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Estrés hídrico de referencia por región: la relación entre las extracciones anuales totales de agua y el suministro renovable anual disponible total, que representa el uso consuntivo aguas arriba

La escasez de agua ( estrés hídrico o crisis hídrica ) es la falta de recursos de agua dulce para satisfacer la demanda estándar de agua . La humanidad se enfrenta a una crisis del agua, debido a una distribución desigual (agravada por el cambio climático ) que resulta en algunas ubicaciones geográficas muy húmedas y otras muy secas, además de un fuerte aumento en la demanda mundial de agua dulce en las últimas décadas impulsada por la industria. La escasez de agua también puede deberse a sequías, falta de precipitaciones o contaminación. Esto fue catalogado en 2019 por el Foro Económico Mundial como uno de los mayores riesgos globales en términos de impacto potencial durante la próxima década. [1]Se manifiesta por satisfacción parcial o nula de la demanda expresada, competencia económica por la cantidad o calidad del agua, disputas entre usuarios, agotamiento irreversible de las aguas subterráneas e impactos negativos en el medio ambiente . [2] Dos tercios de la población mundial (4 mil millones de personas) viven en condiciones de grave escasez de agua al menos 1 mes al año. [3] [4] [5] [6] 500 millones de personas en el mundo enfrentan una grave escasez de agua durante todo el año. [3] La mitad de las ciudades más grandes del mundo sufren escasez de agua. [5]

La esencia de la escasez mundial de agua es el desajuste geográfico y temporal entre la demanda y la disponibilidad de agua dulce . [7] [8] El aumento de la población mundial , la mejora de los niveles de vida , los cambios en los patrones de consumo y la expansión de la agricultura de regadío son las principales fuerzas impulsoras de la creciente demanda mundial de agua. [9] [10] Cambio climático , como patrones climáticos alterados (incluidas sequías o inundaciones ), deforestación , aumento de la contaminación, los gases de efecto invernadero y el desperdicio de agua pueden causar un suministro insuficiente. [11] A nivel mundial y anualmente, hay suficiente agua dulce disponible para satisfacer dicha demanda, pero las variaciones espaciales y temporales de la demanda y la disponibilidad de agua son grandes, lo que lleva a la escasez (física) de agua en varias partes del mundo durante períodos específicos. épocas del año. [3] La escasez varía con el tiempo como resultado de la variabilidad hidrológica natural , pero varía aún más en función de la política económica, los enfoques de planificación y gestión predominantes. Se puede esperar que la escasez se intensifique con la mayoría de las formas de desarrollo económico , pero, si se identifica correctamente, muchas de sus causas pueden predecirse, evitarse o mitigarse.[2]

El Panel Internacional de Recursos de la ONU afirma que los gobiernos han tendido a invertir fuertemente en soluciones en gran medida ineficientes: megaproyectos como presas , canales , acueductos , tuberías y depósitos de agua, que generalmente no son ni ambientalmente sostenibles ni económicamente viables. La forma más rentable de desvincular el uso del agua del crecimiento económico, según el panel científico, es que los gobiernos creen planes holísticos de gestión del agua que tengan en cuenta todo el ciclo del agua: desde la fuente hasta la distribución, uso económico, tratamiento , reciclaje., reutilizar y devolver al medio ambiente. [12]

Terminología [ editar ]

Escasez física de agua [ editar ]

La escasez física de agua se da cuando no hay suficiente agua para satisfacer todas las demandas, incluida la necesaria para que los ecosistemas funcionen con eficacia. Las regiones áridas sufren con frecuencia de escasez física de agua. También ocurre donde el agua parece abundante pero donde los recursos están comprometidos en exceso, como cuando hay un sobredesarrollo de la infraestructura hidráulica para el riego. Los síntomas de la escasez física de agua incluyen la degradación ambiental y la disminución de las aguas subterráneas. El estrés hídrico daña a los seres vivos porque todo organismo necesita agua para vivir.

La escasez física de agua es el resultado de recursos hídricos naturales inadecuados para satisfacer la demanda de una región, y la escasez económica de agua es el resultado de una mala gestión de los suficientes recursos hídricos disponibles. Según el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo , este último suele ser la causa de que los países o regiones experimenten escasez de agua, ya que la mayoría de los países o regiones tienen suficiente agua para satisfacer las necesidades domésticas, industriales, agrícolas y ambientales, pero carecen de los medios. para proporcionarlo de manera accesible. [13] Alrededor de una quinta parte de la población mundial vive actualmente en regiones afectadas por la escasez física de agua., donde hay recursos hídricos inadecuados para satisfacer la demanda regional o de un país, incluida el agua necesaria para satisfacer la demanda de los ecosistemas para que funcionen con eficacia. [13] Las regiones áridas sufren con frecuencia una escasez física de agua. También ocurre donde el agua parece abundante pero donde los recursos están comprometidos en exceso, como cuando hay un sobredesarrollo de la infraestructura hidráulica para el riego. Los síntomas de la escasez física de agua incluyen la degradación ambiental y la disminución de las aguas subterráneas, así como otras formas de explotación o uso excesivo. [14]

