De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
Saltar a navegación Saltar a búsqueda
Un chaitya temprano en las cuevas de Bhaja ; arquitectura de madera imitada en piedra, con vigas decorativas de madera para techos. 2do siglo antes de Cristo.
Fuera de la chaitya en la Cueva 19, Cuevas de Ajanta , también con cuatro zonas que utilizan pequeños motivos repetidos de "arco de chaitya" .
Desarrollo del arco chaitya de la cueva Lomas Rishi en adelante, de un libro de Percy Brown .

Un chaitya , chaitya hall, chaitya-griha , (sánscrito: Caitya ; Pāli: Cetiya ) se refiere a un santuario, santuario, templo o sala de oración en las religiones indias . [1] [2] El término es más común en el budismo , donde se refiere a un espacio con una estupa y un ábside redondeado en el extremo opuesto a la entrada, y un techo alto con un perfil redondeado. [3] Estrictamente hablando, el chaitya es la estupa misma, [4]y los edificios indios son salas de chaitya, pero esta distinción a menudo no se observa. Fuera de la India, los budistas utilizan el término para los estilos locales de pequeños monumentos parecidos a estupas en Nepal , Camboya , Indonesia y otros lugares. En los textos históricos del jainismo y el hinduismo , incluidos los relacionados con la arquitectura, chaitya se refiere a un templo, santuario o cualquier monumento sagrado. [5] [6] [7]

La mayoría de los primeros ejemplos de chaitya que sobreviven son la arquitectura india excavada en la roca . Los estudiosos coinciden en que la forma estándar sigue una tradición de pasillos independientes hechos de madera y otros materiales vegetales, ninguno de los cuales ha sobrevivido. Los techos curvos con nervaduras imitan la construcción de madera. En los ejemplos anteriores, la madera se utilizó de forma decorativa, con nervaduras de madera añadidas a los techos de piedra. En las cuevas de Bhaja y el "Gran Chaitya" de las cuevas de Karla, las nervaduras de madera originales sobreviven; otras marcas en el techo muestran dónde estuvieron una vez. Más tarde, estas costillas fueron cortadas en roca. A menudo, se agregaron elementos de madera, como pantallas, porches y balcones, a las estructuras de piedra. Los ejemplos supervivientes son similares en su diseño amplio, aunque el diseño evolucionó a lo largo de los siglos. [8]

Los pasillos son altos y largos, pero bastante estrechos. En el otro extremo se encuentra la estupa, que es el centro de la devoción. Parikrama , el acto de circunvalar o caminar alrededor de la estupa, era un ritual importante y una práctica devocional, y siempre hay un espacio libre para permitirlo. El final de la sala es así redondeado, como el ábside en la arquitectura occidental. [9] Siempre hay columnas a lo largo de las paredes laterales, subiendo hasta el comienzo del techo curvo y un pasaje detrás de las columnas, creando pasillos y una nave central , y permitiendo la circunvalación ritual o pradakhshina., ya sea inmediatamente alrededor de la estupa o alrededor del pasaje detrás de las columnas. En el exterior, hay un porche, a menudo decorado de forma muy elaborada, una entrada relativamente baja y, encima, a menudo una galería. La única luz natural, aparte de un poco del camino de entrada, proviene de una gran ventana en forma de herradura sobre el porche, haciendo eco de la curva del techo en el interior. El efecto general es sorprendentemente similar al de las iglesias cristianas más pequeñas del período medieval temprano, aunque las chaityas tempranas son muchos siglos antes. [10]

Las chaityas aparecen en los mismos sitios que el vihara , un tipo de edificio fuertemente contrastante con una sala central rectangular de techo bajo, con pequeñas celdas que se abren, a menudo en todos los lados. Estos a menudo tienen un santuario en el centro de la pared trasera, que contiene una estupa en los primeros ejemplos, o una estatua de Buda más tarde. El vihara era el edificio clave en los complejos monásticos budistas, utilizado para vivir, estudiar y rezar. Los sitios típicos grandes contienen varios viharas para cada chaitya. [11]

Etimología [ editar ]

"Caitya", de una raíz cita o ci que significa "amontonado", es un término sánscrito para un montículo o pedestal o "pila funeraria". [1] [12] Es una construcción sagrada de algún tipo, y ha adquirido diferentes significados más específicos en diferentes regiones, incluido "caityavṛkṣa" para un árbol sagrado. [13]

