journalists were released, with the government admitting that the judicial proceedings were unfair.[407]
When Gülen withdrew support from the AKP government in late 2013, a government corruption scandal broke out, leading to the arrest of several family members of cabinet ministers. Erdoğan accused Gülen of co-ordinating a "parallel state" within the judiciary in an attempt to topple him from power. He then removed or reassigned several judicial officials in an attempt to remove Gülen's supporters from office. Erdoğan's 'purge' was widely questioned and criticised by the European Union.[408] In early 2014, a new law was passed by parliament giving the government greater control over the judiciary, which sparked public protest throughout the country. International organisations perceived the law to be a danger to the separation of powers.[409]
Several judicial officials removed from their posts said that they had been removed due to their secularist credentials. The political opposition accused Erdoğan of not only attempting to remove Gülen supporters, but supporters of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's principles as well, in order to pave the way for increased politicisation of the judiciary. Several family members of Erdoğan's ministers who had been arrested as a result of the 2013 corruption scandal were released, and a judicial order to question Erdoğan's son Bilal Erdoğan was annulled.[410] Controversy erupted when it emerged that many of the newly appointed judicial officials were actually AKP supporters.[411] İslam Çiçek, a judge who ejected the cases of five ministers' relatives accused of corruption, was accused of being an AKP supporter and an official investigation was launched into his political affiliations.[412] On 1 September 2014, the courts dissolved the cases of 96 suspects, which included Bilal Erdoğan.[413]
During a televised press conference he was asked if he believed a presidential system was possible in a unitary state. Erdoğan affirmed this and cited Nazi Germany (among other examples) as a case where such a combination existed.[414] However, the Turkish president's office said that Erdoğan was not advocating a Hitler-style government when he called for a state system with a strong executive, and added that the Turkish president had declared the "Holocaust, anti-semitism and Islamophobia" as crimes against humanity and that it was out of the question for him to cite Hitler's Germany as a good example.[415]
Suppression of dissent
Erdoğan has been criticised for his politicisation of the media, especially after the 2013 protests. The opposition Republican People's Party (CHP) alleged that over 1,863 journalists lost their jobs due to their anti-government views in 12 years of AKP rule.[416] Opposition politicians have also alleged that intimidation in the media is due to the government's attempt to restructure the ownership of private media corporations. Journalists from the Cihan News Agency and the Gülenist Zaman newspaper were repeatedly barred from attending government press conferences or asking questions.[417] Several opposition journalists such as Soner Yalçın were controversially arrested as part of the Ergenekon trials and Sledgehammer coup investigation.[418] Veli Ağbaba, a CHP politician, has called the AKP the 'biggest media boss in Turkey.'[416]
In 2015, 74 US senators sent a letter to US Secretary of State, John Kerry, to state their concern over what they saw as deviations from the basic principles of democracy in Turkey and oppressions of Erdoğan over media.[419]
Notable cases of media censorship occurred during the 2013 anti-government protests, when the mainstream media did not broadcast any news regarding the demonstrations for three days after they began. The lack of media coverage was symbolised by CNN International covering the protests while CNN Türk broadcast a documentary about penguins at the same time.[420] The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) controversially issued a fine to pro-opposition news channels including Halk TV and Ulusal Kanal for their coverage of the protests, accusing them of broadcasting footage that could be morally, physically and mentally destabilising to children.[421] Erdoğan was criticised for not responding to the accusations of media intimidation, and caused international outrage after telling a female journalist (Amberin Zaman of The Economist) to know her place and calling her a 'shameless militant' during his 2014 presidential election campaign.[422] While the 2014 presidential election was not subject to substantial electoral fraud, Erdoğan was again criticised for receiving disproportionate media attention in comparison to his rivals. The British newspaper The Times commented that between 2 and 4 July, the state-owned media channel TRT gave 204 minutes of coverage to Erdoğan's campaign and less than a total of 3 minutes to both his rivals.[423]
Erdoğan also tightened controls over the Internet, signing into law a bill which allows the government to block websites without prior court order on 12 September 2014.[424] His government blocked Twitter and YouTube in late March 2014 following the release of a recording of a conversation between him and his son Bilal, where Erdoğan allegedly warned his family to 'nullify' all cash reserves at their home amid the 2013 corruption scandal.[425] Erdoğan has undertaken a media campaign that attempts to portray the presidential family as frugal and simple-living; their palace electricity-bill is estimated at $500,000 per month.[426]