Escasez económica de agua [ editar ]

La escasez económica de agua es causada por la falta de inversión en infraestructura o tecnología para extraer agua de ríos, acuíferos u otras fuentes de agua, o por una capacidad humana insuficiente para satisfacer la demanda de agua. Una cuarta parte de la población mundial se ve afectada por la escasez económica de agua. La escasez económica de agua incluye la falta de infraestructura, lo que hace que las personas sin acceso confiable al agua tengan que viajar largas distancias para buscar agua, que a menudo está contaminada de los ríos para usos domésticos y agrícolas.

Crisis del agua [ editar ]

Niñas del asentamiento de ocupantes ilegales en Dharan recogen agua del río

El agua es un recurso del que dependen muchos animales, los humanos no son diferentes. Cuando un país ve un aumento en la población, puede esperar un aumento en la demanda de agua. [15] Según una proyección de las Naciones Unidas, para el año 2050, puede haber alrededor de 4.500 millones de personas afectadas por una crisis de agua. Además, con el aumento de la población, habrá una demanda de alimentos, para que la producción de alimentos coincida con el crecimiento de la población, habrá una mayor demanda de agua para regar los cultivos. [15] El aumento de la demanda de agua y el aumento de la población resulta en una crisis de agua en la que no hay suficiente agua para compartir en niveles saludables.

Indicadores y estrés hídrico [ editar ]

En 2012 en Sindh , Pakistán , la escasez de agua potable llevó a la gente a hacer cola para recogerla cuando estuviera disponible.

En la actualidad, los hidrólogos suelen evaluar la escasez de agua mediante la ecuación población-agua. Esto se hace comparando la cantidad total de recursos hídricos disponibles por año con la población de un país o región. Un enfoque popular para medir la escasez de agua ha sido clasificar los países según la cantidad de recursos hídricos anuales disponibles por persona.

Por ejemplo, según el indicador de estrés hídrico de Falkenmark [16] , se dice que un país o región experimenta "estrés hídrico" cuando el suministro anual de agua cae por debajo de los 1.700 metros cúbicos por persona por año. A niveles entre 1.700 y 1.000 metros cúbicos por persona por año, se puede esperar una escasez de agua periódica o limitada. Cuando el suministro de agua cae por debajo de los 1.000 metros cúbicos por persona por año, el país se enfrenta a una "escasez de agua". [17]

Otros [ editar ]

Otras formas de medir la escasez de agua incluyen examinar la existencia física del agua en la naturaleza, comparando naciones con volúmenes más bajos o más altos de agua disponibles para su uso. Este método a menudo no logra captar la accesibilidad del recurso hídrico para la población que puede necesitarlo. Otros tienen disponibilidad de agua relacionada con la población.

Recursos hídricos [ editar ]

Estrés hídrico por país en 2019.
Escasez de agua física y económica mundial
Los niños van a buscar agua de un arroyo fangoso en una zona rural durante la estación seca. El agua se lleva a casa y se somete a filtración y otros tratamientos antes de su uso.
Escasez de agua, Jaffna
Uso mundial de agua dulce, datos de la FAO de 2016
Consumo mundial de agua 1900-2025, por región, en miles de millones de m3 por año
Artículo principal: Recursos hídricos

Disponibilidad [ editar ]

Las Naciones Unidas (ONU) estiman que, de 1.400 millones de kilómetros cúbicos (1 cuatrillón de acres-pies) de agua en la Tierra , solo 200.000 kilómetros cúbicos (162.100 millones de acres-pies) representan agua dulce disponible para el consumo humano. [18] Un mero 0,014% de toda el agua de la Tierra es dulce y de fácil acceso . Del agua restante, el 97% es salina y un poco menos del 3% es de difícil acceso. La cantidad total de agua dulce fácilmente accesible en la Tierra, en forma de agua superficial ( ríos y lagos ) o agua subterránea (en acuíferos, por ejemplo), es de 14.000 kilómetros cúbicos (casi 3359 millas cúbicas). De esta cantidad total, la humanidad está utilizando y reutilizando "sólo" 5.000 kilómetros cúbicos. Técnicamente, existe una cantidad suficiente de agua dulce a escala mundial.

