La Alemania nazi utilizó seis campos de exterminio (en alemán : Vernichtungslager ), también llamados campos de exterminio ( Todeslager ), o centros de exterminio ( Tötungszentren ), en Europa Central durante el Holocausto en la Segunda Guerra Mundial para asesinar sistemáticamente a más de 2,7 millones de personas, en su mayoría judíos, durante el Holocausto . [1] [2] [3] Las víctimas de los campos de exterminio fueron asesinadas principalmente por gaseado , ya sea en instalaciones permanentes construidas para este propósito específico, o por medio de camionetas de gas.. [4] Los seis campos de exterminio fueron Chelmno , Belzec , Sobibor , Treblinka , Majdanek y Auschwitz-Birkenau . Los campos de exterminio de Auschwitz y Majdanek también utilizaron trabajos extremos en condiciones de hambre para matar a sus prisioneros. [5] [6] [4]
Campos de exterminio nazis | |
---|---|
Localización | Europa ocupada por los alemanes (principalmente Polonia ocupada ) |
Fecha | Segunda Guerra Mundial |
Tipo de incidente | Exterminio |
Perpetradores | Las SS |
Organizaciones | SS-Totenkopfverbände |
Acampar | Chełmno , Bełżec , Sobibór , Treblinka , Auschwitz-Birkenau , Majdanek |
La idea del exterminio masivo con el uso de instalaciones estacionarias, a las que las víctimas fueron llevadas en tren , fue el resultado de la experimentación nazi anterior con gas venenoso fabricado químicamente durante el programa secreto de eutanasia Aktion T4 contra pacientes hospitalarios con discapacidades mentales y físicas. [7] La tecnología se adaptó, expandió y aplicó en tiempos de guerra a víctimas desprevenidas de muchos grupos étnicos y nacionales; los judíos eran el objetivo principal, representando más del 90 por ciento del número de muertos en los campos de exterminio. [8] El genocidio de los judíos de Europa fue la " Solución final a la cuestión judía " del Tercer Reich . [9] [4] [10]
Fondo
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Fotografía aérea estadounidense de Auschwitz II Birkenau |
Después de la invasión de Polonia en septiembre de 1939, las SS iniciaron el programa secreto de eutanasia Aktion T4 , el asesinato sistemático de pacientes de hospitales alemanes, austríacos y polacos con discapacidades mentales o físicas, para eliminar la " vida indigna de la vida " ( alemán : Lebensunwertes Leben ), una designación nazi para las personas que no tenían derecho a la vida . [11] [12] En 1941, la experiencia adquirida en la matanza secreta de estos pacientes hospitalarios llevó a la creación de campos de exterminio para la implementación de la Solución Final. Para entonces, los judíos ya estaban confinados a nuevos guetos e internados en campos de concentración nazis junto con otros grupos objetivo, incluidos los romaníes y los prisioneros de guerra soviéticos. El Nazi Endlösung der Judenfrage ( La solución final de la cuestión judía ), basado en la matanza sistemática de judíos europeos por gaseamiento, comenzó durante la Operación Reinhard , [13] después del inicio de la guerra nazi-soviética en junio de 1941 . La adopción de la tecnología de gaseado por la Alemania nazi fue precedida por una ola de asesinatos prácticos llevados a cabo por las SS Einsatzgruppen , [14] que siguieron al ejército de la Wehrmacht durante la Operación Barbarroja en el Frente Oriental. [15] [a]
Los campos diseñados específicamente para los gaseamientos masivos de judíos se establecieron en los meses posteriores a la Conferencia de Wannsee presidida por Reinhard Heydrich en enero de 1942, en la que se dejó en claro el principio de que los judíos de Europa serían exterminados. La responsabilidad de la logística estaría a cargo del administrador del programa, Adolf Eichmann . [21]