Según KL Chanchreek, en la literatura jainista temprana , caitya significa ayatanas o templos donde se alojaban los monjes. También significaba dónde se colocaba el ídolo jainista en un templo, pero en general era un simbolismo para cualquier templo. [5] [14] En algunos textos, estos se conocen como arhat-caitya o jina-caitya , que significa santuarios para un Arhat o Jina. [15] Los principales sitios arqueológicos antiguos de Jaina, como Kankali Tila cerca de Mathura, muestran el árbol de Caitya, la estupa de Caitya, los arcos de Caitya con Mahendra-dvajas y Tirthankaras meditando . [14]

La palabra caitya aparece en la literatura védica del hinduismo . En la literatura budista e hindú primitiva, un caitya es cualquier "monumento amontonado" o "árbol sagrado" bajo el cual reunirse o meditar. [16] [17] [7] Jan Gonda y otros eruditos afirman que el significado de caitya en los textos hindúes varía según el contexto y tiene el significado general de cualquier "lugar sagrado, lugar de culto", un "memorial" o como significar cualquier "santuario" para los seres humanos, particularmente en los sutras Grhya . [1] [16] [6] Según Robert E. Buswell y Donald S. Lopez, ambos profesores de estudios budistas, el término caitya en sánscrito connota un "túmulo, santuario o santuario", tanto en contextos budistas como no budistas. [2]

El "arco de chaitya" como motivo decorativo [ editar ]

Artículo principal: gavaksha

El "arco de chaitya", gavaksha (sánscrito gavākṣa ) o chandrashala alrededor de la ventana grande sobre la entrada aparece frecuentemente repetido como un pequeño motivo en la decoración, y las versiones evolucionadas continúan en la decoración hindú y jainista, mucho después de que los salones de chaitya hubieran dejado de ser construido por budistas. En estos casos, puede convertirse en un marco elaborado, que se extiende bastante amplio, alrededor de un medallón circular o semicircular, que puede contener una escultura de una figura o una cabeza. Una etapa anterior se muestra aquí en la entrada a la Cueva 19 en las Cuevas de Ajanta (c. 475-500), donde cuatro zonas horizontales de la decoración utilizan motivos repetidos de "arco de chaitya" en una banda por lo demás simple (dos en el porche saliente, y dos arriba). Hay una cabeza dentro de cada arco. [18]

Desarrollo de la chaitya [ editar ]

Las primeras salas de Chaitya se conocen desde el siglo III a. C. Por lo general, seguían un plan absidal y eran excavados en la roca o independientes. [19]

Salas de chaitya excavadas en la roca [ editar ]

Ver también: cuevas budistas en la India
Dibujo del "Gran Chaitya" en las Cuevas de Karla , cuando se construyó, alrededor del año 120 d.C.
La cueva chaitya 26 en Ajanta ; la estupa incorpora una gran estatua de Buda y hay pasillos detrás de las columnas, sus paredes adornadas con esculturas en relieve . Una adaptación más pequeña del modelo Karli.

Los primeros espacios supervivientes comparables a la sala de chaitya datan del siglo III a. C. Estas son las cuevas de Barabar excavadas en la roca ( cueva de Lomas Rishi y cueva de Sudama), excavadas durante el reinado de Ashoka por o para los Ajivikas , un grupo religioso y filosófico no budista de la época. Según muchos estudiosos, estos se convirtieron en "el prototipo de las cuevas budistas del Deccan occidental", en particular las salas de chaitya excavadas entre el siglo II a. C. y el siglo II d. C. [20]

Los primeros chaityas consagraron una estupa con espacio para el culto congregacional de los monjes. Esto reflejó una de las primeras diferencias entre el budismo temprano y el hinduismo, con el budismo favoreciendo el culto congregacional en contraste con el enfoque individual del hinduismo. Los primeros chaitya grhas se cortaron en roca viva como cuevas. Estos sirvieron como símbolo y sitios de una vida congregacional sangha ( uposatha ). [21] [22]