Por lo tanto, en teoría, hay agua dulce más que suficiente disponible para satisfacer las demandas de la población mundial actual de más de 7 mil millones de personas, e incluso apoyar el crecimiento de la población a 9 mil millones o más. Sin embargo, debido a la distribución geográfica desigual y especialmente al consumo desigual de agua, es un recurso escaso en algunas partes del mundo y para algunas partes de la población. [19]

Recursos renovables de agua dulce [ editar ]

El suministro de agua dulce renovable es una métrica que a menudo se usa en conjunto al evaluar la escasez de agua. Esta métrica es informativa porque puede describir el recurso hídrico total disponible que contiene cada país. Al conocer la fuente total de agua disponible, se puede tener una idea de si un país es propenso a experimentar escasez física de agua. Esta métrica tiene sus fallas en que es un promedio; las precipitaciones suministran agua de manera desigual en todo el planeta cada año y los recursos hídricos renovables anuales varían de un año a otro. Esta métrica tampoco describe la accesibilidad del agua para las personas, los hogares, las industrias o el gobierno. Por último, como esta métrica es una descripción de todo un país, no refleja con precisión si un país está experimentando escasez de agua.Canadá y Brasil tienen niveles muy altos de suministro de agua disponible, pero aún así, experimentan varios problemas relacionados con el agua.[20]

Se puede observar que los países tropicales de Asia y África tienen una baja disponibilidad de recursos de agua dulce (ver Lista de países por recursos hídricos renovables totales ).

Demanda [ editar ]

The fresh water available to us on the planet is around 1% of the total water on earth.[21] Most of this water comes from rivers, glaciers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater, and streams.[22] With the increase in global temperatures and in an increase in water demand, six out of ten people are at risk of being water-stressed. The drying out of wetlands globally, at around 67%, was a direct cause of a large number of people at risk of water stress. As the global demand for water increases and as climate temperatures rise, it is estimated that two-thirds of the population, in 2025, will live under water stress.[21]

Causes and contributing factors[edit]

Depletion of freshwater resources[edit]

Lake Chad has shrunk by 90% since the 1960s.[23]

Apart from the conventional surface water sources of freshwater such as rivers and lakes, other resources of freshwater such as groundwater and glaciers have become more developed sources of freshwater, becoming the main source of clean water. Groundwater is water that has pooled below the surface of the Earth and can provide a usable quantity of water through springs or wells. These areas where groundwater is collected are also known as aquifers. Glaciers provide freshwater in the form meltwater, or freshwater melted from snow or ice, that supply streams or springs as temperatures rise. More and more of these sources are being drawn upon as conventional sources' usability decreases due to factors such as pollution or disappearance due to climate changes. Human population growth is a significant contributing factor in the increasing use of these types of water resources.[20]

Groundwater[edit]

Due to the expanding human population, competition for water is growing such that many of the world's major aquifers are becoming depleted. This is due both to direct human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation by groundwater. Millions of pumps of all sizes are currently extracting groundwater throughout the world. Irrigation in dry areas such as northern China, Nepal and India is supplied by groundwater and is being extracted at an unsustainable rate. Cities that have experienced aquifer drops between 10 and 50 meters include Mexico City, Bangkok, Beijing, Madras and Shanghai.[24]

Until recent history, groundwater was not a highly utilized resource. In the 1960s, more and more groundwater aquifers developed.[25] Changes in knowledge, technology and funding have allowed for focused development into abstracting water from groundwater resources away from surface water resources. These changes allowed for progress in society such as the "agricultural groundwater revolution", expanding the irrigation sector allowing for increased food production and development in rural areas.[26] Groundwater supplies nearly half of all drinking water in the world.[27] The large volumes of water stored underground in most aquifers have a considerable buffer capacity allowing for water to be withdrawn during periods of drought or little rainfall.[20] This is crucial for people that live in regions that cannot depend on precipitation or surface water as a supply alone, instead providing reliable access to water all year round. As of 2010, the world's aggregated groundwater abstraction is estimated at approximately 1,000 km3 per year, with 67% used for irrigation, 22% used for domestic purposes and 11% used for industrial purposes.[20] The top ten major consumers of abstracted water (India, China, United States of America, Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, and Italy) make up 72% of all abstracted water use worldwide.[20] Groundwater has become crucial for the livelihoods and food security of 1.2 to 1.5 billion rural households in the poorer regions of Africa and Asia.[28]

Pivot irrigation in Saudi Arabia, April 1997. Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers.[29]

Although groundwater sources are quite prevalent, one major area of concern is the renewal rate or recharge rate of some groundwater sources. Extracting from groundwater sources that are non-renewable could lead to exhaustion if not properly monitored and managed.[30] Another concern of increased groundwater usage is the diminished water quality of the source over time. Reduction of natural outflows, decreasing stored volumes, declining water levels and water degradation are commonly observed in groundwater systems.[20] Groundwater depletion may result in many negative effects such as increased cost of groundwater pumping, induced salinity and other water quality changes, land subsidence, degraded springs and reduced baseflows. Human pollution is also harmful to this important resource.