El 13 de octubre de 1941, el líder de las SS y la policía Odilo Globocnik estacionado en Lublin recibió una orden oral del Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler - anticipando la caída de Moscú - para comenzar inmediatamente los trabajos de construcción en el centro de exterminio de Bełżec en el territorio del Gobierno General ocupado. Polonia. En particular, la orden precedió a la Conferencia de Wannsee por tres meses, [22] pero los gaseamientos en Kulmhof al norte de Łódź con camionetas de gas comenzaron ya en diciembre, bajo Sturmbannführer Herbert Lange . [23] El campo de Bełżec estaba operativo en marzo de 1942, con el liderazgo traído desde Alemania bajo la apariencia de la Organización Todt (OT). [22] A mediados de 1942, se habían construido dos campos de exterminio más en tierras polacas para la Operación Reinhard: Sobibór (listo en mayo de 1942) bajo el mando del Hauptsturmführer Franz Stangl , y Treblinka (operativo en julio de 1942) al mando del Obersturmführer Irmfried Eberl de T4 , el único médico que ha trabajado en tal capacidad. [24] El campo de concentración de Auschwitz fue equipado con cámaras de gas nuevas en marzo de 1942. [25] Majdanek las hizo construir en septiembre. [26]
Definición
Los nazis distinguieron entre campos de exterminio y concentración. Los términos campo de exterminio ( Vernichtungslager ) y campo de exterminio ( Todeslager ) eran intercambiables en el sistema nazi, y cada uno se refería a campos cuya función principal era el genocidio . Seis campos cumplen con esta definición, aunque el exterminio de personas ocurrió en todo tipo de campo de concentración o campo de tránsito; el uso del término campo de exterminio con su propósito exclusivo se traslada de la terminología nazi. Los seis campos fueron Chelmno , Belzec , Sobibor , Treblinka , Majdanek y Auschwitz (también llamado Auschwitz-Birkenau). [28] [29]
Los Todeslagers fueron diseñados específicamente para el asesinato sistemático de personas entregadas en masa por los trenes del Holocausto . Los verdugos no esperaban que los prisioneros sobrevivieran más de unas pocas horas después de su llegada a Belzec , Sobibór y Treblinka . [30] Los campos de exterminio de Reinhard estaban bajo el mando directo de Globocnik; cada uno de ellos estaba dirigido por 20 a 35 hombres de la rama SS-Totenkopfverbände de Schutzstaffel , aumentada por unos cien Trawnikis , auxiliares en su mayoría de la Ucrania soviética, y hasta mil trabajadores esclavos Sonderkommando cada uno. [31] Los hombres, mujeres y niños judíos fueron sacados de los guetos para un "trato especial" en una atmósfera de terror por batallones policiales uniformados de Orpo y Schupo . [32]
Los campos de exterminio se diferenciaban de los campos de concentración ubicados en Alemania propiamente dicha, como Bergen-Belsen , Oranienburg , Ravensbrück y Sachsenhausen , que eran campos de prisioneros establecidos antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial para personas definidas como "indeseables". Desde marzo de 1936, todos los campos de concentración nazis fueron administrados por las SS-Totenkopfverbände (las Unidades Skull, SS-TV), que también operaban campos de exterminio desde 1941. [33] Un anatomista de las SS , el Dr. Johann Kremer , después de presenciar el gaseamiento de las víctimas en Birkenau , escribió en su diario el 2 de septiembre de 1942: " El infierno de Dante me parece casi una comedia en comparación con esto. No llaman a Auschwitz el campo de aniquilación por nada! " [34] La distinción fue evidente durante los juicios de Nuremberg , cuando se le pidió a Dieter Wisliceny (un diputado de Adolf Eichmann ) que nombrara los campos de exterminio , e identificó a Auschwitz y Majdanek como tales. Luego, cuando se le preguntó: "¿Cómo se clasifican los campos de Mauthausen , Dachau y Buchenwald ?", Respondió: "Eran campos de concentración normales, desde el punto de vista del departamento de Eichmann". [35]
Los asesinatos no se limitaron a estos campos. Los sitios para el “Holocausto a balas” están marcados en el mapa del Holocausto en la Polonia ocupada con calaveras blancas (sin el fondo negro), donde las personas estaban alineadas junto a un barranco y disparadas por soldados con rifles. Los sitios incluyeron Bronna Góra, Ponary y otros.
