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Organización Nacional de Mujeres
National Organization for Women logo.png
AbreviaturaAHORA
Fundado30 de junio de 1966 ; Hace 54 años (1966-06-30)
FundadoresBetty Friedan
Pauli Murray , incluidas otras 47 personas
Tipo501 (c) (4) , organización benéfica [1]
Número de identificación fiscal 74-2587416 [4]
EnfocarDerechos de la mujer , feminismo , Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos , derechos civiles , derechos LGBT , derechos reproductivos [3]
Localización
Gente claveToni Van Pelt, presidente; Christian Nunes, vicepresidente; [2]
Sitio webNOW.org

La Organización Nacional de Mujeres ( NOW ) es una organización feminista estadounidense fundada en 1966. La organización consta de 550 capítulos en los 50 estados de EE . UU. Y en Washington, DC [5]

Historia [ editar ]

Antecedentes [ editar ]

Hubo muchas influencias que contribuyeron al surgimiento de NOW. Tales influencias incluyeron la Comisión del Presidente sobre la Condición Jurídica y Social de la Mujer, el libro de Betty Friedan de 1963 The Feminine Mystique , y la aprobación y la falta de aplicación de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964 (que prohíbe la discriminación sexual). [6]

La Comisión Presidencial sobre la Condición Jurídica y Social de la Mujer fue establecida en 1961 por John F. Kennedy , con la esperanza de brindar una solución a la discriminación femenina en la educación, la fuerza laboral y el Seguro Social. Kennedy nombró a Eleanor Roosevelt como jefa de la organización. El objetivo de la acción era reconciliar a aquellos que querían promover los derechos de las mujeres en la fuerza laboral (como los defensores de la Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos ) y aquellos que abogaban por el papel doméstico de las mujeres que necesita ser preservado (como los grupos laborales organizados). La comisión fue una forma de resolver la tensión entre bandos opuestos. [7]

Betty Friedan escribió The Feminine Mystique en respuesta a sus propias experiencias. Fue feminista mucho antes de su libro, al educarse a sí misma y desviarse del paradigma femenino doméstico. El propósito del libro era impulsar el movimiento hacia el papel de la mujer fuera del entorno doméstico. Reconocer cierta satisfacción por criar hijos, cocinar y reorganizar la decoración de la casa no fue suficiente para satisfacer el deseo más profundo de las mujeres de lograr una educación. [8] El libro es ampliamente reconocido por haber provocado el inicio del feminismo de segunda ola en los Estados Unidos. [9] Fue publicado el 19 de febrero de 1963 por WW Norton . En una entrevista, Friedan señala específicamente, [8]

No había activismo en esa causa cuando escribí Feminine Mystique . Pero me di cuenta de que no bastaba con escribir un libro. Tenía que haber un cambio social. Y recuerdo en algún lugar de ese período que salió de un avión [y] un tipo llevaba un cartel ... Decía: "El primer paso en la revolución es la conciencia". Bueno, hice la conciencia con The Feminine Mystique . Pero luego tenía que haber organización y tenía que haber un movimiento. Y ayudé a organizar NOW, la Organización Nacional de Mujeres y el Caucus Político Nacional de Mujeres y NARAL , la [organización] del derecho al aborto en los próximos años.

Fundación [ editar ]