To set up a big plant near a water abundant area, bottled water companies need to extract groundwater from a source at a rate more than the replenishment rate leading to the persistent decline in the groundwater levels. The groundwater is taken out, bottled, and then shipped all over the country or world and this water never goes back. When the water table depletes beyond a critical limit, bottling companies just move from that area leaving a grave water scarcity. Groundwater depletion impacts everyone and everything in the area that uses the water: farmers, businesses, animals, ecosystems, tourism and other users e.g. people reliant on a local well for potable water. Millions of gallons of water out of the ground leaves the water table depleted uniformly and not just in that area because the water table is connected across the landmass. Bottling Plants generate water scarcity and impact ecological balance. They lead to water-stressed areas which bring in droughts.[31]

Glaciers[edit]

About 2% of Earth's water is frozen freshwater found in glaciers. These glaciers, when naturally melting, provide fresh water to any local areas near the glacier's run-off. This water is used by locals for a number of reasons like agriculture, livestock, and hydropower.[32] This is beneficial in helping reduce water scarcity as more water is available to a select number of people.It has been projected that total glaciers worldwide will be 60% of what they are now, in the year 2100.[32] The main reason for the melting of these glaciers is climate change. Glaciers reflect sunlight from the sun back into space providing a decrease in temperatures worldwide. This process is called albedo and without the glaciers reflecting sunlight, temperatures would slowly begin to rise.[33] As temperatures rise, glaciers will melt quicker overall reducing the total amount of sunlight being reflected worldwide.  Melting glaciers, over a long period of time, begin receding and will be difficult to recover once seasonal changes occur. Glacier's losing mass may decrease their annual run-off, coupled with receding glaciers, which will change the availability of water in many cold regions of the world. About a third of glaciers may experience a 10% run-off reduction in some seasons.[34]

Expansion of agricultural and industrial users[edit]

Scarcity as a result of consumption is caused primarily by the extensive use of water in agriculture/livestock breeding and industry. People in developed countries generally use about 10 times more water daily than those in developing countries.[35] A large part of this is indirect use in water-intensive agricultural and industrial production processes of consumer goods, such as fruit, oilseed crops and cotton. Because many of these production chains have been globalized, a lot of water in developing countries is being used and polluted in order to produce goods destined for consumption in developed countries.[19]

Business activity ranging from industrialization to services such as tourism and entertainment continues to expand rapidly. This expansion requires increased water services including both supply and sanitation, which can lead to more pressure on water resources and natural ecosystem. The approximate 50% growth in world energy use by 2040 will also increase the need for efficient water use,[36] and may shift some irrigation water sources towards industrial use, as thermal power generation uses water for steam generation and cooling.[citation needed]

Climate change[edit]

Climate change could have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the climate and hydrological cycle. Rising temperatures will increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be regional variations in rainfall. Both droughts and floods may become more frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic changes in snowfall and snow melt are expected in mountainous areas. Higher temperatures will also affect water quality in ways that are not well understood. Possible impacts include increased eutrophication. Climate change could also mean an increase in demand for farm irrigation, garden sprinklers, and perhaps even swimming pools. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will continue have a profound impact on the water sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels.[37]

The United Nations' FAO states that by 2025, 1.9 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions.[38] The World Bank adds that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use, thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water.[39]

Another popular opinion is that the amount of available freshwater is decreasing because of climate change. Climate change has caused receding glaciers, reduced stream and river flow, and shrinking lakes and ponds. Many aquifers have been over-pumped and are not recharging quickly. Although the total fresh water supply is not used up, much has become polluted, salted, unsuitable or otherwise unavailable for drinking, industry and agriculture. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.[40][41]

GEO-2000 estimate for 2025, 25 African countries are expected to suffer from water shortage or water stress.[42]