Independientemente de las redadas para los campos de exterminio, los nazis secuestraron a millones de extranjeros para el trabajo esclavo en otros tipos de campos , [36] que proporcionaron una cobertura perfecta para el programa de exterminio. [37] Los prisioneros representaban aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la fuerza laboral total del Reich, con tasas de mortalidad superiores al 75 por ciento debido al hambre, las enfermedades, el agotamiento, las ejecuciones y la brutalidad física. [36]
Historia
En los primeros años de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los judíos fueron enviados principalmente a campos de trabajos forzados y convertidos en guetos, pero a partir de 1942 fueron deportados a los campos de exterminio con el pretexto de "reasentamiento". Por razones políticas y logísticas, las fábricas de asesinatos alemanes nazis más infames se construyeron en la Polonia ocupada , donde vivían la mayoría de las víctimas previstas; Polonia tenía la mayor población judía de la Europa controlada por los nazis . [38] Además de eso, los nuevos campos de exterminio fuera de las fronteras anteriores a la guerra del Tercer Reich propiamente dicho podrían mantenerse en secreto para la población civil alemana. [39]
Campos de exterminio puro
Durante la fase inicial de la Solución Final , se desarrollaron camionetas de gas que producían gases de escape venenosos en la Unión Soviética ocupada (URSS) y en el campo de exterminio de Chełmno en la Polonia ocupada , antes de ser utilizadas en otros lugares. El método de matanza se basó en la experiencia adquirida por las SS durante el programa secreto Aktion T4 de eutanasia involuntaria . Había dos tipos de cámaras de la muerte en funcionamiento durante el Holocausto. [13]
A diferencia de Auschwitz, donde se utilizó el Zyklon-B a base de cianuro para exterminar trenes de prisioneros con el pretexto de "reubicación", los campos de Treblinka , Bełżec y Sobibór , construidos durante la Operación Reinhard (octubre de 1941 - noviembre de 1943), utilizaron Humos de escape letales producidos por grandes motores de combustión interna . Los tres centros de exterminio de Einsatz Reinhard fueron construidos principalmente para el exterminio de los judíos de Polonia atrapados en los guetos nazis . [40] Al principio, los cuerpos de la víctima fueron enterrados con el uso de excavadoras de orugas , pero luego fueron exhumados e incinerados en piras al aire libre para ocultar la evidencia del genocidio en lo que se conoció como Sonderaktion 1005 . [41] [42]
Los seis campos que se consideran puramente para el exterminio eran Chelmno , campo de exterminio de Belzec , campo de exterminio de Sobibor , campo de exterminio de Treblinka , campo de exterminio de Majdanek y campo de exterminio de Auschwitz (también llamado Auschwitz-Birkenau).
Mientras que los campos de Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau) y Majdanek eran parte de un complejo de campos de trabajo, los campos de exterminio de Chełmno y Operation Reinhard (es decir, Bełżec , Sobibór y Treblinka ) se construyeron exclusivamente para el rápido exterminio de comunidades enteras de personas. (principalmente judíos) pocas horas después de su llegada. Todos se construyeron cerca de ramales que conectaban con el sistema ferroviario polaco, y los miembros del personal se trasladaban entre ubicaciones. Estos campamentos tenían un diseño casi idéntico: tenían varios cientos de metros de largo y ancho, y estaban equipados con un mínimo de alojamiento para el personal e instalaciones de apoyo no pensadas para las víctimas apiñadas en los transportes ferroviarios . [43] [44]
Los nazis engañaron a las víctimas a su llegada, diciéndoles que estaban en una parada temporal de tránsito y que pronto continuarían hacia los Arbeitslagers alemanes (campos de trabajo) más al este. [45] Los prisioneros sanos seleccionados entregados a los campos de exterminio no fueron asesinados de inmediato, sino que fueron presionados en unidades de trabajo llamadas Sonderkommandos para ayudar con el proceso de exterminio retirando los cadáveres de las cámaras de gas y quemándolos.
Campos de concentración y exterminio
En los campos de la Operación Reinhard, incluidos Bełżec , Sobibór y Treblinka , se destinaron trenes cargados de prisioneros para la muerte inmediata en cámaras de gas diseñadas exclusivamente para ese propósito. [13] Las instalaciones de matanza masiva se desarrollaron aproximadamente al mismo tiempo dentro del subcampo de Auschwitz II-Birkenau de un complejo de trabajos forzados , [46] y en el campo de concentración de Majdanek . [13] En la mayoría de los otros campos, los prisioneros fueron seleccionados primero para el trabajo esclavo; se les mantenía con vida con raciones de hambre y se les ponía a trabajar cuando era necesario. Auschwitz, Majdanek y Jasenovac fueron modernizados con cámaras de gas Zyklon-B y edificios crematorios a medida que pasaba el tiempo, permaneciendo operativos hasta el final de la guerra en 1945. [47]
Procedimiento de exterminio
Heinrich Himmler visited the outskirts of Minsk in 1941 to witness a mass shooting. He was told by the commanding officer there that the shootings were proving psychologically damaging to those being asked to pull the triggers. Thus Himmler knew another method of mass killing was required.[48] After the war, the diary of the Auschwitz Commandant, Rudolf Höss, revealed that psychologically "unable to endure wading through blood any longer", many Einsatzkommandos – the killers – either went mad or killed themselves.[49]
The Nazis had first used gassing with carbon monoxide cylinders to kill 70,000 disabled people in Germany in what they called a 'euthanasia programme' to disguise that mass murder was taking place. Despite the lethal effects of carbon monoxide, this was seen as unsuitable for use in the East due to the cost of transporting the carbon monoxide in cylinders.[48]