La Organización Nacional de la Mujer (NOW) fue fundada en 1966 por 28 mujeres en la Tercera Conferencia Nacional de Comisiones sobre la Condición Jurídica y Social de la Mujer en junio (sucesora de la Comisión Presidencial sobre la Condición Jurídica y Social de la Mujer ), y otras 21 mujeres y hombres que se convirtieron en fundadores en la Conferencia Organizadora NOW de octubre de 1966, para un total de 49 fundadores. [10] Ambas conferencias se llevaron a cabo en Washington, DC [10] Las 28 mujeres que se convirtieron en fundadoras en junio fueron: Ada Allness, Mary Evelyn Benbow, Gene Boyer, Shirley Chisholm , Analoyce Clapp, Kathryn F. Clarenbach , Catherine Conroy, Caroline Davis Por Mary Eastwood , Edith Finlayson y Betty Friedan, Dorothy Haener, Anna Roosevelt Halstead, Lorene Harrington, Aileen Hernandez , Mary Lou Hill, Esther Johnson, Nancy Knaak, Min Matheson, Helen Moreland, Pauli Murray , Ruth Murray, Inka O'Hanrahan, Pauline A. Parish, Eve Purvis, Edna Schwartz, Mary-Jane Ryan Snyder, Gretchen Squires, Betty Talkington y Caroline Ware. [10]

Se inspiraron en el fracaso de la Comisión de Igualdad de Oportunidades en el Empleo para hacer cumplir el Título VII de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964 ; en la Tercera Conferencia Nacional de Comisiones Estatales sobre la Condición Jurídica y Social de la Mujer se les prohibió emitir una resolución que recomendara a la EEOC llevar a cabo su mandato legal de poner fin a la discriminación sexual en el empleo. [11] [12] Por lo tanto, se reunieron en la habitación del hotel de Betty Friedan para formar una nueva organización. [12] En una servilleta de papel, Friedan garabateó el acrónimo "AHORA". [12] Las 21 personas que se convirtieron en fundadores en octubre fueron: Caruthers Berger, Colleen Boland, Inez Casiano, Carl Degler , Elizabeth Drews, Mary Esther Gaulden(más tarde Jagger), Muriel Fox , Ruth Gober, Richard Graham, Anna Arnold Hedgeman , Lucille Kapplinger (más tarde Hazell), Bessie Margolin , Margorie Palmer, Sonia Pressman (más tarde Fuentes), la hermana Mary Joel Read , Amy Robinson, Charlotte Roe, Alice Rossi , Claire R. Salmond, Morag Simchak y Clara Wells. [10]

Los fundadores estaban frustrados por la forma en que el gobierno federal no estaba aplicando las nuevas leyes contra la discriminación. Incluso después de medidas como la Comisión de Igualdad de Oportunidades en el Empleo (EEOC) y el Título VII de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964, los empleadores seguían discriminando a las mujeres en términos de contratación de mujeres y desigualdad salarial con los hombres. [13] Los defensores de los derechos de las mujeres vieron que estos cambios legales no se estaban aplicando y les preocupaba que sin un grupo de presión feminista, un tipo de " NAACP para mujeres", [14]las mujeres no podrían combatir la discriminación. NOW fue creado con el fin de movilizar a las mujeres, dar a los defensores de los derechos de las mujeres el poder de presionar a los empleadores y al gobierno, y promover la plena igualdad de los sexos. Espera aumentar el número de mujeres que asisten a universidades y escuelas de posgrado, empleadas en trabajos profesionales en lugar de trabajos domésticos o de secretaría, y designadas para cargos federales. [15] Declaración de propósito de NOW, [16]que fue adoptado en su conferencia organizadora en Washington, DC, el 29 de octubre de 1966, declara entre otras cosas que "ha llegado el momento de enfrentar, con acciones concretas, las condiciones que ahora impiden que las mujeres gocen de la igualdad de oportunidades y la libertad de elección que es su derecho, como estadounidenses individuales y como seres humanos ". [17] NOW también fue una de las primeras organizaciones de mujeres en incluir las preocupaciones de las mujeres negras en sus esfuerzos. [15]

La fundadora y presidenta de NOW Betty Friedan (1921–2006) con la cabildera Barbara Ireton (1932–1998) y la abogada feminista Marguerite Rawalt (1895–1989).