In the Himalayas, retreating glaciers could reduce summer water flows by up to two-thirds. In the Ganges area, this would cause a water shortage for 500 million people.[43] Climate change impacts potable water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) area, where around 1.4 billion people are dependent on the five main rivers of Himalaya mountains.[44] Although the impact will vary from place to place, it is predicted that the amount of meltwater will initially increase due to retreating glaciers and then gradually decrease because of reducing in glacier mass.[45] In those areas where the amount of available water decreases, climate change makes it difficult to improve access to safe drinkable water.[46] HKH area faces rapid urbanization causing a severe shortage of water and pressure on water resources. Rural areas will also suffer because of a lack of effective water management infrastructure and limited access to drinking water. More people will migrate because of the scarcity of drinking water. This situation will increase inequality by leaving the poor behind that cause higher mortality and suicide rate, and accelerate further urbanization.[47]

Population growth[edit]

Around fifty years ago, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat is rising, and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation biofuel crops, and water reliant food items. In the future, even more water will be needed to produce food because the Earth's population is forecast to rise to 9 billion by 2050.[48]

In 2000, the world population was 6.2 billion. The UN estimates that by 2050 there will be an additional 3.5 billion people with most of the growth in developing countries that already suffer water stress.[49] Thus, water demand will increase unless there are corresponding increases in water conservation and recycling of this vital resource.[50] In building on the data presented here by the UN, the World Bank[51] goes on to explain that access to water for producing food will be one of the main challenges in the decades to come. Access to water will need to be balanced with the importance of managing water itself in a sustainable way while taking into account the impact of climate change, and other environmental and social variables.[52]

Rapid urbanization[edit]

The trend towards urbanization is accelerating. Small private wells and septic tanks that work well in low-density communities are not feasible within high-density urban areas. Urbanization requires significant investment in water infrastructure in order to deliver water to individuals and to process the concentrations of wastewater – both from individuals and from business. These polluted and contaminated waters must be treated or they pose unacceptable public health risks.

In 60% of European cities with more than 100,000 people, groundwater is being used at a faster rate than it can be replenished.[53] Even if some water remains available, it costs increasingly more to capture it.

Impacts[edit]

There are several principal manifestations of the water crisis.

  • Food security in the Middle East and North Africa Region [54][55]
  • Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 885 million people[56]
  • Inadequate access to sanitation for 2.5 billion people,[57] which often leads to water pollution
  • Groundwater overdrafting (excessive use) leading to diminished agricultural yields[58]
  • Overuse and pollution of water resources harming biodiversity
  • Regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare .[59]

Environment[edit]

Water scarcity has many negative impacts on the environment, such as adverse effects on lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands and other fresh water resources. The resulting water overuse that is related to water scarcity, often located in areas of irrigation agriculture, harms the environment in several ways including increased salinity, nutrient pollution, and the loss of floodplains and wetlands.[13][60] Furthermore, water scarcity makes flow management in the rehabilitation of urban streams problematic.[61]

An abandoned ship in the former Aral Sea, near Aral, Kazakhstan

Through the last hundred years, more than half of the Earth's wetlands have been destroyed and have disappeared.[11] These wetlands are important not only because they are the habitats of numerous inhabitants such as mammals, birds, fish, amphibians, and invertebrates, but they support the growing of rice and other food crops as well as provide water filtration and protection from storms and flooding. Freshwater lakes such as the Aral Sea in central Asia have also suffered. Once the fourth largest freshwater lake, it has lost more than 58,000 square km of area and vastly increased in salt concentration over the span of three decades.[11]

Subsidence, or the gradual sinking of landforms, is another result of water scarcity. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that subsidence has affected more than 17,000 square miles in 45 U.S. states, 80 percent of it due to groundwater usage. In some areas east of Houston, Texas the land has dropped by more than nine feet due to subsidence.[62] Brownwood, a subdivision near Baytown, Texas, was abandoned due to frequent flooding caused by subsidence and has since become part of the Baytown Nature Center.

Vegetation and wildlife are fundamentally dependent upon adequate freshwater resources. Marshes, bogs and riparian zones are more obviously dependent upon sustainable water supply, but forests and other upland ecosystems are equally at risk of significant productivity changes as water availability is diminished. In the case of wetlands, considerable area has been simply taken from wildlife use to feed and house the expanding human population. But other areas have suffered reduced productivity from gradual diminishing of freshwater inflow, as upstream sources are diverted for human use. In seven states of the U.S. over 80 percent of all historic wetlands were filled by the 1980s, when Congress acted to create a "no net loss" of wetlands.

In Europe extensive loss of wetlands has also occurred with resulting loss of biodiversity. For example, many bogs in Scotland have been developed or diminished through human population expansion. One example is the Portlethen Moss in Aberdeenshire.

Deforestation of the Madagascar Highland Plateau has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers.