Each extermination camp operated differently, yet each had designs for quick and efficient industrialized killing. While Höss was away on an official journey in late August 1941 his deputy, Karl Fritzsch, tested out an idea. At Auschwitz clothes infested with lice were treated with crystallised prussic acid. The crystals were made to order by the IG Farben chemicals company for which the brand name was Zyklon-B. Once released from their container, Zyklon-B crystals in the air released a lethal cyanide gas. Fritzsch tried out the effect of Zyklon B on Soviet POWs, who were locked up in cells in the basement of the bunker for this experiment. Höss on his return was briefed and impressed with the results and this became the camp strategy for extermination as it was also to be at Majdanek. Besides gassing, the camp guards continued killing prisoners via mass shooting, starvation, torture, etc.[50]
Gassings
SS Obersturmführer Kurt Gerstein, of the Institute for Hygiene of the Waffen-SS, told a Swedish diplomat during the war of life in a death camp. He recounted that on 19 August 1942, he arrived at Belzec extermination camp (which was equipped with carbon monoxide gas chambers) and was shown the unloading of 45 train cars filled with 6,700 Jews, many already dead. The rest were marched naked to the gas chambers, where:
Unterscharführer Hackenholt was making great efforts to get the engine running. But it doesn't go. Captain Wirth comes up. I can see he is afraid, because I am present at a disaster. Yes, I see it all and I wait. My stopwatch showed it all, 50 minutes, 70 minutes, and the diesel [engine] did not start. The people wait inside the gas chambers. In vain. They can be heard weeping, "like in the synagogue", says Professor Pfannenstiel, his eyes glued to a window in the wooden door. Furious, Captain Wirth lashes the Ukrainian (Trawniki) assisting Hackenholt twelve, thirteen times, in the face. After 2 hours and 49 minutes – the stopwatch recorded it all – the diesel started. Up to that moment, the people shut up in those four crowded chambers were still alive, four times 750 persons, in four times 45 cubic meters. Another 25 minutes elapsed. Many were already dead, that could be seen through the small window, because an electric lamp inside lit up the chamber for a few moments. After 28 minutes, only a few were still alive. Finally, after 32 minutes, all were dead ... Dentists [then] hammered out gold teeth, bridges, and crowns. In the midst of them stood Captain Wirth. He was in his element, and, showing me a large can full of teeth, he said: "See, for yourself, the weight of that gold! It's only from yesterday, and the day before. You can't imagine what we find every day – dollars, diamonds, gold. You'll see for yourself!" — Kurt Gerstein [51]
Auschwitz Camp Commandant Rudolf Höss reported that the first time Zyklon B pellets were used on the Jews, many suspected they were to be killed – despite having been deceived into believing they were to be deloused and then returned to the camp.[52] As a result, the Nazis identified and isolated "difficult individuals" who might alert the prisoners, and removed them from the mass – lest they incite revolt among the deceived majority of prisoners en route to the gas chambers. The "difficult" prisoners were led to a site out of view to be killed off discreetly.
A prisoner Sonderkommando (Special Detachment) effected in the processes of extermination; they encouraged the Jews to undress without a hint of what was about to happen. They accompanied them into the gas chambers outfitted to appear as shower rooms (with nonworking water nozzles, and tile walls); and remained with the victims until just before the chamber door closed. To psychologically maintain the "calming effect" of the delousing deception, an SS man stood at the door until the end. The Sonderkommando talked to the victims about life in the camp to pacify the suspicious ones, and hurried them inside; to that effect, they also assisted the aged and the very young in undressing.[53]
To further persuade the prisoners that nothing harmful was happening, the Sonderkommando deceived them with small talk about friends or relations who had arrived in earlier transports. Many young mothers hid their infants beneath their piled clothes fearing that the delousing "disinfectant" might harm them. Camp Commandant Höss reported that the "men of the Special Detachment were particularly on the look-out for this", and encouraged the women to take their children into the "shower room". Likewise, the Sonderkommando comforted older children who might cry "because of the strangeness of being undressed in this fashion".[54]
Yet, not every prisoner was deceived by such psychological tactics; Commandant Höss spoke of Jews "who either guessed, or knew, what awaited them, nevertheless ... [they] found the courage to joke with the children, to encourage them, despite the mortal terror visible in their own eyes". Some women would suddenly "give the most terrible shrieks while undressing, or tear their hair, or scream like maniacs"; the Sonderkommando immediately took them away for execution by shooting.[55] In such circumstances, others, meaning to save themselves at the gas chamber's threshold, betrayed the identities and "revealed the addresses of those members of their race still in hiding".[56]
Once the door of the filled gas chamber was sealed, pellets of Zyklon B were dropped through special holes in the roof. Regulations required that the Camp Commandant supervise the preparations, the gassing (through a peephole), and the aftermath looting of the corpses. Commandant Höss reported that the gassed victims "showed no signs of convulsion"; the Auschwitz camp physicians attributed that to the "paralyzing effect on the lungs" of the Zyklon-B gas, which killed before the victim began suffering convulsions.[57]
As a matter of political training, some high-ranked Nazi Party leaders and SS officers were sent to Auschwitz–Birkenau to witness the gassings; Höss reported that, "all were deeply impressed by what they saw ... [yet some] ... who had previously spoken most loudly, about the necessity for this extermination, fell silent once they had actually seen the 'final solution of the Jewish problem'." As the Auschwitz Camp Commandant Rudolf Höss justified the extermination by explaining the need for "the iron determination with which we must carry out Hitler's orders"; yet saw that even "[Adolf] Eichmann, who certainly [was] tough enough, had no wish to change places with me”.[59]
Corpse disposal
After the gassings, the Sonderkommando removed the corpses from the gas chambers, then extracted any gold teeth. Initially, the victims were buried in mass graves, but were later cremated during Sonderaktion 1005 in all camps of Operation Reinhard.