Las primeras chaityas excavadas en la roca, similares a las independientes, consistían en una cámara circular interior con pilares para crear un camino circular alrededor de la estupa y una sala rectangular exterior para la congregación de los devotos. Con el transcurso del tiempo, la pared que separaba la estupa de la sala se eliminó para crear una sala absidal con una columnata alrededor de la nave y la estupa. [23]

The chaitya at Bhaja Caves is perhaps the earliest surviving chaitya hall, constructed in the second century BCE. It consists of an apsidal hall with a stupa. The columns slope inwards in the imitation of wooden columns that would have been structurally necessary to keep a roof up. The ceiling is barrel vaulted with ancient wooden ribs set into them. The walls are polished in the Mauryan style. It was faced by a substantial wooden facade, now entirely lost. A large horseshoe-shaped window, the chaitya-window, was set above the arched doorway and the whole portico-area was carved to imitate a multi-storeyed building with balconies and windows and sculptured men and women who observed the scene below. This created the appearance of an ancient Indian mansion.[24][23] This, like a similar facade at the Bedse Caves is an early example of what James Fergusson noted in the nineteenth century: "Everywhere ... in India architectural decoration is made up of small models of large buildings".[25]

In Bhaja, as in other chaityas, the entrance acted as the demarcation between the sacred and the profane. The stupa inside the hall was now completely removed from the sight of anyone outside. In this context, in the first century CE, the earlier veneration of the stupa changed to the veneration of an image of Gautama Buddha. Chaityas were commonly part of a monastic complex, the vihara.

The most important of rock-cut complexes are the Karla Caves, Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Aurangabad Caves and the Pandavleni Caves. Many pillars have capitals on them, often with carvings of a kneeling elephant mounted on bell-shaped bases.

  • Rock-cut hall, Sudama, Barabar Caves, dedicated in 257 BCE by Ashoka.

  • Rock-cut circular Chaitya hall with pillars, Tulja Caves, 1st century BCE

  • Chaitya arch around the window, and repeated as a gavaksha motif with railings, Cave 9, Ajanta.

  • The window at the chaitya Cave 10, Ellora, c. 650

  • Timber ribs on the roof at the Karla Caves; the umbrella over the stupa is also wood

  • Decorative chaitya arches and lattice railings, Bedse Caves, 1st century BCE

  • Stupa inside Cave 10, Ellora, the last chaitya hall built, the Buddha image now dominating the stupa.

Freestanding chaitya halls[edit]

Chaitya hall in Trivikrama Temple, 1st century BCE; the lower mandapa at left was a later Hindu addition.

A number of freestanding constructed chaitya halls built in durable materials (stone or brick) have survived, the earliest from around the same time as the earliest rock-cut caves. There are also some ruins and groundworks, such as a circular type from the 3rd century BCE, the Bairat Temple, in which a central stupa was surrounded by 27 octagonal wooden pillars, and then enclosed in a circular brick wall, forming a circular procession path around the stupa.[19] Other significant remains of the bases of structural chaityas including those at Guntupalle, with many small round bases, and Lalitgiri.[26]

An apsidal structure in Sanchi has also been dated, at least partially, to the 3rd century BCE: the so-called Temple 40, one of the first instances of a free-standing temple in India.[27] Temple 40 has remains of three different periods, the earliest period dating to the Maurya age, which probably makes it contemporary to the creation of the Great Stupa. An inscription even suggests it might have been established by Bindusara, the father of Ashoka.[28] The original 3rd century BCE temple was built on a high rectangular stone platform, 26.52x14x3.35 metres, with two flights of stairs to the east and the west. It was an apsidal hall, probably made of timber. It was burnt down sometime in the 2nd century BCE.[29][30] Later, the platform was enlarged to 41.76x27.74 metres and re-used to erect a pillared hall with fifty columns (5x10) of which stumps remain. Some of these pillars have inscriptions of the 2nd century BCE.