On Madagascar's highland plateau, a massive transformation occurred that eliminated virtually all the heavily forested vegetation in the period 1970 to 2000. The slash and burn agriculture eliminated about ten percent of the total country's native biomass and converted it to a barren wasteland. These effects were from overpopulation and the necessity to feed poor indigenous peoples, but the adverse effects included widespread gully erosion that in turn produced heavily silted rivers that "run red" decades after the deforestation. This eliminated a large amount of usable fresh water and also destroyed much of the riverine ecosystems of several large west-flowing rivers. Several fish species have been driven to the edge of extinction and some, such as the disturbed Tokios coral reef formations in the Indian Ocean, are effectively lost. In October 2008, Peter Brabeck-Letmathe, chairman and former chief executive of Nestlé, warned that the production of biofuels will further deplete the world's water supply.

Water shortages[edit]

Waterborne diseases caused by lack of sanitation and hygiene are one of the leading causes of death worldwide. For children under age five, waterborne diseases are a leading cause of death. According to the World Bank, 88 percent of all waterborne diseases are caused by unsafe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene.[63]

Water is the underlying tenuous balance of safe water supply, but controllable factors such as the management and distribution of the water supply itself contribute to further scarcity.

A 2006 United Nations report focuses on issues of governance as the core of the water crisis, saying "There is enough water for everyone" and "Water insufficiency is often due to mismanagement, corruption, lack of appropriate institutions, bureaucratic inertia and a shortage of investment in both human capacity and physical infrastructure".[64] Official data also shows a clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita.[65]

It has also been claimed, primarily by economists, that the water situation has occurred because of a lack of property rights, government regulations and subsidies in the water sector, causing prices to be too low and consumption too high, making a point for water privatization.[66][67][68]

Approaches[edit]

Cooperation[edit]

Cape Town water crisis warning

It is alleged[by whom?] that the likelihood of conflict rises if the rate of change within a basin exceeds the capacity of institutions to absorb that change.[69][failed verification] Although water crises can relate closely to regional tensions, history has shown that cases of cooperation far outnumber acute conflicts over water.[citation needed]

However, lack of cooperation may give rise to regional conflicts in many parts of the world, specially in developing countries, largely because of the disputes regarding the availability, use and management of water.[59] For example, the dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has escalated in 2020.[70][71] Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat, fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile.[72]

The Indus River Commission and the 1960 Indus Water Treaty have survived two wars between India and Pakistan despite the two countries' mutual hostility, proving a successful mechanism in resolving conflicts by providing a framework for consultation, inspection and exchange of data. The Mekong Committee has functioned since 1957 and outlived the Vietnam War of 1955–1975. In contrast, regional instability results when countries lack institutions to co-operate in regional collaboration, like Egypt's plan for a high dam on the Nile. However, as of 2019 no global institution supervises the management of trans-boundary water sources, and international co-operation has happened through ad hoc collaboration between agencies, like the Mekong Committee which formed due to an alliance between UNICEF and the US Bureau of Reclamation. Formation of strong international institutions seems[original research?] to provide a way forward – they encourage early intervention and management,[citation needed] avoiding costly dispute-resolution processes.

One common feature of almost all resolved disputes is that the negotiations had a "need-based" instead of a "right–based" paradigm. Irrigable lands, population, and technicalities of projects define "needs". The success of a need-based paradigm is reflected in the only water agreement ever negotiated in the Jordan River Basin, which focuses in needs not on rights of riparians. In the Indian subcontinent, the irrigation requirements of Bangladesh determine water allocations of the Ganges River.[citation needed] A need-based, regional approach focuses on satisfying individuals with their need of water, ensuring that minimum quantitative needs are met. It removes the conflict that arises when countries view the treaty from a national-interest point-of-view and move away from a zero-sum approach to a positive-sum, integrative approach that equitably allocates water and its benefits.[citation needed] This means that both equity and efficiency of water use systems become significant, particularly under water scarcity. The combination of these two performance factors should occur in the context of sustainability making continuous cooperation among all the stakeholders in a learning mode highly desirable.[36]

The Blue Peace framework developed by Strategic Foresight Group in partnership with the governments of Switzerland and Sweden offers a unique policy structure which promotes sustainable management of water resources combined with cooperation for peace. By making the most of shared water-resources through cooperation rather than mere allocation between countries, the chances for peace can increase.[73][need quotation to verify] The Blue Peace approach has proven effective in (for example) the Middle East[74][75] and the Nile basin.[76][77] NGOs like Water.org, There Is No Limit Foundation,[78] and Charity: Water are leading the way[citation needed] in providing access to clean water.

Shade casting vegetation can help reduce evaporation

Water production and conservation[edit]

Main article: Water conservation

The solutions for the various national water crisis are partly (fresh)water protection and production with different technologies.