Betty Friedan y Pauli Murray escribieron la Declaración de propósito de NOW [16] en 1966; Friedan garabateó el original en una servilleta. [18] También en 1966, Marguerite Rawalt se convirtió en miembro de NOW y actuó como su primera asesora legal. [19] El primer Comité Jurídico de NOW estaba formado por Catherine East , Mary Eastwood , Phineas Indritz y Caruthers Berger; fue el primero en demandar en nombre de los asistentes de vuelo de las aerolíneas que alegaban discriminación sexual. [20]

En 1968, NOW emitió una Declaración de Derechos, [21] que habían adoptado en su conferencia nacional de 1967, abogando por la aprobación de la Enmienda de Igualdad de Derechos , aplicación de las prohibiciones contra la discriminación sexual en el empleo bajo el Título VII de la Ley de Derechos Civiles de 1964. , derechos de licencia por maternidad en el empleo y en las prestaciones de la Seguridad Social, deducción de impuestos por gastos de hogar y cuidado de niños para padres que trabajan, guarderías infantiles , educación igual y sin segregación de género , igualdad de oportunidades de capacitación laboral y subsidios para mujeres en situación de pobreza, y el derecho de la mujer a controlar su vida reproductiva. [22] La declaración de derechos de NOW se incluyó en la antología de 1970Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings From The Women's Liberation Movement , editado por Robin Morgan . [23]

Derechos de las lesbianas [ editar ]

En 1969, Ivy Bottini , que era abiertamente lesbiana, diseñó el logotipo de NOW, que todavía se usa en la actualidad. [24] La primera vez que se introdujeron preocupaciones lésbicas en NOW también ocurrió en 1969, cuando Bottini, quien entonces era presidenta del capítulo de NOW en Nueva York, celebró un foro público titulado "¿Es el lesbianismo una cuestión feminista?". [25] Sin embargo, la presidenta de NOW, Betty Friedan, estaba en contra de la participación de las lesbianas en el movimiento. En 1969, se refirió a la creciente visibilidad lesbiana como una "amenaza lavanda" y despidió abiertamente a la editora del boletín informativo Rita Mae Brown , y en 1970 diseñó la expulsión de lesbianas, incluida Bottini, del capítulo de NOW en Nueva York. [26] [27]En reacción, en el Congreso para Unir a las Mujeres de 1970, la primera noche en que las cuatrocientas feministas se reunieron en el auditorio, veinte mujeres con camisetas que decían "Lavanda Amenaza" llegaron al frente de la sala y se enfrentaron a la audiencia. [28] Una de las mujeres leyó el periódico de su grupo " La mujer identificada como mujer ", que fue la primera declaración importante de una feminista lesbiana. [28] [29] El grupo, que más tarde se denominó a sí mismo "Radicalesbians", estuvo entre los primeros en desafiar el heterosexismo de las feministas heterosexuales y en describir la experiencia lésbica en términos positivos. [30]

En 1971, NOW aprobó una resolución que declaraba "que el derecho de una mujer a su propia persona incluye el derecho a definir y expresar su propia sexualidad y a elegir su propio estilo de vida", así como una resolución de la conferencia que establece que obligar a las madres lesbianas a permanecer en el matrimonio o vivir una existencia secreta en un esfuerzo por conservar a sus hijos era injusto. [31] Ese año, NOW también se comprometió a ofrecer apoyo legal y moral en un caso de prueba que involucraba los derechos de custodia de los hijos de madres lesbianas. [31] En 1973, se estableció el Grupo de Trabajo NOW sobre sexualidad y lesbianismo. [31] Del Martin fue la primera lesbiana abierta elegida para NOW, y Del Martin y Phyllis Lyon fueron la primera pareja de lesbianas en unirse a NOW. [32]

Activism[edit]

Anti-discrimination[edit]