The base and reconstructed columns on three sides of Temple 18 at Sanchi were presumably completed by wood and thatch; this dates from the 5th century CE, perhaps rebuilt on earlier foundations. This stands next to Temple 17, a small flat-roofed temple with a lower mandapa at the front, of the basic type that came to dominate both Buddhist and Hindu temples in the future. The two types were used in the Gupta Empire by both religions.[31]

The Trivikrama Temple, also named "Ter Temple", is a now a Hindu temple in the city of Ter, Maharashtra. It was initially a free-standing apsidal structure, which is characteristic of early Buddhist apsidal caityagriha design. This structure is still standing, but is now located at the back of the building, since a flat-roofed mandapa structure was probably added from the 6th century CE, when the temple was converted into a Hindu temple.[32] The apsidal structure seems to be contemporary to the great apsidal temple found in Sirkap, Taxila, which is dated to 30 BCE-50 CE.[32] It would have been built under the Satavahanas.[33] The front of the apsidal temple is decorated with a chaitya-arch, similar to those found in Buddhist rock-cut architecture.[32] The Trivikrama Temple is considered as the oldest standing structure in Maharashtra.[33]

Another Hindu temple which was converted from a Buddhist chaityagriha structure is the very small Kapoteswara temple at Chezarla in Guntur district; here the chamber is straight at both ends, but with an rounded brick vault for its roof, using corbelling.[34]

  • Remains of the circular Chaitya hall in Bairat Temple, 3rd century BCE.

  • Relief of a circular chaitya hall, Bharhut, circa 100 BCE.

  • Sanchi Temple 40 was a 3rd-century BCE apsidal temple, one of the first known in India.

  • Reconstruction of Sanchi Temple 40 (3rd century BCE).

  • Trivikrama Temple with its chaitya arch.

  • The ancient Buddhist chaitya house at Ter.

  • Remains of the chaitya hall in Chejarla Kapoteswara temple.

  • Sanchi, Temple 18, from the apse end. Partly reconstructed.

  • Conjectural reconstruction of Temple 18 by Percy Brown (now dated earlier)

  • Excavated remains of a structural chaitya at Lalitgiri, Odisha, India

End of the chaitya hall[edit]

Durga temple, Aihole, 7th or 8th century.

Apparently the last rock-cut chaitya hall to be constructed was Cave 10 at Ellora, in the first half of the 7th century. By this time the role of the chaitya hall was being replaced by the vihara, which had now developed shrine rooms with Buddha images (easily added to older examples), and largely taken over their function for assemblies. The stupa itself had been replaced as a focus for devotion and meditation by the Buddha image, and in Cave 10, as in other late chaityas (for example Cave 26 at Ajanta, illustrated here), there is a large seated Buddha taking up the front of the stupa. Apart from this, the form of the interior is not much different from the earlier examples from several centuries before. But the form of the windows on the exterior has changed greatly, almost entirely dropping the imitation of wooden architecture, and showing a decorative treatment of the wide surround to the chaitya arch that was to be a major style in later temple decoration.[35]

The last stage of the freestanding chaitya hall temple may be exemplified by the Durga temple, Aihole, of the 7th or 8th century. This is apsidal, with rounded ends at the sanctuary end to a total of three layers: the enclosure to the sanctuary, a wall beyond this, and a pteroma or ambulatory as an open loggia with pillars running all round the building. This was the main space for parikrama or circumambulation. Above the round-ended sanctuary, now a room with a doorway, rises a shikara tower, relatively small by later standards, and the mandapa has a flat roof.[36] How long construction of chaitya halls in plant materials continued in villages is not known.

Parallels[edit]

Toda huts
A Toda temple or milk store hut in Nilgiri Hills.[37] Only the priest may enter through the tiny door.

The broad resemblance between chaityas and the traditional huts still made by the Toda people of the Nilgiri Hills has often been remarked on.[38] These are crude huts built with wicker bent to produce arch-shaped roofs, but the models for the chaitya were presumably larger and much more sophisticated structures.[37]

Lycian tombs

The similarity of the 4th century BCE Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs of Asia Minor, such as the tomb of Payava, with the Indian architectural design of the Chaitya (starting at least a century later from circa 250 BCE, with the Lomas Rishi caves in the Barabar caves group), suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs traveled to India,[39] or that both traditions derived from a common ancestral source.[40]

Reconstruction drawing of the tomb by Viollet-le-Duc.