In May 2016, former Miss Turkey model Merve Büyüksaraç was sentenced to more than a year in prison for allegedly insulting the president.[427][428][429] In a 2016 news story, Bloomberg reported, "more than 2,000 cases have been opened against journalists, cartoonists, teachers, a former Miss Turkey, and even schoolchildren in the past two years".[430]
In November 2016, the Turkish government[245] blocked access to social media in all of Turkey[431] as well as sought to completely block Internet access for the citizens in the southeast of the country.[432]
Mehmet Aksoy lawsuit
In 2009, Turkish sculptor Mehmet Aksoy created the Statue of Humanity in Kars to promote reconciliation between Turkey and Armenia. When visiting the city in 2011, Erdoğan deemed the statue a "freak", and months later it was demolished.[433] Aksoy sued Erdoğan for "moral indemnities", although his lawyer said that his statement was a critique rather than an insult. In March 2015, a judge ordered Erdoğan to pay 10,000 liras.[434]
Erdoğanism
Erdoğan has produced many aphorisms and catch-phrases known as Erdoğanisms. The term Erdoğanism first emerged shortly after Erdoğan's 2011 general election victory, where it was predominantly described as the AKP's liberal economic and conservative democratic ideals fused with Erdoğan demagoguery and cult of personality.[435]
Views about minorities
LGBT
In 2002, Erdoğan said that "homosexuals must be legally protected within the framework of their rights and freedoms. From time to time, we do not find the treatment they get on some television screens humane", he said.[436][437][438] However, in 2017 Erdoğan has said that empowering LGBT people in Turkey was "against the values of our nation".[375]
In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, Turkey's top Muslim scholar and President of Religious Affairs, Ali Erbaş, said in a Friday Ramadan announcement that country condemns homosexuality because it "brings illness," insinuating that same sex relations are responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic.[439] Recep Tayyip Erdoğan backed Erbaş, saying that what Erbaş "said was totally right."[440]
Jews
While Erdoğan has declared several times being against antisemitism,[441][442][443][444][445] he has been accused of invoking antisemitic stereotypes in public statements.[446][447][448] The official Jews of Turkey Rabbinate on the other hand defended Erdogan and stated that "while the global rise of anti semitisim is unacceptable, it is unfair and reprehensible to imply that President Erdogan is antisemitic. On the contrary, he has always been constructive, supportive and encouraging towards us."[449]
According to Erdoğan, he had been inspired by novelist and Islamist ideologue Necip Fazıl Kısakürek,[450][451] a publisher (among others) of antisemitic literature.[452][453]
Honores y reconocimientos
Foreign honours
- Russia: Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan" (1 June 2006)[454]
- Pakistan: Nishan-e-Pakistan, the highest civilian award in Pakistan (26 October 2009)[455]
- Georgia: Order of Golden Fleece, awarded for his contribution to development of bilateral relations (17 May 2010)[456]
- Kyrgyzstan: Danaker Order in Bishkek (2 February 2011)[457]
- Belgium: Grand Cordon in the Order of Leopold (5 October 2015)[458]
- Madagascar: Knight Grand Cross in the national Order (25 January 2017)[459]
- Venezuela: Order of the Liberator, Grand Cordon (3 December 2018)[460][461]
- Ukraine: Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (16 October 2020)[462]
Other awards
- 29 January 2004: Profile of Courage Award from the American Jewish Congress, for promoting peace between cultures.[463] Returned at the request of the A.J.C. in July 2014.[464]
- 13 June 2004: Golden Plate award from the Academy of Achievement during the conference in Chicago.[465]
- 3 October 2004: German Quadriga prize for improving relationships between different cultures.[466]
- 2 September 2005: Mediterranean Award for Institutions (Italian: Premio Mediterraneo Istituzioni). This was awarded by the Fondazione Mediterraneo.[467]
- 8 August 2006: Caspian Energy Integration Award from the Caspian Integration Business Club.[468]
- 1 November 2006: Outstanding Service award from the Turkish humanitarian organization Red Crescent.[469]
- 2 February 2007: Dialogue Between Cultures Award from the President of Tatarstan Mintimer Shaimiev.[470]
- 15 April 2007: Crystal Hermes Award from the German Chancellor Angela Merkel at the opening of the Hannover Industrial Fair.[471]
- 11 July 2007: highest award of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the Agricola Medal, in recognition of his contribution to agricultural and social development in Turkey.[472]
- 11 May 2009: Avicenna award from the Avicenna Foundation in Frankfurt, Germany.[473]
- 9 June 2009: guest of honor at the 20th Crans Montana Forum in Brussels and received the Prix de la Fondation, for democracy and freedom.[474]
- 25 June 2009: Key to the City of Tirana on the occasion of his state visit to Albania.[475]
- 29 December 2009: Award for Contribution to World Peace from the Turgut Özal Thought and Move Association.[476]