The Sonderkommando was responsible for burning the corpses in the pits,[60] stoking the fires, draining surplus body fat and turning over the "mountain of burning corpses ... so that the draught might fan the flames" wrote Commandant Höss in his memoir while in the Polish custody.[60] He was impressed by the diligence of prisoners from the so-called Special Detachment who carried out their duties despite their being well aware that they, too, would meet exactly the same fate in the end.[60] At the Lazaret killing station they held the sick so they would never see the gun while being shot. They did it "in such a matter-of-course manner that they might, themselves, have been the exterminators" wrote Höss.[60] He further said that the men ate and smoked "even when engaged in the grisly job of burning corpses which had been lying for some time in mass graves."[60] They occasionally encountered the corpse of a relative, or saw them entering the gas chambers. According to Höss, they were obviously shaken by this but "it never led to any incident." He mentioned the case of a Sonderkommando who found the body of his wife, yet continued to drag corpses along "as though nothing had happened."[60]
At Auschwitz, the corpses were incinerated in crematoria and the ashes either buried, scattered, or dumped in the river. At Sobibór, Treblinka, Bełżec, and Chełmno, the corpses were incinerated on pyres. The efficiency of industrialised killing at Auschwitz-Birkenau led to the construction of three buildings with crematoria designed by specialists from the firm J.A. Topf & Söhne. They burned bodies 24 hours a day, and yet the death rate was at times so high that corpses also needed to be burned in open-air pits.[61]
Número de muertos
The estimated total number of people who were murdered in the six Nazi extermination camps is 2.7 million, according to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.[62]
Camp | Estimated deaths | Operational | Occupied territory | Current country of location | Primary means for mass killings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Auschwitz–Birkenau | 1,100,000 [63] | May 1940 – January 1945 | Province of Upper Silesia | Poland | Zyklon B gas chambers |
Treblinka | 800,000 [64] | 23 July 1942 – 19 October 1943 | General Government district | Poland | Carbon monoxide gas chambers |
Bełżec | 600,000 [65] | 17 March 1942 – end of June 1943 | General Government district | Poland | Carbon monoxide gas chambers |
Chełmno | 320,000 [66] | 8 December 1941 – March 1943, June 1944 – 18 January 1945 | District of Reichsgau Wartheland | Poland | Carbon monoxide vans |
Sobibór | 250,000[67] | 16 May 1942 – 17 October 1943 | General Government district | Poland | Carbon monoxide gas chambers |
Majdanek | at least 80,000 [68] | 1 October 1941 – 22 July 1944 | General Government district | Poland | Zyklon B gas chambers |
Desmantelamiento e intento de ocultación
The Nazis attempted to either partially or completely dismantle the extermination camps in order to hide any evidence that people had been murdered there. This was an attempt to conceal not only the extermination process but also the buried remains. As a result of the secretive Sonderaktion 1005, the camps were dismantled by commandos of condemned prisoners, their records were destroyed, and the mass graves were dug up. Some extermination camps that remained uncleared of evidence were liberated by Soviet troops, who followed different standards of documentation and openness than the Western allies did.[69][70]
Nonetheless Majdanek was captured nearly intact due to the rapid advance of the Soviet Red Army during Operation Bagration.[69]
Conmemoración
In the post-war period the government of the People's Republic of Poland created monuments at the extermination camp sites. These early monuments mentioned no ethnic, religious, or national particulars of the Nazi victims. The extermination camps sites have been accessible to everyone in recent decades. They are popular destinations for visitors from all over the world, especially the most infamous Nazi death camp, Auschwitz near the town of Oświęcim. In the early 1990s, the Jewish Holocaust organisations debated with the Polish Catholic groups about "What religious symbols of martyrdom are appropriate as memorials in a Nazi death camp such as Auschwitz?" The Jews opposed the placement of Christian memorials such as the Auschwitz cross near Auschwitz I where mostly Poles were killed. The Jewish victims of the Holocaust were mostly killed at Auschwitz II Birkenau.