Early on, James Fergusson, in his " Illustrated Handbook of Architecture", while describing the very progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations, has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so singularly these examples in Lycia".[40] Ananda Coomaraswamy and others also noted that "Lycian excavated and monolithic tombs at Pinara and Xanthos on the south coast of Asia Minor present some analogy with the early Indian rock-cut caitya-halls", one of many common elements between Early Indian and Western Asiatic art.[41][42][43]

The Lycian tombs, dated to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are numerous rock-cut equivalents to the free-standing structures. One of the free-standing tombs, the tomb of Payava, a Lykian aristocrat from Xanthos, and dated to 375-360 BCE, is visible at the British Museum. Both Greek and Persian influences can be seen in the reliefs sculpted on the sarcophagus.[44] The structural similarities with Indian Chaityas, down to many architectural details such as the "same pointed form of roof, with a ridge", are further developed in The cave temples of India.[45] Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the Achaemenid Empire.[46] Overall, the ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is considered as "quite probable".[39]

Anthropologist David Napier has also proposed a reverse relationship, claiming that the Payava tomb was a descendant of an ancient South Asian style, and that the man named "Payava" may actually have been a Graeco-Indian named "Pallava".[47]

Nepal[edit]

Nepalese form of chaitya

In Nepal, the meaning of chaitya is somewhat different. A Nepalese chaitya is not a building but a shrine monument consisting of a stupa-like shape on top a plinth, often very elaborately ornamented. They are typically placed in the open air, often in religious compounds, averaging some four to eight feet in height. They are constructed in memory of a dead person by his or her family by the Sherpas, Magars, Gurungs, Tamangs and Newars, among other people of Nepal. The Newar people of the Kathmandu Valley started adding images of the four Tathagatas on the chaitya's four directions mainly after the twelfth century. They are constructed with beautifully carved stone and mud mortar. They are said to consist of the Mahābhūta — earth, air, fire, water, and space.[48]

Cambodia[edit]

In classical Cambodian art chaityas are boundary markers for sacred sites, generally made in sets of four, placed on the site boundary at the four cardinal directions. They generally take a pillar-like form, often topped with a stupa, and are carved on the body.[49]

Gallery[edit]

  • Cambodian sanctuary marker chaitya, Khleang style, c. 975–1010

See also[edit]

  • Cetiya
  • Index of Buddhism-related articles
  • Pagoda
  • Secular Buddhism
  • Tibetan Buddhism

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Kevin Trainor (1997). Relics, Ritual, and Representation in Buddhism: Rematerializing the Sri Lankan Theravada Tradition. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–38, 89–90 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-521-58280-3.
  2. ^ a b Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
  3. ^ Michell, 66–67; Harle, 48
  4. ^ Harle (1994), 48
  5. ^ a b K.L. Chanchreek (2004). Jaina Art and Architecture: Northern and Eastern India. Shree. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-81-88658-51-0.
  6. ^ a b Jan Gonda (1980). Vedic Ritual. BRILL Academic. pp. 418–419. ISBN 90-04-06210-6.
  7. ^ a b Stella Kramrisch (1946). The Hindu Temple, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 147–149 with footnote 150. ISBN 978-81-208-0223-0.
  8. ^ Michell, 66, 374; Harle, 48, 493; Hardy, 39
  9. ^ Michell, 65–66
  10. ^ Michell, 66–67; Harle, 48; R. C. Majumdar quoting James Fergusson on the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves:

    "It resembles an early Christian church in its arrangement; consisting of a nave and side-aisles terminating in an apse or semi-dome, around which the aisle is carried... Fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisle..."