Solar humidification and dehumidification[edit]

Main article: Solar humidification

Many atmospheric water generators operate in a manner very similar to that of a dehumidifier: air is passed over a cooled coil, causing water to condense.[79] Some of its advantages are their low price, the absence of heavy metals and bacteria improving populations health and their versatility of use of air as source of water, without the need of a lake, river or ocean nearby.

Clean water technology[edit]

See also: Wastewater treatment and Desalination

The treatment of wastewater helps to protect natural waterbodies and has started to become a source of drinking water in places like Singapore.

Desalination machines are designed to extract mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance,[80] Energy efficient desalination with an electricity use of less than 1,0 kwh per cubic metre of freshwater can be regarded as the end to the global water crisis. Several companies have developed technologies under this value like Siemens and TS Prototype-Creation. 1,0 kwh is little more than that required for pumping of water in the national grit in Germany. The IBTS Greenhouse, designed for water desalination produces distilled water with 0,45 kwh per cubic metre.

Together, wastewater treatment and desalination have the potential to strongly reduce the number of people affected by water scarcity globally. However, economic and environmental side effects of these technologies must also be taken into consideration.[81]

Regional examples[edit]

Overview of regions[edit]

South Asian woman carrying water on her head, 2016
Girls of squatter settlement collect water from river in Nepal

There are many countries of the world that are severely impacted with regard to human health and inadequate drinking water. The following is a partial list of some of the countries with significant populations (numerical population of affected population listed) whose only consumption is of contaminated water:[82]

  • Sudan (12.3 million)
  • Venezuela (5.0 million)
  • Ethiopia (2.7 million)
  • Tunisia (2.1 million)
  • Cuba (1.3 million)

Several world maps showing various aspects of the problem can be found in this graph article.[83]

The following countries have large water deficits — Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan.

Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China and India.[84] The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread over-pumping using powerful diesel and electric pumps. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Iran, and Mexico. This will eventually lead to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest.

In 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia.[citation needed] By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans.[citation needed]

Following Russia's annexation of Crimea, Ukraine blocked the North Crimean Canal, which provided 85% of Crimea's fresh water.[85]

Generally speaking the more developed countries of North America, Europe and Russia will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources.[citation needed] North Africa, the Middle East, South Africa and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to their carrying capacity with respect to water supply.[citation needed] Most of South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern China and India will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as excessive population growth.[citation needed]

West Africa and North Africa[edit]

Water scarcity in Yemen (see: Water supply and sanitation in Yemen) is a growing problem that has resulted from population growth, poor water management, climate change, shifts in rainfall, water infrastructure deterioration, poor governance, and other anthropogenic effects. As of 2011, it has been estimated that Yemen is experiencing water scarcity to a degree that affects its political, economic and social dimensions. As of 2015,[86] Yemen is among the most water scarce countries in the world. The majority of Yemen's population experiences water scarcity for at least one month during the year. In Nigeria, some reports have suggested that increase in extreme heat, drought and the shrinking of Lake Chad is causing water shortage and environmental migration that is forcing thousands to migrate to neighbouring Chad and towns.[87]

Asia[edit]

According to a major report compiled in 2019 by more than 200 researchers, the Himalayan glaciers that are the sources of Asia's biggest rivers – Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellow – could lose 66 percent of their ice by 2100.[88] Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers.[89] India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.[90][91][92]

Even with the overpumping of its aquifers, China is developing a grain deficit. When this happens, it will almost certainly drive grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. Unless population growth can be slowed quickly, it is feared that there may not be a practical non-violent or humane solution to the emerging world water shortage.[93][94] It is highly likely that climate change in Turkey will cause its southern river basins to be water scarce before 2070.[95]

Americas[edit]

Folsom Lake reservoir during the drought in California in 2015.[96]

In the Rio Grande Valley, intensive agribusiness has exacerbated water scarcity issues and sparked jurisdictional disputes regarding water rights on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border. Scholars, including Mexican political scientist Armand Peschard-Sverdrup, have argued that this tension has created the need for a re-developed strategic transnational water management.[97] Some have declared the disputes tantamount to a "war" over diminishing natural resources.[98][99]

The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.[69][100]

Australia[edit]

After years of drought and dust storms the town of Farina in South Australia was abandoned.