The March of the Living is organized in Poland annually since 1988.[71] Marchers come from countries as diverse as Estonia, New Zealand, Panama, and Turkey.[72]
The camps and Holocaust denial
Holocaust deniers or negationists are people and organizations who assert that the Holocaust did not occur, or that it did not occur in the historically recognized manner and extent.[73] Holocaust deniers claim that the extermination camps were actually transit camps from which Jews were deported farther east. However, these theories are disproven by surviving German documents, which show that Jews were sent to the camps to be killed.[74]
Extermination camp research is difficult because of extensive attempts by the SS and Nazi regime to conceal the existence of the extermination camps.[69] The existence of the extermination camps is firmly established by testimonies of camp survivors and Final Solution perpetrators, material evidence (the remaining camps, etc.), Nazi photographs and films of the killings, and camp administration records.[75][76]
Awareness
In 2017 a Körber Foundation survey found that 40 percent of 14-year-olds in Germany did not know what Auschwitz was.[77][78] A 2018 survey organized in the United States by the Claims Conference, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and others found that 66% of the American millennials who were surveyed (and 41% of all U.S. adults) did not know what Auschwitz was.[79] In 2019, a survey of 1,100 Canadians found that 49 percent of them could not name any of the Nazi camps which were located in German-occupied Europe.[80]
Ver también
- German camps in occupied Poland during World War II
- List of Nazi extermination camps and euthanasia centers
- "Polish death camp" controversy
- Soap made from human corpses
- Topf and Sons
- War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II
Notas
- ^ The development of homicidal gas chambers is attributed by historians to Dr Albert Widmann, chief chemist of the German Criminal Police (Kripo).[16] The first gas van manufactured in Berlin, was used by the Lange Commando between 21 May and 8 June 1940 at the Soldau concentration camp in occupied Poland, to kill 1,558 mental patients delivered from sanatoria.[17][18] Lange used his experience with exhaust gasses in setting up the Chelmno extermination camp thereafter.[19] Widmann conducted first gassing experiments in the East in September 1941 in Mogilev, and successfully initiated the killing of local hospital patients with the exhaust fumes from a truck engine, minimizing the psychological impact of the crime on the Einsatzgruppe.[20]
Referencias
- ^ "World War II and the Holocaust, 1939–1945". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
- ^ "The Death Camps". Yad Vashem. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
- ^ "Killing Centers: An Overview". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
- ^ a b c "The Implementation of the Final Solution: The Death Camps". The Holocaust. Yad Vashem, The World Holocaust Remembrance Center. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
- ^ Gruner, Wolf (2004). "Jewish Forced Labor as a Basic Element of Nazi Persecution: Germany, Austria, and the Occupied Polish Territories (1938–1943)" (PDF). Forced and Slave Labor in Nazi-Dominated Europe (Symposium). Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: 43–44.
- ^ Gellately, Robert; Stoltzfus, Nathan (2001). Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-691-08684-2.
- ^ Holocaust Encyclopedia (20 June 2014). "Gassing Operations". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
- ^ Russell, Shahan (12 October 2015). "The Ten Worst Nazi Concentration Camps". WarHistoryOnline.com. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
- ^ Furet, François (1989). Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews. New York City: Schocken Books. p. 182. ISBN 9780805209082.
- ^ Bergen, Doris (2004–2005). Germany and the Camp System. Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State. Community Television of Southern California.
- ^ Michael Burleigh (1994). Death and Deliverance: 'Euthanasia' in Germany, c. 1900 to 1945. CUP Archive. ISBN 0-521-47769-7.
- ^ Webb, Chris (2009). "Otwock & the Zofiowka Sanatorium: A Refuge from Hell". Holocaust Research Project. Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011 – via Internet Archive.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
- ^ a b c d Yad Vashem (2013). "Aktion Reinhard" (PDF). Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. Document size 33.1 KB. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
- ^ Longerich, Peter (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5.
- ^ Friedländer, Saul (February 2009). Nazi Germany And The Jews, 1933–1945 (PDF) (Abridged ed.). HarperCollins Publishers. pp. 293–294 / 507. ISBN 978-0-06-177730-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2018.