NOW also helped women get equal access to public places. For example, the Oak Room held men-only lunches on weekdays until 1969, when Friedan and other members of NOW staged a protest.[33] As well, women were not allowed in McSorley's Old Ale House's until August 10, 1970, after NOW attorneys Faith Seidenberg and Karen DeCrow filed a discrimination case against the bar in District Court and won.[34] The two entered McSorley's in 1969 and were refused service, which was the basis for their lawsuit for discrimination. The case decision made the front page of The New York Times on June 26, 1970.[35] The suit, Seidenberg v. McSorleys' Old Ale House (1970, United States District Court, S. D. New York), established that, as a public place, the bar could not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution.[36] The bar was then forced to admit women, but it did so "kicking and screaming".[37] With the ruling allowing women to be served, the bathroom became unisex. But it was not until sixteen years later that a ladies room was installed.[38]

Carole De Saram, who joined NOW in 1970 and was later president of the New York chapter, led a demonstration in 1972 to protest discriminatory banking policies. She encouraged women to withdraw savings from a Citibank branch in protest of their practices, causing a branch to close.[39] NOW led numerous similar protests, and in 1974, their actions led directly to the passage of the Equal Credit Opportunity Act.[40][41]

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)[edit]

Advocacy of the Equal Rights Amendment was also an important issue to NOW. The amendment had three primary objectives, which were:[42]

Section 1. Equality of Rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex.

Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Section 3. This amendment shall take effect two years after the date of ratification.

Efforts were proven successful when Congress passed the amendment in 1972. However, simply passing the amendment in the two houses of Congress did not mean the work was finished. NOW had to direct the efforts of getting the amendment ratified in at least three-fourths of the states (38 out of the 50 states).[43]

In response to opposing states denying the ratification of the amendment, NOW encouraged members to participate in marches and economic boycotts. "Dozens of organizations supported the ERA and the boycott, including the League of Women Voters, the YWCA of the U.S., the Unitarian Universalist Association, the United Auto Workers (UAW), the National Education Association (NEA), and the Democratic National Committee (DNC)."[43]

As strong as the support was, it was to no avail to the opposition from various groups. These groups included select religious collectives, business and insurance interests, and most visibly was the STOP-ERA campaign led by antifeminist Phyllis Schlafly. Schlafly argued on the premise that creating equality in the work force or anywhere else would hinder the laws that are instilled for the mere protection of these women. The safety of women was a higher priority than ensuring there is equality in financial and social scenarios. The predicament over the Equal Rights Amendment was not a fight between men and women who abhor men, but rather two groups of women advocating different perspectives on the nature of their lives. The rivalry was sparked in speeches, such as that of Schlafly who began her dialogue by thanking her husband for allowing her to participate in such an activity.[44]

Even though the efforts did not prove to be enough to have the amendment ratified, the organization remains active in lobbying legislatures and media outlets on feminist issues.

Abortion[edit]

Abortion being an individual woman's choice has come into the forefront since the Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade in 1973. The decision of the court was that it ultimately was the woman's choice in reproduction. However, according to the National Organization for Women, decisions following the 1973 landmark case had substantially limited this right, which culminated in their response to encourage the Freedom of Choice Act. The controversy over the landmark case ruling was initiated in the two cases, Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood and Gonzales v. Carhart. These two cases consequently banned abortion methods after 12 weeks of pregnancy.[45]

Gonzalez v. Planned Parenthood and Gonzalez v. Carhart both dealt with the question of whether the 2003 Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act was unconstitutional for violating the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment expressed in the Roe v. Wade case. This act ultimately meant that the concept of partial-birth abortion as defined in the Act as any abortion in which the death of the fetus occurs when "the entire fetal head [...] or [...] any part of the fetal trunk past the navel is outside the body of the mother" is banned. The Supreme Court ultimately decided 5–4 that it was not unconstitutional and did not hinder a woman's right to an abortion.[46]