By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid lands commonly known as the outback.[101] Water restrictions are in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages resulting from drought. The Australian of the year 2007, environmentalist Tim Flannery, predicted that unless it made drastic changes, Perth in Western Australia could become the world's first ghost metropolis, an abandoned city with no more water to sustain its population.[102] In 2010, Perth suffered its second-driest winter on record[103] and the water corporation tightened water restrictions for spring.[104]

Some countries have already proven that decoupling water use from economic growth is possible. For example, in Australia, water consumption declined by 40% between 2001 and 2009 while the economy grew by more than 30%.[12]

Africa[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Water scarcity in Africa[edit]

Water scarcity in Africa is predicted to reach dangerously high levels by 2025. It is estimated that about two-third of the world's population may suffer from fresh water shortage by 2025. The main causes of water scarcity in Africa are physical and economic scarcity, rapid population growth, and climate change. Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand.[105] Although Sub-Saharan Africa has a plentiful supply of rainwater, it is seasonal and unevenly distributed, leading to frequent floods and droughts.[106] Additionally, prevalent economic development and poverty issues, compounded with rapid population growth and rural-urban migration have rendered Sub-Saharan Africa as the world's poorest and least developed region.[106]

The 2017 Report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations indicates that growing water scarcity is now one of the leading challenges for sustainable development. This is because an increasing number of the river basins have reached conditions of water scarcity through the combined demands of agriculture and other sectors. Impacts of water scarcity in Africa range from health (women and children are particularly affected) to education, agricultural productivity, sustainable development as well as the potential for more water conflicts.

Society and culture[edit]

Human right to water[edit]

Further information: Right to water

The United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights established a foundation of five core attributes for water security. They declare that the human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable water for personal and domestic use.[13]

Sustainable Development Goals[edit]

Main article: Sustainable Development Goals

Sustainable Development Goal 6 is about "clean water and sanitation for all." It is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. Its official wording is: "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all."[107] The goal has eight targets to be achieved by at least 2030. Progress toward the targets will be measured by using eleven indicators.[108] The Sustainable Development Goals replaced the Millennium Development Goals in 2016.

The full title of Target 6.1 is: "By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all".[109] The full title of Target 6.2 is: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations."[110]

See also[edit]

Water scarcity in particular regions or countries:

  • Water scarcity in Africa
  • Water scarcity in Australia
  • Water scarcity in Beijing
  • Water scarcity in India
  • Water scarcity in Iran
  • Water scarcity in Mexico
  • Water scarcity in the Middle East

Water crisis and water wars in particular locations:

  • California Water Wars
  • Water crisis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
  • Water crisis in Flint
  • Water crisis in Honduras
  • Water crisis in Iran
  • Water crisis in Kenya
  • Water crisis in Lebanon
  • Water crisis in Metro Manila

Organizations working to end the water crisis:

  • Thirst Project
  • Charity: Water
  • Water.org
  • Water Mission
  • WaterAid
  • UN Water

Other:

  • Consumptive water use
  • Ecocide
  • List of water supply and sanitation by country
  • Peak water
  • Water conflict
  • Water conservation
  • Water footprint
  • Water in Africa
  • Water resources
  • Water security

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Further reading[edit]

  • An International Food Policy Research Institute book about the intersection of water policy, globalization and food security: Ringler, C., Biswas, A., and Cline, S., eds. 2010. Global Change: Impacts on Water and Food Security. Heidelberg: Springer.
  • Steven Solomon (2010). Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization. Harper. p. 608. ISBN 978-0-06-054830-8.
  • Alexander Bell (2009). Peak Water : Civilisation and the world's water crisis. Edinburgh: Luath. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-906817-19-0.
  • Peter H. Gleick, ed. (2009). The World's Water 2008–2009: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington D.C. : Island Press. p. 402. ISBN 978-1597265058.
  • Maude Barlow (2007). Blue covenant : the global water crisis and the coming battle for the right to water. New York : New Press : Distributed by W.W. Norton. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-59558-186-0.
  • Richard Heinberg (2007). Peak Everything: Waking Up to the Century of Declines. Gabriola, BC : New Society Publishers. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-86571-598-1.
  • Larbi Bouguerra, Mohamed (2006). (3 October 2006). Water under Threat. Fernwood Publishing. ISBN 9781552662021.
  • Engelbert, Ernest A.; Ann Foley Scheuring, eds. (c. 1984). Water Scarcity: Impacts on Western Agriculture. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Jameel M. Zayed. "No peace without water: The role of hydropolitics in the Israel-Palestine conflict". London.

External links[edit]

  • "Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis". United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2006.
  • The World Bank's work and publications on water resources
  • BBC News World Water Crisis Maps
  • "Water Crisis Information Guide". Middletown Thrall Library. Subjects include drinking water, government information, international challenges and efforts, global water issues, oceanography, sea levels, desalination, water scarcity, pollution and contaminants, conservation and recycling, news and special reports, and library catalog subject headings for further research.
  • "The Effects of Overpopulation on Water Resources and Water Security". Daniel Altieri. Swarthmore College of Environmental Studies.