- 12 January 2010: King Faisal International Prize for "service to Islam" from the King Faisal Foundation.[477]
- 23 February 2010: Nodo Culture Award from the mayor of Seville for his efforts to launch the Alliance of Civilizations initiative.[478]
- 1 March 2010: United Nations–HABITAT award in memorial of Rafik Hariri. A seven-member international jury unanimously found Erdoğan deserving of the award because of his "excellent achievement and commendable conduct in the area of leadership, statesmanship and good governance. Erdoğan also initiated the first roundtable of mayors during the Istanbul conference, which led to a global, organized movement of mayors."[67]
- 27 May 2010: medal of honor from the Brazilian Federation of Industry for the State of São Paulo (FIESP) for his contributions to industry[479]
- 31 May 2010: World Health Organization 2010 World No Tobacco Award for "his dedicated leadership on tobacco control in Turkey."[480]
- 29 June 2010: 2010 World Family Award from the World Family Organization which operates under the umbrella of the United Nations.[481]
- 4 November 2010: Golden Medal of Independence, an award conferred upon Kosovo citizens and foreigners that have contributed to the independence of Kosovo.[482]
- 25 November 2010: "Leader of the Year" award presented by the Union of Arab Banks in Lebanon.[483]
- 11 January 2011: "Outstanding Personality in the Islamic World Award" of the Sheikh Fahad al-Ahmad International Award for Charity in Kuwait.[484]
- 25 October 2011: Palestinian International Award for Excellence and Creativity (PIA) 2011 for his support to the Palestinian people and cause.[485]
- 21 January 2012: 'Gold Statue 2012 Special Award' by the Polish Business Center Club (BCC). Erdoğan was awarded for his systematic effort to clear barriers on the way to economic growth, striving to build democracy and free market relations.[486]
- 2020: Ig Nobel Prize "for using the COVID-19 viral pandemic to teach the world that politicians can have a more immediate effect on life and death than scientists and doctors can."[487]
Notas
- ^ UK: /ˈɛərdəwæn/ AIR-də-wan,[2] US: /-wɑːn/ -wahn;[3] Turkish: [ɾeˈdʒep tajˈjip ˈæɾdoan] (listen); The "ğ" in Erdoğan is sometimes represented as the voiced velar approximant ɰ,[4] as a bilabial glide, or as being phonetically zero.[5] Sometimes referred by his initials RTE.[6]
- ^ Erdoğan won the elections in 2002, but was obstructed to become prime minister until the by-election in 2003. In the meanwhile, Abdullah Gül served as chairholder.
Referencias
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I am a leader who has wholeheartedly condemned anti-semitism
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Otras lecturas
- Akyol, Çiğdem (2015). Generation Erdoğan (1. ed.). Kremayr & Scheriau. ISBN 9783218009690.
- Akdoğan, Yalçın (2018). Political leadership and Erdoğan. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1527506275.
- Cagaptay, Soner. The new sultan: Erdogan and the crisis of modern Turkey (2nd ed. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020). online review
- Cagaptay, Soner. "Making Turkey Great Again." Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 43 (2019): 169–78. online
- Kirişci, Kemal, and Amanda Sloat. "The rise and fall of liberal democracy in Turkey: Implications for the West" Foreign Policy at Brookings (2019) online
- Tziarras, Zenonas. "Erdoganist authoritarianism and the 'new' Turkey." Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 18.4 (2018): 593–598. online
- Yavuz, M. Hakan. "A framework for understanding the Intra-Islamist conflict between the AK party and the Gülen movement." Politics, Religion & Ideology 19.1 (2018): 11–32. online
- Yesil, Bilge. Media in New Turkey: The Origins of an Authoritarian Neoliberal State (University of Illinois Press, 2016) online review
enlaces externos
- Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on Twitter
- Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on Facebook
- Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on Instagram
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Works by or about Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Recep Tayyip Erdoğan collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
- "Recep Tayyip Erdoğan collected news and commentary". The New York Times.
- Welcome to demokrasi: how Erdoğan got more popular than ever by The Guardian
- Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (14 October 2019). "Turkey Is Stepping Up Where Others Fail to Act: Syria's refugee flows, violence and instability have pushed us to the limit of our tolerance". The Wall Street Journal (op-ed).
Political offices | ||
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Preceded by Nurettin Sözen | Mayor of Istanbul 1994–1998 | Succeeded by Ali Müfit Gürtuna |
Preceded by Abdullah Gül | Prime Minister of Turkey 2003–2014 | Succeeded by Ahmet Davutoğlu |
President of Turkey 2014–present | Incumbent | |
Party political offices | ||
New office | Leader of the Justice and Development Party 2001–2014 | Succeeded by Ahmet Davutoğlu |
Preceded by Binali Yıldırım | Leader of the Justice and Development Party 2017–present | Incumbent |
Diplomatic posts | ||
Preceded by Tony Abbott | Chairperson of the Group of 20 2015 | Succeeded by Xi Jinping |
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