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- ^ Breitbart, Aaron (1997). "Responses to Revisionist Arguments". Los Angeles: The Simon Wiesenthal Center. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
- ^ "The Development of the Gas-Van in the Murdering of the Jews". Jewish Virtual Library. 2006. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
- ^ Browning, Christopher R (2011). Remembering Survival: Inside a Nazi Slave-Labor Camp. W W Norton & Company. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-0393338874.
- ^ Rees 2006, pp. 53, 148.
- ^ Mendelsohn, John, ed. (1945). "Wannsee Protocol of January 20, 1942". The Holocaust: Selected Documents in Eighteen Volumes. Vol. 11. The official U.S. government translation. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
- ^ a b History of the Belzec extermination camp [Historia Niemieckiego Obozu Zagłady w Bełżcu] (in Polish), Muzeum - Miejsce Pamięci w Bełżcu (National Bełżec Museum & Monument of Martyrdom), archived from the original on 29 October 2015, retrieved 15 September 2015
- ^ Christopher R. Browning (2011). Remembering Survival: Inside a Nazi Slave-Labor Camp. b. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 54, 65. ISBN 978-0-393-33887-4. Retrieved 28 June 2015.
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- ^ Rees 2006, pp. 96-97.
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- ^ "Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum in Oświęcim, Poland". Archived from the original on 10 December 2008.
- ^ "The Death Camps". Yad Vashem, World Holocaust Remembrance Center. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
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- ^ Minerbi, Alessandra (2005) [2002]. A New Illustrated History of the Nazis. Rare Photographs of the Third Reich. UK: David & Charles. pp. 168–. ISBN 0-7153-2101-3.
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- ^ a b Beyer, John C; Schneider, Stephen A (2006). "Introduction". Forced Labour under Third Reich - Part 1 (PDF). Nathan Associates. pp. 3–17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2015. Retrieved 7 October 2015.
Number of foreign laborers employed as of January 1944 (excluding those already dead): total of 3,795,000. From Poland: 1,400,000 (survival rate 25.2); from the Soviet Union: 2,165,000 (survival rate 27.7) Table 5.
- ^ Herbert, Ulrich (1997). "The Army of Millions of the Modern Slave State (extract)". Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011 – via Univ of the West of England, Faculty of Humanities; compiled by Dr S.D. Stein.
- ^ "The evacuation of Jews to Poland", Jewish Virtual Library.'.' Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- ^ Land-Weber, Ellen (26 October 2004). "Conditions for Polish Jews During WWII". To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue.
- ^ "Ghettos". encyclopedia.ushmm.org.
- ^ Desbois, Patrick (19 August 2008). "Operation 1005". The Holocaust by Bullets: A Priest's Journey to Uncover the Truth Behind the Murder of 1.5 Million Jews. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-2305-9456-2.
- ^ Arad 1999, pp. 152-153.
- ^ Arad 1999, p. 37.
- ^ "Aktion Reinhard: Belzec, Sobibor & Treblinka". Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2007.
- ^ "Deportation and transportation". The Holocaust Explained. London Jewish Cultural Centre. 2011. Archived from the original on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2016 – via Internet Archive.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
- ^ Grossman, Vasily (1946). The Treblinka Hell [Треблинский ад] (PDF). Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. (online version). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014 – via direct download 2.14 MB.
original in Russian: Гроссман В.С., Повести, рассказы, очерки [Stories, Journalism, and Essays], Воениздат 1958.
- ^ M. Lifshitz, "Zionism" (משה ליפשיץ, "ציונות") p. 304. Compare with H. Abraham, "History of Israel and the nations in the era of Holocaust and uprising (חדד אברהם, "תולדות ישראל והעמים בתקופת השואה והתקומה")"
- ^ a b "Auschwitz: The Nazis and the Final Solution" Yesterday television channel, 18:00, 18 November 2013
- ^ Hess, Rudolf (2005). "I, the Commandant of Auschwitz". In Lewis, Jon E. (ed.). True War Stories. New York City: Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-7867-1533-6.
- ^ Borkin, Joseph (1978). The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben. New York City: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-904630-2.
- ^ Stackelberg, Roderick; Winkle, Sally Anne (2002). The Nazi Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts. Routledge. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-415-22213-6.
- ^ "At the Killing Centers". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
- ^ Höss 1959, pp. 164–165, 321–322.
- ^ Höss 1959, pp. 164–165, 322–323.
- ^ Höss 1959, p. 323.
- ^ Höss 1959, p. 324.
- ^ Höss 1959, pp. 320, 328.
- ^ "The means of mass murder at Auschwitz: Gassing Operations". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 20 June 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2015.
- ^ Höss 1959, p. 328.
- ^ a b c d e f Höss 1959, p. 168.
- ^ Berenbaum, Michael; Gutman, Yisrael (1998). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Indiana University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2.
- ^ "Killing Centers: An Overview". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
- ^ USHMM.org. "Auschwitz". Archived from the original on 31 January 2010.
It is estimated that the SS and police deported at a minimum 1.3 million people to Auschwitz complex between 1940 and 1945. Of these, the camp authorities murdered 1.1 million." (Number includes victims killed in other Auschwitz camps.)
- ^ The Höfle Telegram indicates some 700,000 killed by 31 December 1942, yet the camp functioned until 1943, hence the true deaths total likely is greater. "Reinhard: Treblinka Deportations". Nizkor.org. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
- ^ USHMM.org. "Belzec".
Between March and December 1942, the Germans deported some 434,500 Jews, and an indeterminate number of Poles and Roma (Gypsies) to Belzec, to be killed.
- ^ USHMM.org. "Chełmno".
In total, the SS and the police killed some 152,000 people in Chełmno.
- ^ In all, the Germans and their auxiliaries killed at least 170,000 people at Sobibór. Holocaust Encyclopedia.
- ^ A recent study reduced the estimated number of deaths at Majdanek, [in:] "Majdanek Victims Enumerated" by Pawel P. Reszka, Lublin, Gazeta Wyborcza 12 December 2005, reproduced on the site of the Auschwitz–Birkenau Museum: Lublin scholar Tomasz Kranz established new figure which the Majdanek museum staff consider authoritative. Earlier calculations were greater: ca. 360,000, in a much-cited 1948 publication by Judge Zdzisław Łukaszkiewicz, of the Main Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland; and ca. 235,000, in a 1992 article by Dr. Czeslaw Rajca, formerly of the Majdanek museum. However, the number of those whose deaths the camp administration did not register remains unknown.
- ^ a b c Arad, Yitzhak (1984), ""Operation Reinhard": Extermination Camps of Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka" (PDF), Yad Vashem Studies XVI, pp. 205–239 (26/30 of current document), archived (PDF) from the original on 18 March 2009,
The Attempt to Remove Traces.
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- ^ "Auschwitz-Birkenau: 4 out of 10 German students don't know what it was". Deutsche Welle. 28 September 2017. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017.
- ^ Posener, Alan (9 April 2018). "German TV Is Sanitizing History". Foreign Policy.
- ^ "New Survey by Claims Conference Finds Significant Lack of Holocaust Knowledge in the United States". Claims Conference. 2018. Archived from the original on 12 April 2018.
Astor, Maggie (12 April 2018). "Holocaust Is Fading From Memory, Survey Finds". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018.
- ^ Stober, Eric (26 January 2019). "Nearly half of Canadians can't name a single concentration camp: survey". Global News. Archived from the original on 27 January 2019.
Bibliografía
- Arad, Yitzhak (1999). Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21305-1.
- Cox, John K. (2007). "Ante Pavelić and the Ustaša State in Croatia". In Fischer, Bernd Jürgen (ed.). Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-455-2 – via Google Books.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 60-5808.
- Höss, Rudolf (1959). Commandant of Auschwitz. The Autobiography of Rudolf Hoess with an Introduction by Lord Russett (PDF). Translation Constantine FitzGibbon. Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company. pp. 1–311. Retrieved 15 January 2015 – via direct download: 16.7 MB from Scribd.
- Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-0663-2 – via Google Books.
- Rees, Laurence (10 January 2006). Auschwitz: A New History. Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-357-9.
Otras lecturas
- Bartov, Omer (2000). The Holocaust: origins, implementation, aftermath. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15035-3 – via Google Books.
- Gilbert, Martin (1997). Holocaust Journey: Travelling in search of the past. Phoenix. ISBN 0-231-10965-2 – via Google Books.
An account of the locations of the extermination camps as they are today, augmented by the historical information about them, and about the fate of the Jews of Poland.
- Klee, Ernst (1990). 'Turning the tap on was no big deal': the gassing doctors during the Nazi period and afterwards. 2. Dachau Review. ISBN 3-9808587-1-5 – via Google Books' snippet.
- Levi, Primo (1986). The Drowned and the Saved. London: Michael Joseph. ISBN 0-7181-3063-4 – via Google Books.
enlaces externos
- The Holocaust History Project, Quick Facts on the Holocaust. Essays, Documents, Reproductions. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
- Holocaust and concentration camps information
- The Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team
- Official U.S. National Archive Footage of Nazi camps
- Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka. Holocaust Denial and Operation Reinhard.