National Organization for Women claimed it was a disregard to a basic principle stemming from Roe v. Wade, which was to only have legislative restriction on abortion be justified with the intention of protecting women's health. Hence, the support for the Freedom of Choice Act (FOCA), which primary purpose was to safeguard a woman's access to abortions even if the Roe v. Wade ruling is further disregarded. As of 2013, there are seven states that have made the Freedom of Choice Act (FOCA) state law. FOCA will consequently supersede any other law prohibiting abortion in those seven states. They are: California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Maryland, Nevada, Wisconsin, Maine, and Washington. In addition, Maryland, Nevada, and Washington were the only three states to adhere via ballot initiative.[45]

Succeeding in the enactment of FOCA would ultimately mean fulfilment of three goals for the National Organization for Women. First, asserting a woman's reproductive right. Second, disseminate information to the public audience about threats posed in the two court cases mentioned above. Third, through the dissemination of information to the public, this in return would mobilize efforts to support female rights in multiple areas that will be presented in the future.[47]

Goals[edit]

Betty Friedan and Pauli Murray wrote the organization's Statement of Purpose[16] in 1966. The statement described the purpose of NOW as "To take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men." The six core issues that NOW addresses are abortion and reproductive health services access, violence against women, constitutional equality, promoting diversity/ending racism, lesbian rights, and economic justice, with these issues having various sub-issues. The organization goes about creating these changes through laborious lobbying, rallies, marches, and conferences. NOW focuses on a variety of issues deploying multiple strategies, causing it to be an organization in which a comprehensive goal is envisaged and performed.[48]

Priorities mentioned above were pursued to ultimately secure constitutional amendments guaranteeing these rights. Even though discrimination on the basis of sex was illegal, the federal government was not taking an active role in enforcing the constitutional amendments and the new policies.[14] NOW sought to apply pressure to employers, local governments, and the federal government to uphold anti-discrimination policies. Through litigation, political pressure, and physical marches, NOW members held an authoritative stance leading to recognition in court cases, such as NOW v. Scheidler and Weeks v. Southern Bell.[49]

NOW v. Scheidler revolved around the issue of racketeering to gain support for anti-abortion groups. NOW was suing the groups for utilization of violence and the threat of violence for garnering support. The violence varied from physical barriers into entrances of abortion clinic to arson and bombings of those clinics. The plaintiff accused the Pro-Life Action Network (PLAN) of unethically seizing the right of women to make decisions about their own bodies and argued that this right needed to be defended. The case was a success in terms of the class action suit "brought against terrorists by those they had terrorized".[50]

However the case was dismissed based on the mere definition of racketeering because racketeering must have an economic inclination, and there was no evidence to prove PLAN had this financial intention. This does not mean it was not a significant case. It brought light and recognition to National Organization for Women and its goals. If anything, it galvanized the organization to strengthen its tactics.[51]

Weeks v. Southern Bell had the same effect, but this is an example where those galvanized efforts proved beneficial. This concerned discriminatory practices against women in the workplace. Lorena Weeks, employee of Southern Bell, claimed she was being discriminated against via exclusion to higher paying positions within the company. Sylvia Roberts acted as her attorney, supporting Week's grievances with the accusation of the company's violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Title VII is enabled to "protect individuals against employment discrimination on the bases of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion". With this premise, Weeks, with the aid of Sylvia Roberts, succeeded in 1969 after making an appeal. The trial not only served as the triumph of National Organization of Women, but brought to life legislation made to the intentions of organizations, such as NOW.[52]

Organizational media[edit]

NOW published a national newsletter, Do It NOW, beginning in 1970, edited by Muriel Fox.[53] From 1977, the journal has been known as the National NOW Times (ISSN 0149-4740).[54]

Presidents[edit]

The following women have led the National Organization for Women:[55]

  1. Betty Friedan (1966–1970)
  2. Aileen Hernandez (1970–1971)
  3. Wilma Scott Heide (1971–1974)
  4. Karen DeCrow (1974–1977)
  5. Eleanor Smeal (1977–1982)
  6. Judy Goldsmith (1982–1985)
  7. Eleanor Smeal (1985–1987)
  8. Molly Yard (1987–1991)
  9. Patricia Ireland (1991–2001)
  10. Kim Gandy (2001–2009)
  11. Terry O'Neill (2009–2017)
  12. Toni Van Pelt (2017–2020)

Criticism[edit]

NOW has been criticized by various pro-life, conservative, and fathers' rights groups.[56][57][58] During the 1990s, NOW was criticized[who?] for having a double standard when it refused to support Paula Jones in her sexual harassment suit against former Democratic President Bill Clinton, while calling for the resignation of Republican politician Bob Packwood, who was accused of similar assault by 10 women.[59] The Jones suit was later dismissed by U.S. District Judge Susan Webber Wright, ruling that Mrs. Jones' allegations, even if true, would not qualify as a case of sexual harassment. Jones appealed but later dropped her suit after reaching a settlement out of court for $850,000. Judge Webber Wright later held President Clinton in contempt of court for giving "intentionally false" testimony about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky in the Paula Jones lawsuit, marking the first time that a sitting president has been sanctioned for disobeying a court order.[60]

NOW has also been criticized by feminists who claim it focuses on liberal agenda rather than women's rights. NOW has been criticized for not supporting pro-life feminists,[61][62] as well as other liberal issues, and supporting the Iraq War.[citation needed] Some members, such as LA NOW chapter president Tammy Bruce left NOW, saying they oppose putting liberal and partisan policy positions above equality for all women. Tammy Bruce has attacked NOW for not doing enough to advocate for international women's rights, but instead attacking the George W. Bush White House for their conservative positions.[63] Accusations of putting politics above feminism began in 1982, the year the ERA was defeated, when NOW, under President Judy Goldsmith, fiercely opposed Reaganomics and endorsed the Democratic opponent of Republican feminist Congresswoman Millicent Fenwick due to Fenwick's support of Ronald Reagan's economic agenda.[64][65][66]

Additionally, Deborah Watkins, who was once the President of the Dallas Chapter of NOW, left NOW in 2003 to found, in the same year, the Dallas-Fort Worth Chapter of the National Coalition for Men, stating she grew tired of what she considered "hypocrisy" and "male bashing" at NOW.[67]

Moreover, the "National Organization for Women (NOW) has caused controversy by putting Little Sisters of the Poor on their 'Dirty 100" list', a religious order that according to Fox News' Megyn Kelly, "operate[s] homes in 31 countries where they provide care for over 13,000 needy, elderly persons, many of whom are dying".[68]

See also[edit]

  • Feminism in the United States
  • List of presidents of the National Organization for Women
  • List of Woman of Courage Award winners
  • She's Beautiful When She's Angry － a documentary about the founders of the modern women's movement, including discussions of the National Organization for Women and some of its founders (Muriel Fox, Jacqui Ceballos and Rita Mae Brown)

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External links[edit]

Media related to National Organization for Women at Wikimedia Commons

  • National NOW Times on WorldCat
  • Official website

Records[edit]

  • A Guide to the San Antonio Chapter of the National Organization for Women Records, University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries (UTSA Libraries) Special Collections.
  • Additional Records of the National Organization for Women, 1970–2011. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
  • Elaine Latourell Papers. 1970–1977. 8.42 cubic feet (9 boxes). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Contains records from Latourell's service as a leader of the National Organization for Women between 1970 and 1980.
  • Inventory of the Texas Chapter of the National Organization for Women Records, University of Texas at San Antonio Libraries (UTSA Libraries) Special Collections.
  • National Organization for Women (NOW), San Diego Chapter Records, 1964–1984, San Diego State University Special Collections.
  • National Organization for Women, San Jose/South Bay Chapter Records, San Jose State University Special Collections.
  • National Organization for Women. Springfield (Mass.) Chapter, at Smith College.
  • Records, 1959–2002 (inclusive), 1966–1998 (bulk). Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
  • National Organization for Women, Maryland Chapter records at the University of Maryland libraries