    — Ancient India, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1977, p.225
  11. ^ Michell, 67
  12. ^ Harle (1994), 26, 48
  13. ^ Harle, 26, 48
  14. ^ a b Umakant Premanand Shah (1987). Jaina Iconography. Abhinav Publications. pp. 9–14. ISBN 978-81-7017-208-6.
  15. ^ Mohan Lal Mehta (1969). Jaina Culture. P.V. Research Institute. p. 125.
  16. ^ a b M. Sparreboom (1985). Chariots in the Veda. BRILL Academic. pp. 63–72 with footnotes. ISBN 90-04-07590-9.
  17. ^ Caitya, Encyclopaedia Britannica
  18. ^ Michell, 69, 342; Harle, 48, 119
  19. ^ a b Chakrabarty, Dilip K. (2009). India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations. Oxford University Press. p. 421. ISBN 9780199088140.
  20. ^ Pia Brancaccio (2010). The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion. BRILL Academic. pp. 26–27. ISBN 90-04-18525-9.
  21. ^ James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
  22. ^ Michael K. Jerryson (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism. Oxford University Press. pp. 445–446. ISBN 978-0-19-936238-7.
  23. ^ a b Dehejia, V. (1972). Early Buddhist Rock Temples. Thames and Hudson: London. ISBN 0-500-69001-4.
  24. ^ ASI, "Bhaja Caves" Archived 2013-08-10 at the Wayback Machine; Michell, 352
  25. ^ Quoted in Hardy, 18
  26. ^ Group of Buddhist Monuments, Guntupalli. ASI Archived 2013-12-30 at the Wayback Machine; ASI, Lalitgiri Archived 2014-09-26 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.147
  28. ^ Singh, Upinder (2016). The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology (in Arabic). SAGE Publications India. ISBN 9789351506454.
  29. ^ Abram, David; (Firm), Rough Guides (2003). The Rough Guide to India. Rough Guides. ISBN 9781843530893.
  30. ^ Marshall, John (1955). Guide to Sanchi.
  31. ^ Harle, 219-220
  32. ^ a b c Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. p. 237. ISBN 9780984404308.
  33. ^ a b Michell, George (2013). Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums. Roli Books Private Limited. p. 142. ISBN 9788174369031.
  34. ^ Ahir, D. C. (1992). Buddhism in South India. South Asia Books. p. 72. ISBN 9788170303329.; Harle, 218
  35. ^ Harle, 132
  36. ^ Harle, 220-221
  37. ^ a b J. Leroy Davidson (1956), Review: The Art of Indian Asia: Its Mythology and Transformations, The Art Bulletin, vol. 38, no. 2, 1956, pp. 126–127
  38. ^ Narayan Sanyal, Immortal Ajanta, p. 134, Bharati Book Stall, 1984
  39. ^ a b Ching, Francis D.K; Jarzombek, Mark M.; Prakash, Vikramaditya (2017). A Global History of Architecture. John Wiley & Sons. p. 707. ISBN 9781118981603.
  40. ^ a b The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture Being a Concise and Popular Account of the Different Styles of Architecture Prevailing in All Ages and All Countries by James Fergusson. J. Murray. 1859. p. 212.
  41. ^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1972). History of Indian and Indonesian art. p. 12.
  42. ^ Bombay, Asiatic Society of (1974). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay. Asiatic Society of Bombay. p. 61.
  43. ^ "The Lycian tombs at Pinara and Xanthos, on the south-coast of Asia Minor, were excavated like the early Indian rock-hewn chaitya-hall" in Joveau-Dubreuil, Gabriel (1976). Vedic antiquites. Akshara. p. 4.
  44. ^ M. Caygill, The British Museum A-Z compani (London, The British Museum Press, 1999) E. Slatter, Xanthus: travels and discovery (London, Rubicon Press, 1994) A.H. Smith, A catalogue of sculpture in -1, vol. 2 (London, British Museum, 1900)
  45. ^ Fergusson, James; Burgess, James (1880). The cave temples of India. London : Allen. p. 120.
  46. ^ Fergusson, James (1849). An historical inquiry into the true principles of beauty in art, more especially with reference to architecture. London, Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans. pp. 316–320.
  47. ^ According to David Napier, author of Masks, Transformation, and Paradox, "In the British Museum we find a Lycian building, the roof of which is clearly the descendant of an ancient South Asian style.", "For this is the so-called "Tomb of Payava" a Graeco-Indian Pallava if ever there was one." in "Masks and metaphysics in the ancient world: an anthropological view" in Malik, Subhash Chandra; Arts, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the (2001). Mind, Man, and Mask. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 10. ISBN 9788173051920.. David Napier biography here and here
  48. ^ "Shikarakuta (small temple) Chaitya". Asianart.com. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
  49. ^ Jessup, 109–110, 209

References[edit]

  • Dehejia, V. (1997). Indian Art. Phaidon: London. ISBN 0-7148-3496-3
  • Hardy, Adam, Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries, 1995, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170173124, 9788170173120, google books
  • Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
  • Jessup, Helen Ibbetson, Art and Architecture of Cambodia, 2004, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 050020375X
  • Michell, George, The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, 1989, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140081445

External links[edit]

  • Evolution of Chaitya Halls compiled by students of School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi